Maria Eden M.

Salem
MA Guidance and Counseling
Ms. Meshel B. Balijon, RGC, MA

GC 4012
February 4, 2013

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

I. Introduction:
Moral Development is the process through which children develop proper
attitudes and behaviours toward other people in society, based on social and
cultural norms, rules and laws. It focuses on the emergence, change and
understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood. In the field of moral
development, Morality is defined as principles for how individuals ought to treat one
another.

II. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY

Evolutionaty History

Superego/Consience

SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY

PIAGET'S MORAL
DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Modeling

Heteronomous
Morality
Autonomous
Morality

KOHLBERG'S MORAL
DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL 1Preconventional
Morality
Level 2Conventional
Morality
Level 3Postconventional
Morality

CAROL
GILLIGAN'S LEVEL
OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT IN
WOMEN

Level 1- Orientation
of Individual
Survival
Level
2- Goodness as
Self-Sacrifice
Level 3Morality of
nonviolence

III. DISCUSSION:
The determinants of morality can be found at both societal and individual levels. In
all cultures, morality is promoted by an overarching social organization that
specifies rules for good conduct. At the same time, morality has roots in each major
aspect of our psychological makeup:
Morality has an emotional component, since powerful feelings cause us to
empathize with anothers distress or feel guilty when we are the cause of that
distress.

Morality also has an important cognitive component. Childrens developing

social understanding permits them to make more profound judgments about
actions they believe to be right or wrong.
Morality has a vital behavioral component, since experiencing morally
relevant thoughts and feelings only increases the likelihood, but does not
guarantee that people will act in accord with them.

These three facets of morality have been studied separately: Biological and
psychoanalytic theories focus on emotions, cognitive-developmental theory on
moral thought, and social learning theory on moral behaviour. The aspect the theory
emphasizes has major implications for how it conceptualizes the basic trend of
moral development: the shift from superficial, or externally controlled, responses to
behaviour that is based on inner standards, or moral understanding. Truly moral
individuals do not just do the right thing for the sake of social conformity of the
expectations of authority figures. Instead, they have developed compassionate
concerns and ideals of good conduct, which they follow in a wide variety of
situations.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Biological theories of human social behaviour suggested that many morally relevant
behaviours and emotions have roots in our evolutionary history (Wilson, 1975).
Among primates, chimpanzees (who are genetically closest to humans) conform to
moral-like rules, which group members enforce in one another. Chimps also
reciprocate favors: they generously groom and share food with those who have
done the same for them. On the basis of these evidence, researchers reasoned that
evolution must have made similar biologically based provisions for moral acts in
human beings.
Furthermore, researchers have identified an area within the frontal region of the
cerebral cortex (the ventromedial area, located just behind the bridge of the nose)
that is vital for emotional responsiveness to the suffering of others and to ones own
misdeeds. When ventromedial damage occurs early, it severely disrupts social
learning, resulting in extreme antisocial behaviour (Anderson et al., 1999).
But like most other human behaviours, morality cannot be fully explained by its
biological foundations. . Morally relevant emotions, such as pride, guilt, empathy
and sympathy, require a strong caregiving supports in order to develop.
Still, the biological perspective reminds us of moralitys adaptive value.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

According to Freud, morality emerges between ages 3 and 6, the period when the
well-known Oedipus and Electra conflicts arise. Young children desire to possess the
parent of the other sex, but they give up this wish because they fear punishment
and loss of parental love. To maintain the affection of their parents, children form a
superego, or conscience, by identifying with the same-sex parent, whose moral
standards they take into their own personally.
Although little supports for Freudian ideas about conscience development, Freud
was correct that guilt is an important motivator of moral action. Inducing empathybased guilt by explaining that the childs behaviour is causing pain of distress to a
victim and has disappointed the parent is a means of influencing children without
using coercion. Empathy-based guilt reactions are associated with stopping harmful
actions, repairing damage caused by misdeeds, and engaging in future prosocial
behaviour.
Moral development is not an abrupt event that is virtually complete by the
end of early childhood. Rather, it is a gradual process, beginning in the
preschool years and extending into adulthood.
Recent Psychoanalytic research underscores the importance of a positive parentchild relationship, emphasizing attachment as a vital foundation for acquiring moral
standards. Furthermore, they believe that the superego children build form parental
teachings consists not just of prohibitions, or donts but also of positive guidelines
for behaviour, or dos

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The social learning perspective does not regard morality as a special human activity
with a unique course of development. Rather, moral behaviour is acquired just like
any other set of responses: through reinforcement and modelling.
Operant conditioning is not enough to enable the children to acquire moral
responses. Social learning theorist believe that children learn to behave morally
largely through modelling- observing and imitating adults who demonstrate
appropriate behaviour.
Characteristics of the model that affect childrens willingness to imitate:
1. Warmth and responsiveness
Preschoolers are more likely to copy the prosocial actions of an adult
who is warm and responsive rather than one who is cold and distant (Yarrow,

Scott, & Waxler, 1973). Warmth seems to make children more attentive and
receptive to the model, and is itself a model of a prosocial response.
2. Competence and power
Children admire and therefore tend to select competent, powerful
models to imitate.
The reason they are especially willing to copy the behaviour of older peers
and adults (Bandura, 1977).
3. Consistency between assertions and behaviour
When models say one thing and do another-- for example, announce
that its important to help other but rarely engage in helpful acts- children
generally choose the most lenient standard of behaviour that adults
demonstrate (Mischel & Liebert, 1966).

PIAGETS THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Piagets early work on childrens moral judgments was the original inspiration for
the cognitive-development perspective. He relied on open-ended clinical interviews
to study childrens ideas about morality.
From the childrens responses, Piaget identified two broad stages of moral
understanding:
1. HETERONOMOUS MORALITY (about 5 to 10 years)
Heteronomous means under the authority of another. As the term
Heteronomous Morality suggest, children in this first stage view rules as handed
down by authorities (God, parents, and teachers) as having a permanent existence,
as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience.
According to Piaget, two factors limit childrens moral understanding:
1. The power of adults to insist that children comply, which promotes
unquestioning respect for rules and those who enforce them.
2. Cognitive immaturity, especially childrens limited capacity to imagine other
perspective. Because young children think that all people view rules the same
way, their moral understanding is characterized by realism- that is, children
regard rules as external features of reality rather than as cooperative
principles that can be modified at will.
2. AUTONOMOUS MORALITY, OR THE MORALITY OF COOPERATION
(about 10 years and older)

Cognitive development, gradual release from adult control, and peer interaction
lead children to make the transition to the second stage. Autonomous morality is
children no longer view rules as fixed but see them as flexible, socially agreed-on
principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority. Piaget regarded peer
disagreement as especially facilitating because through them children realize that
peoples perspectives on moral action can differ and that intentions, not concrete
consequences, should serve as the basis for judging behaviour.

KOLHBERGS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development in Kolhbergs theory is an extension to Piagets theory. Like

Piaget, he used a clinical interviewing procedure to study moral development. But
Kolhberg used a more open-ended approach: he presented people with hypothetical
moral dilemmas and asked what the main actor should do and why.
In Kolhbergs Moral Judgment Interview, individuals resolve dilemmas that present
conflicts between two moral values and justify their decisions. The best known of
these is the Heinz Dilemma, which pits the value of obeying the law (not
stealing) against the value of human life (saving a dying person).
Moral maturity is determined by the way an individual reasons about the
dilemma, not the content of the response.
KOLHBERG SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
At the Preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. As in Piagets
heteronomous stage, children accept the rules of authority figures, and actions are
judged by their consequences. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an
action by its direct consequences. A child with preconventional morality has not yet
adopted or internalized societys conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but
instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Behaviours that result to punishment are viewed as bad and those that lead to
rewards are seen as good.

Stage 1: The Punishment and

Obedience Orientation (How can I
avoid punishment?)

Stage 2: The Instrumental Purpose

Orientation (Whats in it for me?)

Children at this stage obey rules to

avoid punishment. They ignore the
motives of an act and focus on its
physical form or its consequences.

others can do for them.

Stage 2
reasoning shows a limited interest in
the needs of others, but only to a point
where it might further the individual's
own interest.

Children conform to rules out of selfinterest and consideration for what

Level 2: Conventional Morality
At the Conventional level, individuals continue to regard conformity to social
rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest. Rather, they believe that
actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships
and societal order.
Stage 3: The good boy-good girl
orientation or the morality of
interpersonal cooperation
Individuals are receptive to approval
and disapproval from others as it
reflects societys accordance with the
perceived role. They

Stage
4:
The
social-ordermaintaining orientation

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

want to maintain the affection and

approval of friends and relatives by
being a good person.

At this stage, the individual takes into

account a larger perspective- that of
societal laws. Moral choices no longer
depend on close ties to others.
Instead, rules must be enforced in the
same even handed fashion for
everyone, and each member of
society has a personal duty to uphold
them. The stage 4 individual believes
that laws cannot be disobeyed under
any circumstances because they are
vital for ensuring societal order and
cooperative
relations
between
individuals.

Individuals at the post conventional level, also known as Principled level,

move beyond unquestioning support for the rules and laws of their own society.
They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all
situations and societies.

Stage
5:
orientation

The

social-contract

Stage 6: The Universal

Principle Orientation

Ethical

At this highest stage, right action is

defined by self-chosen ethical

At this stage, individuals regard

laws
and
rules
as
flexible
instruments for furthering human
purposes.
They
can
imagine
alternatives to their own social
order, and they emphasize fair
procedures for interpreting and
changing the law. When laws are
inconsistent with individual rights
and the interest of the majority,
each person follows them because
of a social-contract orientationfree and willing participation in the
system because it brings about
more good for people than if t did
not exist.
principles of conscience that are
valid for all humanity, regardless of
law and social agreement. These
values are abstract, not concrete
moral rules. Stage 6 individuals
typically mention such principles as
equal consideration of the claims of
all human beings and respect for
the worth and dignity of each
person.

Influences on Moral Reasoning

1. Personality
A flexible, open-minded approach to new information and
experiences is linked to gains in moral reasoning, just as it is to identity
(Hart et al., 1998; Matsuba &Walker, 1998). A richer social life
enhances exposure to others perspective, and open-mindedness helps
adolescents derive moral insights from the exposure. In contrast,
adolescents who have difficulty adapting to new experiences are less
likely to be interested in others moral ideas and justifications.
2. Child-rearing Practices
Child-rearing practices associated with mature moral reasoning
combine warmth with exchange of ideas. Children and adolescents who
gain most in moral understanding in succeeding years have parents
who tell stories with moral implications, engaged in moral discussions,
encourage prosocial behaviour, and create a supportive atmosphere by
listening sensitively, asking clarifying questions and presenting higher
level reasoning (Pratt, Skoe, & Arnold, 2004).
3. Schooling
Years of schooling completed is one of the most powerful
predictors of moral understanding. Moral reasoning advances in late
adolescence and emerging adulthood only as long as a person remains
in school (Dawson, 2002; Speicer, 1994). Perhaps higher education has
a strong impact on moral development because it introduce young
people to social issues that extend beyond personal relationship to
entire political or cultural groups. Indeed, college students who report
more academic perspective-taking opportunities and who indicate that
they have become more aware of social diversity tend to be advanced
in moral reasoning (Mason & Gibbs, 1993a, 1993b)
4. Peer Interaction
Research supports Piagets belief that interaction with agemates
can promote moral understanding. Adolescents who support more
close friendships, who more often participate in conversations with
their friends, and whom classmates view as leaders score higher in
moral reasoning (Schonert-Reinchl, 1999).
5. Culture
Individuals in industrialized nations move through Kohlbergs
stage more rapidly in advance to a higher level than individuals in

village societies, who rarely move beyond Stage 3. One explanation of

this cultural differences focuses on the importance of larger social
structures in advanced moral understanding. In village societies, moral
cooperation is based on direct relations between people. Yet reasoning
at Stage 4 beyond depends on appreciating the role of laws and
government institutions in resolving moral conflict (Gibbs, Basinger, &
Grime, 2005; Snarey, 1995).

Criticisms of Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development:

Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behaviour? Kohlbergs

theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference
between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions.
Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider?
Critics have pointed out that Kohlbergs theory of moral development
overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral choices.
Factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal feelings
may play important part in moral reasoning.
Does
Kohlberg
theory
overemphasize
Western
philosophy?
Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist
cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern
cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlbergs theory does
not account for.

Conclusions:
The study of moral development has become a lively growth industry
within the social sciences. Journals are full of new findings and competing
model. Although each theory has a different emphasis, all recognize that no
single cause can account for either moral or immoral behaviour.
Conventional wisdom dwells on lone silver bullets, but scientific
understanding must be built on an appreciation of the complexity and variety
of childrens lives.
Resources:
Berk, Laura E., Child Development, 7 th Edition. Pearson International
Edition.

Papalia, Diane F., Human Development, 10th Edition.

The Moral Development of Children by William Damon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_d
evelopment

BIOLOL
THEORIES