071 Operational Procedures (JAA ATPL Theory)

071 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide
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Produced and Published by the
CLICK2PPSC LTD
EDITION 2.00.00 2001
This is the second edition of this manual, and incorporates all amendments to previous editions, in
whatever form they were issued, prior to July 1999.
EDITION 2.00.00
1999,2000,2001
G LONGHURST
The information contained in this publication is for instructional use only. Every effort has been made to ensure
the validity and accuracy of the material contained herein, however no responsibility is accepted for errors or
discrepancies. The texts are subject to frequent changes which are beyond our control.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Operation of Aircraft
International Commercial Air Transport
Operations
JAR-OPS Requirements
Navigation Requirements for Long Range
Flights
Transoceanic (North Atlantic) Procedures
Polar Navigation
Special Operational Procedures
Windshear
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Wake Turbulence
Security
Emergency and Precautionary Landings
Fuel Jettison
Transport of Dangerous Goods
Contaminated Runways
Introduction
Operational Procedure extends the syllabus into areas that previously were covered mainly at the
type conversion stage of training.
The subject matter includes both ICAO and JAR standards and requirements as well as safety and
other special procedures.
Some aspects of Operational Procedures overlap other areas of the syllabus, however, to provide
continuity, these notes are intended to be self contained.
071 Operational Procedures
This Chapter is based on ICAO Annex Part 1.
Definitions
1.
The following definitions are relevant to operation of aircraft:
Aerial work.
An aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialised services such as

agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial
advertisement, etc.
Aerodrome.
A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and

equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface
movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome operating minima.
Chapter 1 Page 1
The limits of usability of an aerodrome for:
(a)
take-off expressed in terms of visibility or runway visual range (RVR), and if

necessary, cloud conditions;
(b)
landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility

and/or RVR and decision altitude/height (DA/H) as appropriate to the category of the
operation; and
(c)
landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of

visibility and/or RVR, minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H) and if necessary
cloud conditions.
Aeroplane.
A power-driven heavier-than-aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from

aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
Aeroplane flight manual.
A manual, associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing

limitations within which the aeroplane is to be considered airworthy, and instructions and
information necessary to the flight crew members for the safe operation of the aeroplane.
Aircraft operating manual.
A manual acceptable to the State of the Operator containing:
(a)
normal operating procedures;
(b)
abnormal and emergency procedures;
(c)
checklists;
(d)
aircraft limitations;
(e)
aircraft performance information;
(f)
details of aircraft systems;
(g)
other material relevant to the operation of the aircraft.
Note. The aircraft operating manual is part of the operations manual.
Chapter 1 Page 2
Aircraft. Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
other than the reactions of the air against the earths surface.
Air operator certificate (AOC).
A certificate authorising an operator to carry out specified
commercial air transport operations.
Alternate aerodrome.
An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes

impossible or inadvisable to proceed or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate
aerodromes include the following:
Take-off alternate. An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land should this become
necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.
En-route alternate. An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while en-route.
ETOPS en-route alternate. A suitable and appropriate alternate aerodrome at which an aeroplane would be able to land after experiencing an engine shut-down or other abnormal or
emergency condition while en-route in an ETOPS operation.
Destination alternate. An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed should it

become impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing.
NOTE:
The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an en-route or a
destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.
Chapter 1 Page 3
Cabin attendant. A crew member who performs in the interest of safety of passengers, duties
assigned by the operator or pilot-in-command of the aircraft, but who must not act as a flight crew
member.
Commercial air transport operation. An aircraft operation involving the transport of
passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire.
Configuration deviation list (CDL).
A list established by the organisation responsible for the

aircraft type design with the approval of the State of Design which identifies any external parts of an
aircraft type which may be missing at the commencement of a flight, and which contains, where
necessary, any information on associated operating limitations and performance corrections.
Crew member.
A person assigned by an operator to duty on an aircraft during flight time.
Cruising level.
A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Dangerous goods.
Articles or substances which are capable of posing significant risk to health,

safety or property when transported by air.
Decision altitude/height (DA/H).
A specified altitude or height (A/H) in the precision approach

at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the
approach has not been established.
NOTE:
Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and decision
height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.
Chapter 1 Page 4
NOTE:
The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the
approach area which should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot
to have made an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of
position, in relation to the desired flight path.
Emergency locator transmitter (ELT).
A generic term describing equipment which broadcast

distinctive signals on designated frequencies, and depending on application may either sense a crash
and operate automatically or be manually activated.
Flight crew member. A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of
an aircraft during flight time.
Flight duty period. The total time from the moment a flight crew member commences duty,
immediately subsequent to a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of flights, to the
moment the flight crew member is relieved of all duties having completed such flight or series of
flights.
Flight plan.
Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relative to an intended

flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.
Flight recorder.
Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing
accident/incident investigation.
Flight time.
The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the
purpose of taking-off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight.
Chapter 1 Page 5
NOTE:
Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term block to block time
or chock to chock time in general usage which is measured from the time the
aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point.
General aviation operation.
An aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport

operation or an aerial work operation.
Human factors principles.
Principles which apply to aeronautical design, certification, training,

operations and maintenance and which seek safe interface between the human and other system
components by proper consideration to human performance.
Human performance.
Human capabilities and limitations which have an impact on the safety

and efficiency of aeronautical operations.
Instrument approach and landing operations. Instrument approach and landing operations
using instrument approach procedures are classified as follows:
Non-precision approach and landing operations. An instrument approach and landing which
does not use electronic glide path guidance.
Precision approach and landing operations. An instrument approach and landing using precision azimuth and glide path guidance with minima as determined by the category of operation.
Categories of precision approach and landing operations are:
Chapter 1 Page 6
(a)
Category I (CAT I). A precision approach with a decision height not lower than 60m
(200ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800m or an RVR of note less than
550m;
(b)
Category II (CAT II). A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision
height lower than 60m (200ft) but not lower than 30m (100ft), and an RVR not less
than 350m (but, note JAR-OPS 1 specifies 300m)*.
(c)
Category IIIA (CAT IIIA). A precision instrument approach and landing with:
(d)
(e)
(i)
a decision height lower than 30m (100ft) or no decision height; and
(ii)
an RVR not less than 200m;
Category IIIB (CAT IIIB). A precision instrument approach and landing with:
(i)
a decision height lower than 15m (50ft) or no decision height; and
(ii)
an RVR less than 200m but not less than 50m (but, note JAR-OPS 1 specifies
75m)*.
Category IIIC (CAT IIIC). A precision instrument approach and landing with no
decision height and no RVR limitations.
* Minima quoted in either Annex 6 or JAR-OPS may be used in JAR-FCL examinations.
Large aeroplane.
Chapter 1 Page 7
An aeroplane of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700kg.
Maintenance.
Tasks required to ensure the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any

one or combination of overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification or defect rectification.
Minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H).
A specified altitude or height in a non-precision

approach or circling approach below which a descent must not be made without the required visual
reference.
Note 1. MDA is referenced to mean sea level (msl) and MDH is referenced to the aerodrome
elevation or to the threshold if it is more than 2m (7ft) below aerodrome elevation.
Note 2. In the case of a circling approach the required visual reference is the runway environment.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms

of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological
conditions.
Master minimum equipment list (MMEL).
A list established for a particular aircraft type by

the organisation responsible for the type design approval of the State of Design containing items, one
or more if which is permitted to be unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may
be associated with special conditions, limitations or procedures.
Maximum mass.
Maximum certificated take-off mass.
Minimum equipment list (MEL).
A list which provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to

specified conditions, with particular equipment inoperative, prepared by an operator in conformity
with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the aircraft type.
Chapter 1 Page 8
Night.
The hours between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil
twilight or such other period between sunset and sunrise, as may be prescribed by the appropriate
authority.
NOTE:
Civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of the suns disc is 6 below
the horizon, and aligns in the morning when the centre of the suns disc is 6
below the horizon.
Obstacle clearance altitude/height (OCA/H).
The lowest altitude (OCA), or alternatively the

lowest height above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or above the aerodrome elevation
as applicable (OCH), used in establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.
Note 1. Obstacle clearance altitude is referenced to mean sea level (msl) and obstacle clearance height
to the threshold elevation or, in the case of non-precision approaches to the aerodrome elevation (or
threshold elevation if it is more than 2m (7ft) below aerodrome elevation. OCH for a circling
approach is referenced to aerodrome elevation.
Operational control.
The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion or

termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of
the flight.
Operational flight plan.
The operators plan for the safe conduct of the flight based on
considerations of aeroplane performance, other operating limitations and relevant expected
conditions on the route to be followed and at the aerodromes concerned.
Chapter 1 Page 9
Operator.
A person, organisation or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft
operation.
Pilot-in-Command.
The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during
flight time.
Pressure-altitude. An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude which corresponds to

that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere.
RNP type. A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended
position within which flights would be for at least 95% of the total flying time.
Rest period.
Any period of time on the ground during which a flight crew member is relieved of
all duties by the operator.
Required navigation performance (RNP).
A statement of the navigation performance

necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
Runway visual range.
The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a
runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its
centre line.
Small aeroplane.
An aeroplane of maximum certificated take-off mass of 5700kg or less.
State of the Operator.
The State in which the operators principal place of business is located or,
if there is no such place of business, the operators permanent residence.
State of Registry.
Chapter 1 Page 10
The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
NOTE:
In the case of the registration of aircraft of an international operating agency
on other than a national basis, the States constituting the agency are jointly
and severally bound to assume the obligations which, under the Chicago
Convention, attach to a State of Registry.
Synthetic flight trainer.
Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight

conditions are simulated on the ground:
Chapter 1 Page 11
A flight simulator - which provides an accurate representation of the flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the extent that the mechanical, electrical, electronic, etc., aircraft systems
control functions, the normal environment of flight crew members, and the performance and
flight characteristics of that type of aircraft are realistically simulated.
A flight procedures trainer - which provides a realistic flight deck environment, and which
simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of mechanical, electrical, electronic,
etc. aircraft systems, and the performance and flight characteristics of aircraft of a particular
class.
A basic instrument flight trainer - which is equipped with appropriate instruments, and which
simulates the flight deck environment of an aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of

visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, equal to or better than specified minima.
Applicability of ICAO Standards

2.
ICAO Annex 6 contains the Standards and Recommended Practices applicable to the
operation of aircraft. Part 1 of the Annex which is relevant to this syllabus concerns the operation of
aircraft for international commercial air transport. The Standards contained in Annex 6 are
mandatory unless a Contracting State has notified a difference to ICAO.
Chapter 1 Page 12
International Commercial Air Transport

Operations
General
Flight Operations
Aeroplane Performance and Operating Limitations
Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight Documents
Aeroplane Communication and Navigation Equipment
Aeroplane Maintenance
Aeroplane Flight Crew
Manuals, Logs and Records
Security
Lights To Be Displayed By Aeroplanes
International Commercial Air Transport Operations
International Commercial Air

Transport Operations
2
This Chapter is based on ICAO Annex 6 Part 1.

Note. The term Authority used in this Chapter means the official body having responsibility for the
administration of civil aviation on behalf of a State (e.g. in the UK the CAA are the Authority).
General
Operator Responsibilities
1.
Knowledge of Laws of other States. An operator shall ensure that all employees when abroad
know that they must comply with the laws, regulations and procedures of those States in which
operations are conducted.
2.
Flight crew knowledge. An operator shall ensure that all pilots and other members of the
flight crew of an aeroplane are familiar with the laws, regulations and procedures, pertinent to the
performance of their duties, prescribed for the areas to be traversed, the aerodromes to be used and
the air navigation facilities relating thereto.
3.
Control of operations. An operator or a designated representative shall have the
responsibility for operational control.
Chapter 2 Page 1

4.
Emergency violation of local regulations. The local Authority must be informed, without
delay, by a pilot-in-command when in taking action to avoid danger, local regulations or procedures
are violated. If required, the pilot-in-command must submit a report to the local Authority, with a
copy to the State of the Operator. Such reports shall be submitted as soon as possible and normally
within ten days.
5.
Provisions of search and rescue information. Operators shall ensure that pilots-in-command
have available on board the aeroplane all the essential information concerning the search and rescue
services in the area over which the aeroplane will be flown.
6.
Accident prevention. An operator shall establish and maintain an accident prevention and
flight safety programme.
7.
Dangerous Goods. The responsibilities of the operator with regard to the safe transportation
of dangerous goods are contained in ICAO Annex 18.
Flight Operations
Operating Facilities
8.
An operator shall ensure that a flight will not be commenced unless it has been ascertained by
every reasonable means available that the ground facilities available and directly required on such
flight, for the safe operation of the aeroplane and the protection of the passengers, are adequate for
the type of operation under which the flight is to be conducted and are adequately operated for this
purpose.
Chapter 2 Page 2

9.
Subject to their published conditions of use, aerodromes and their facilities shall be kept
continuously available for flight operations, during their published hours of operations, irrespective
of weather conditions.
The Air Operator Certificate

10.
An operator shall not engage in commercial air transport unless in possession of a valid air
operator certificate or equivalent document issued by the State of the Operator.
11.
The issue of an operator certificate or equivalent document by the State of the Operator shall
be dependent upon the operator demonstrating an adequate organisation, method of control and
supervision of flight operations, training programme and maintenance arrangements consistent with
the nature and extent of the operations specified.
12.
Chapter 2 Page 3
The air operator certificate or equivalent document shall contain at least the following:
(a)
Operators identification (name, location);
(b)
Date of issue and period of validity;
(c)
Description of the types of operations authorised;
(d)
The type (s) of aircraft authorised for use; and
(e)
Authorised areas of operation or routes.
Operations Manual
13.
An operator shall provide, for the use and guidance of operations personnel concerned, an
operations manual.
Operating Instructions General

14.
An operator shall ensure that all operations personnel are properly instructed in their
particular duties and responsibilities and the relationship of such duties to the operation as a whole.
15.
An aeroplane shall not be taxied on the movement area of an aerodrome unless the person at
the controls:
Chapter 2 Page 4
(a)
Has been duly authorised by the operator or a designated agent;
(b)
Is fully competent to taxi the aeroplane;
(c)
Is qualified to use the radio telephone; and
(d)
Has received instruction from a competent person in respect of aerodrome layout,

routes, signs, markings, lights, air traffic control (ATC) signals and instructions,
phraseology and procedures, and is able to conform to the operational standards
required for safe aeroplane movement at the aerodrome.
In-flight Simulation of Emergency Situations

16.
An operator shall ensure that when passengers are being carried, emergency situations
affecting the flight characteristics of the aeroplane shall not be simulated and shall instruct all flight
crew and operations personnel to this effect.
Checklists
17.
Checklists shall be used by flight crews prior to, during and after all phases of operations, and
in emergency, to ensure compliance with the operating procedures contained in the aircraft operating
manual and the aeroplane flight manual, or other documents associated with the certificate of
airworthiness and otherwise in the operations manual.
Minimum Flight Altitudes

18.
An operator shall be permitted to establish minimum flight altitudes for those routes flown
for which minimum flight altitudes have been established by the State flown over, provided that they
shall not be less than those established by that State.
19.
Chapter 2 Page 5
Factors to be considered in establishing minimum flight altitudes are:

(a)
the accuracy and reliability of the aircrafts navigation system;
(b)
the inaccuracies of the altimeter;
(c)
the characteristics of the terrain (e.g. sudden changes of elevation);

(d)
the probability of encountering adverse meteorological conditions (e.g. severe

turbulence and downdraughts);
(e)
the possible inaccuracies in aeronautical charts;
(f)
airspace restrictions
These minimum flight altitudes shall not be established at a lower level than the minimum level for
IFR flights as specified in ICAO Annex 2.
Aerodrome Operating Minima

20.
The State of the Operator shall require that the operator establish aerodrome operating
minima for each aerodrome to be used in all operations, and shall approve the method of
determination of such minima. Such minima shall not be lower than any that may be established for
such aerodromes by the State in which the aerodrome is located, except when specifically approved
by that State.
21.
The State of the Operator shall require that in establishing the aerodrome operating minima
which will apply to any particular operation, full account shall be taken of:
Chapter 2 Page 6
(a)
the type, performance and handling characteristics of the aeroplane;
(b)
the composition of the flight crew, their competence and experience;
(c)
the dimensions and characteristics of the runways which may be selected for use;
(d)
the adequacy and performance of the available visual and non-visual ground aids;

(e)
the equipment available on the aeroplane for the purpose of navigation and/or control
of the flight path during the approach to landing and the missed approach;
(f)
the obstacles in the approach and missed approach areas and the obstacle clearance
altitude/height for the instrument approach procedures;
(g)
the means used to determine and report meteorological conditions; and
(h)
the obstacles in the climb-out areas and necessary clearance margins.
Passengers
22.
Emergency and other equipment and exits. An operator shall ensure that passengers are made
familiar with the location and use of:
Chapter 2 Page 7
(a)
seat belts and when they must be fastened;
(b)
emergency exits;
(c)
life jackets, if the carriage of life jackets is prescribed and when and how to use them;
(d)
oxygen dispensing equipment, if the provision of oxygen for the use of passengers is
prescribed; and
(e)
other emergency equipment provided for individual use including passenger briefing
cards;
(f)
emergency exits

23.
The operator shall inform the passengers of the location and general manner of use of the
principal emergency equipment carried for collective use.
24.
Seat belts. The operator shall ensure that during take-off and landing and whenever, by
reasons of turbulence or any emergency occurring during flight, the precaution is considered
necessary, all passengers on board an aeroplane shall be secured in their seats by means of the seat
belts or harnesses provided.
Flight Preparation
25.
A flight shall not be commenced until flight preparation forms have been completed certifying
that the pilot-in-command is satisfied that:
Chapter 2 Page 8
(a)
the aeroplane is airworthy;
(b)
the appropriate instruments and equipment for the particular type of operation to be
undertaken, are installed and are sufficient for the flight;
(c)
a maintenance release has been issued in respect of the aeroplane;
(d)
the mass of the aeroplane is such that the flight can be conducted safely, taking into
account the flight conditions expected;
(e)
any load carried is properly distributed and safely secured;
(f)
a check has been completed indicating that the operating limitations can be complied
with for the flight to be undertaken; and
(g)
the operational flight planning (see below) has been completed.

26.
Completed flight preparation forms shall be kept by an operator for a period of three months.
Operational Flight Planning

27.
An operational flight plan shall be completed for every intended flight. The operational flight
plan shall be approved and signed by the pilot-in-command and, where applicable, signed by the
flight operations officer, and a copy shall be filed with the operator or a designated agent, or, if these
procedures are not possible, it shall be left with the aerodrome authority or on record in a suitable
place at the point of departure.
28.
The content and use of the operational flight plan must be described in the operations
manual.
Alternate Aerodromes
Take-Off Alternate Aerodrome
29.
Requirement for take-off alternate. A take-off alternate aerodrome shall be selected and
specified in the operational flight plan if the weather conditions at the aerodrome of departure are at
or below the applicable aerodrome operating minima (for landing) or, it would not be possible to
return to the aerodrome of departure for other reasons.
30.
Location. The take-off alternate aerodrome shall be located within the following distance
from the aerodrome of departure:
(a)
Chapter 2 Page 9
for aeroplanes having two power-units. Not more than a distance equivalent to a
flight time of one hour at the single-engine cruise speed; and

(b)
for aeroplanes having three or more power-units. Not more than a distance
equivalent to a flight time of two hours at the one-engine inoperative cruise speed.
31.
Conditions at the alternate aerodrome. For an aerodrome to be selected as a take-off alternate
the available information shall indicate that, at the estimated time of use, the conditions will be at or
above the aerodrome operating minima for that operation.
En-route Alternate Aerodromes

32.
En-route alternate aerodromes, required for extended range operations by aeroplanes with
two turbine power-units, shall be selected and specified in the operational and ATS flight plans.
Destination Alternate Aerodrome

33.
For a flight to be conducted in accordance with IFR instrument flight rules, at least one
destination alternate aerodrome shall be specified in the operational and ATS flight plans, unless:
Chapter 2 Page 10
(a)
the duration of the flight and the meteorological conditions prevailing are such that
there is reasonable certainty that, at the estimated time of arrival at the aerodrome of
intended landing, and for a reasonable period before and after such time, the
approach and landing may be made under visual meteorological conditions; or
(b)
the aerodrome of intended landing is isolated and there is no suitable destination

alternate aerodrome.

Weather Conditions
34.
VFR. A VFR flight shall not be commenced unless current meteorological reports or a
combination of current reports and forecasts indicate that the meteorological conditions along the
route or that part of the route to be flown under the visual flight rules will, at the appropriate time,
be such as to render compliance with these rules possible.
35.
IFR. An IFR flight shall not be commenced unless information is available which indicates
that conditions at the aerodrome of intended landing or, where a destination alternate is required, at
least one destination alternate aerodrome will, at the estimated time of arrival, be at or above the
aerodrome operating minima.
36.
Icing. A flight to be operated in known or expected icing conditions shall not be commenced
unless the aeroplane is certificated and equipped to cope with such conditions.
Fuel and Oil Supply

37.
All aeroplanes. A flight shall not be commenced unless, taking into account both the
meteorological conditions and any delays that are expected in flight, the aeroplane carries sufficient
fuel and oil to ensure that it can safely complete the flight. In addition, a reserve shall be carried to
provide for contingencies.
NOTE:
Where we have used the term destination in the following paragraphs this
means the aerodrome to which the flight is planned.
Chapter 2 Page 11

Propeller-driven Aeroplanes
The fuel and oil required in the case of propeller-driven aeroplanes depends on whether a destination
alternate is required or not.
38.
Propeller-driven aeroplanes - destination alternate required. The aeroplane must have
sufficient fuel and oil either to:
(a)
fly to the destination and then on to the most critical alternate (in terms of fuel and
oil) specified in the operational and ATS flight plan plus another 45minutes; or,
(b)
fly to the alternate via any pre-determined point plus another 45 minutes, provided
this is not less than the amount required to fly to the destination plus either:
(i)
45 minutes plus 15% of the cruising flight time; or
(ii)
2 hours;
whichever is less.
39.
Propeller-driven - destination alternate is not required. The aeroplane must have sufficient
fuel and oil to:
(a)
fly to a destination where a VMC approach and landing can be expected plus another
45 minutes; or
(b)
fly to an isolated destination from which there is no suitable alternate available plus:
(i)
Chapter 2 Page 12
45 minutes plus 15% of the cruising flight time; or,

(ii)
2 hours;
whichever is less.
Turbo-jet Aeroplanes
The fuel and oil required in the case of turbo-jet aeroplanes depends on whether a destination
alternate is required or not.
40.
Turbo-jet aeroplane destination required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and oil
either to:
(a)
fly to and execute an approach, and a missed approach, at the destination

and thereafter:
(b)
Chapter 2 Page 13
(i)
fly to the alternate specified in the operational and ATS flight plans; plus,
(ii)
30 minutes holding at 1500ft at the alternate in ISA conditions, and approach

to land; plus,
(iii)
contingency fuel to allow for any occurrences, specified by the operator and
agreed by the State of the Operator, which might result in increased
consumption; or,
fly to the alternate via any predetermined point and thereafter for 30 minutes at
1500ft at the alternate plus a contingency amount specified by the operator (as in
previous sub-paragraph) provided that in total this is not less than the fuel required to
fly to the destination plus 2 hours at the normal cruise consumption.

41.
oil:
Turbo-jet aeroplanes destination not required. The aeroplane must have sufficient fuel and
(a)
in the case of a destination where a VMC approach and landing can be expected, to
fly there and in addition:
(i)
30 minutes holding at 1500ft at the alternate in ISA conditions; plus,
(ii)
contingency fuel (as specified above);

or,
(b)
in the case of an isolated destination from which there is no suitable alternate, to fly
there plus an 2 hours at normal cruise consumption.
42.
Factors to be considered in computing fuel required. In all cases the following factors must be
considered:
Chapter 2 Page 14
(a)
meteorological forecast;
(b)
expected ATC routings and traffic delays;
(c)
for IFR flight, one instrument approach at destination, including a missed approach;
(d)
engine failure en-route and where applicable loss of cabin pressurisation;
(e)
any other reasons for delaying landing or increasing fuel/oil consumption.

Note. Nothing in Annex 6 concerning fuel/oil requirements precludes the amendment of a flight plan
in flight in order to replan the flight to another aerodrome, provided that the requirements of the
foregoing paragraphs can be complied with from where the flight has been replanned.
Refuelling with Passengers On Board

43.
An aeroplane shall not be refuelled when passengers are embarking, on board or
disembarking unless it is properly manned by qualified personnel ready to initiate and direct an
evacuation of the aeroplane by the most practical and expeditious means available.
44.
When refuelling with passengers embarking, on board or disembarking, two-way
communication shall be maintained by the aeroplanes inter-communication system or other suitable
means between the ground crew supervising the refuelling and the qualified personnel on board the
aeroplane.
Note 1. The provisions outlined above do not necessarily require the deployment of integral
aeroplane stairs or the opening of emergency exits as a pre-requisite to refuelling.
Note 2. Additional precautions are required when refuelling with fuel other than aviation kerosene
or when refuelling results in a mixture of aviation kerosene with other aviation turbine fuels, or
when an open line is used.
Oxygen Supply
Note. Approximate altitudes in the Standard Atmosphere corresponding to the values of absolute
pressure used in the text are as follows:
Chapter 2 Page 15
Absolute pressure
Metres
Feet
700 hPa
3000
10 000
620 hPa
4000
13 000
376 hPa
7600
25 000
45.
Aeroplanes without cabin pressurisation. A flight to be operated at altitudes at which the
atmospheric pressure in personnel compartments will be less than 700 hPa shall not be commenced
unless sufficient stored breathing oxygen is carried to supply:
(a)
all crew members and 10% of the passengers for any period in excess of 30 minutes
that the aeroplane is between 10,000 ft and 13,000 ft; and
(b)
the crew and passengers for any period that the aeroplane is above 13,000 ft.
46.
Aeroplanes with cabin pressurisation. A flight to be operated with a pressurised aeroplane
shall not be commenced unless a sufficient quantity of stored breathing oxygen is carried to supply
all the crew members and a proportion of the passengers, as is appropriate to the circumstances of
the flight being undertaken, in the event of loss of pressurisation, for any period that the aeroplane is
above 10,000 ft. In addition, a further 10 minutes oxygen is required for passengers when an
aeroplane is operated above 25,000 ft or when below 25,000 ft but unable to descend safely to
13,000 ft within 4 mins.
Chapter 2 Page 16
In-flight Procedures
Aerodrome Operating Minima
47.
A flight shall not be continued towards the aerodrome of intended landing, unless the latest
available information indicates that at the expected time of arrival, a landing can be effected at that
aerodrome, or at least at one destination alternate aerodrome, in compliance with established
aerodrome operating minima.
48.
Except in case of emergency, an aeroplane shall not continue its approach-to-land at any
aerodrome beyond a point at which the limits of the operating minima specified for that aerodrome
would be infringed.
Flight Crew Members at Duty Stations

49.
Take-off and landing. All flight crew members required to be on flight deck duty shall be at
their stations.
50.
En-route. All flight crew members required to be on flight deck shall remain at their stations
except when their absence is necessary for the performance of duties in connection with the
operation of the aeroplane or for physiological needs.
51.
Seat belts. All flight crew members shall keep their seat belts fastened when at their stations.
52.
Safety harness. Any flight crew member occupying a pilots seat shall keep the safety harness
fastened during the take-off and landing phases; all other flight crew members shall keep their safety
harnesses fastened during the take-off and landing phases unless the shoulder straps interfere with
the performance of their duties.
Chapter 2 Page 17

Note. Safety harness includes shoulder straps and a seat belt which may be used independently.
In-flight Operational Instructions

53.
Operational instructions involving a change in the ATS flight plan shall, when practicable, be
co-ordinated with the appropriate ATS unit before transmission to the aeroplane.
Note. When the above co-ordination has not been possible, operational instructions do not relieve a
pilot of the responsibility for obtaining an appropriate clearance from an ATS unit, if applicable,
before making a change in flight plan.
Duties of Pilot-in-Command
54.
Responsibility for operation and safety. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for the
operation and safety of the aeroplane and for the safety of all persons on board, during flight time.
55.
Checklists. The pilot-in-command shall ensure that checklists are complied with in detail.
56.
Accident notification. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for notifying the nearest
appropriate authority by the quickest available means of any accident involving the aeroplane,
resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to the aeroplane or property.
57.
Reporting defects. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for reporting all known or
suspected defects in the aeroplane, to the operator, at the termination of the flight.
58.
Journey log book/general declaration. The pilot-in-command shall be responsible for the
journey log book or the general declaration.
Chapter 2 Page 18
Duties of Flight Operations Officer

59.
A flight operations officer shall:

(a)
assist the pilot-in-command in flight preparation and provide the relevant information
required;
(b)
assist the pilot-in-command in preparing the operational and ATS flight plans, sign
when applicable and file the ATS flight plan with the appropriate ATS unit;
(c)
furnish the pilot-in-command while in flight, by appropriate means, with information

which may be necessary for the safe conduct of the flight; and,
(d)
in the event of an emergency, initiate such procedures as may be outlined in the

operations manual.
60.
A flight operations officer shall avoid taking any action that would conflict with the
procedures established by:
Chapter 2 Page 19
(a)
air traffic control;
(b)
the meteorological service; or
(c)
the communications service.
Aeroplane Performance and Operating Limitations

General
61.
Aeroplanes are required to be operated in accordance with a comprehensive and detailed code
of performance established by the state of Registry in compliance with the applicable Standards
defined in ICAO Annex 6.
Performance Requirements for Public Transport

Aeroplanes
62.
A public transport flight may not commence unless the performance information provided in
the flight manual indicates that the performance standards prescribed in Annex 6 can be complied
with.
Factors Affecting Performance

63.
Chapter 2 Page 20
Factors that are deemed to affect significantly aircraft performance are:

(a)
mass;
(b)
operating procedures;
(c)
pressure altitude appropriate to the elevation of the aerodrome;
(d)
temperature;

(e)
wind;
(f)
runway gradient;
(g)
condition of the runway i.e. presence of slush, water and/or ice.
Due account of these factors must be taken either, directly as operating parameters or, indirectly by
means of allowances or margins, in the scheduling of performance data for the aeroplane being
operated.
Limitations Take-off Mass

64.
The mass of the aeroplane at the start of take-off must not exceed the mass at which the
aeroplane shall be able, in the event of a critical engine failing at any point in the take-off either, to
discontinue the take-off and stop within the accelerate-stop distance available or, to continue the
take-of and clear all obstacles along the flight path by an adequate margin until the aeroplane is in a
position to comply with en-route criteria.
Limitations Landing Mass

65.
The mass of the aeroplane must be such that the aeroplane shall, at the aerodrome of
intended landing and at any alternate aerodrome, after clearing all obstacles in the approach path by
an safe margin, be able to land with assurance that it can stop within the landing distance available.
Multi-Engine Aeroplanes - Performance Operating Limitations

66.
Take-off. The performance of the aeroplane as determined from the flight manual is required
to ensure that:
Chapter 2 Page 21
67.
68.
Chapter 2 Page 22
(a)
the accelerate stop distance required does not exceed the accelerate stop distance
available;
(b)
take-off distance required does not exceed the take-off distance available;
(c)
all obstacles within a specified distance of the take-off flight path are cleared by at
least 35ft or 50ft (depending on performance category) within the take-off distance
available.
En-route.
(a)
One engine inoperative. At all points along the route or any planned diversion
therefrom the aeroplane must be capable of a steady rate of climb at the minimum
flight altitude (i.e. at least 1000ft above terrain adjacent to and along the flight path)
(b)
Two engines inoperative (applicable to four engine aeroplanes only). When at more
than 90 minutes flying time (at 4 engine cruising speed) from an en-route alternate if
two engines fail the aeroplane must be able to reach an alternate aerodrome without
coming below the minimum flight altitude.
Landing distance.

(a)
Destination. The landing distance required at the aerodrome of intended landing, as

determined from the flight manual, must not exceed a specified percentage of the
landing distance available, (eg. for performance A aeroplanes it is 60% for turbo-jet;
70% for turbo-propeller powered aeroplanes).
(Note. In terms of landing distance available (LDA), this means that the LDA for a
turbo-jet aeroplane must be
x 1.7 of the landing distance required and for a turbopropeller aeroplane, it must be x 1.43of the landing distance required).
(b)
Alternate. The landing distance at any alternate aerodrome must not exceed a
specified percentage of the landing distance available, (eg. for performance A
aeroplanes it is the same as for destination).
Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight

Documents
69.
Applicability. In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the issuance of a
certificate of airworthiness, the instruments, equipment and flight documents prescribed in Annex 6
must be installed or carried, as appropriate, in aeroplanes according to the aeroplane used and to the
circumstances under which the flight is to be conducted.
70.
Minimum equipment list. The operator shall include in the operations manual a minimum
equipment list, approved by the State of the Operator which will enable the pilot-in-command to
determine whether a flight may be commenced or continued from any intermediate stop should any
instrument, equipment or systems become inoperative.
Chapter 2 Page 23

71.
Operating manual. The operator shall provide operations staff and flight crew with an
aircraft operating manual, for each aircraft type operated, containing:
(a)
normal operating procedures
(b)
abnormal and emergency operating procedures
(c)
details of aircraft systems
(d)
checklists to be used
(e)
the design of the manual must observe Human Factor principles.
Requirements for all Aeroplanes on all Flights

72.
Instruments. An aeroplane shall be equipped with instruments which will enable the flight
crew to control the flight path of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural manoeuvres and
observe the operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions.
73.
Medical supplies. An aeroplane must carry accessible and adequate medical supplies
appropriate to its passenger carrying capacity which should comprise:
Chapter 2 Page 24
(a)
one or more first-aid kits; and
(b)
a medical kit, for the use of medical doctors or other qualified persons in treating inflight medical emergencies for aeroplanes authorised to carry more than 250
passengers.

74.
Portable fire extinguishers. An aeroplane must carry portable fire extinguishers of a type
which, when discharged, will not cause dangerous contamination of the air within the aeroplane. At
least one shall be located in:
75.
(a)
the pilots compartment; and
(b)
each passenger compartment that is separate from the pilots compartment and that is
not readily accessible to the flight crew.
Seats and seat belts. An aeroplane must be equipped with:

(a)
a seat or berth for each person over an age to be determined by the State of the
Operator.
(b)
a seat belt for each seat and restraining belts for each berth; and
(c)
a safety harness for each flight crew seat. The safety harness for each pilot seat shall
incorporate a device which will automatically restrain the occupants torso in the
event of rapid deceleration. The safety harness for each pilot seat should also
incorporate a device to prevent a suddenly incapacitated pilot from interfering with
the flight controls.
Note. Safety harness includes shoulder straps and a seat belt which may be used independently.
76.
Passenger information. The aeroplane must be equipped with the means of ensuring that the
following information and instructions are conveyed to passengers:
(a)
Chapter 2 Page 25
when seat belts are to be fastened;

(b)
when and how oxygen equipment is to be used if the carriage of oxygen is required;
(c)
restrictions on smoking;
(d)
location and use of life jackets of equivalent individual flotation devices where their
carriage is required; and
(e)
location and method of opening emergency exits; and
77.
Fuses. Spare electrical fuses of appropriate ratings for replacement of those accessible in flight
must be carried.
78.
Documents. An aeroplane must carry:

(a)
the operations manual, or those parts of it that pertain to flight operations;
(b)
the flight manual for the aeroplane, or other document containing performance data
and any other information necessary for the operation of the aeroplane within the
terms of its certificate of airworthiness, unless this data is in the operations manual;
and
(c)
current and suitable charts to cover the route of the proposed flight and any route
along which it is reasonable to expect that the flight may be diverted.
Marking of Break-In Points

79.
If areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by rescue crews in emergency are marked on an
aeroplane such areas shall be marked as shown in Figure 2-1.
Chapter 2 Page 26

80.
The colour of the markings shall be red or yellow, and if necessary they shall be outlined in
white to contrast with the background.
81.
If the corner markings are more than 2 m apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm shall be
inserted so that there is no more than 2 m between adjacent marks.
FIGURE 2-1
Flight Recorders
82.
Flight recorders comprise two systems, a flight data recorder (FDR) and a cockpit voice
recorder (CVR).
Chapter 2 Page 27

Flight Data Recorders
83.
Parameters to be recorded. A flight data recorder must be capable of recording:

(a)
time;
(b)
altitude;
(c)
airspeed;
(d)
normal acceleration;
(e)
heading.
In addition, depending on the date of first issue of the Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) a FDR
should also be capable of recording parameters to determine pitch attitude, roll attitude, radio
transmission keying and power on each engine.
84.
Preservation of data. An FDR must with one exception be capable of retaining the last 25
hours of recording (usually achieved by running on a continuous 25 hour loop). The exception is the
type known as Type IIA fitted on aircraft of maximum certificated take-off mass 27, 000kg or less
which must be able to retain at least the last 30 minutes of recording.
The operator is responsible for ensuring to the extent possible that if an aeroplane becomes involved
in an accident or incident the FDR and recordings are retained in safe custody pending any accident
inquiry/investigation.
Chapter 2 Page 28

85.
Construction, location and installation. Flight data recorders must be constructed, located
and installed so as to provide maximum practical protection for the recordings in order that the
recorded information may be preserved, recovered and transcribed.
86.
Operation. Flight recorders must not be switched off during flight time but must be deactivated on completion of flight time or following an accident or incident.
Cockpit Voice Recorders

87.
Objective of cockpit voice recorder. The objective of the cockpit voice recorder is the
recording of the aural environment on the flight deck during flight time.
88.
Preservation of records. A cockpit voice recorder must be capable of retaining information
recorded in the last 30 minutes of its operation.
89.
Construction and operation. The requirements for cockpit voice recorders are as for flight
data recorders.
Equipment Required on Specific Types of Aeroplanes Flights

VFR Flights
90.
Chapter 2 Page 29
All aeroplanes when operated as VFR flights shall be equipped with:

(a)
a magnetic compass;
(b)
an accurate time-piece indicating the time in hours, minutes and seconds;
(c)
a sensitive pressure altimeter;

(d)
an airspeed indicator, and
(e)
such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropriate

authority.
91.
In addition, those VFR flights which are operated as controlled flights shall be equipped in
accordance with IFR requirements.
IFR Flights
92.
All aeroplanes when operated in accordance with IFR, or when the aeroplane cannot be
maintained in a desired attitude without reference to one or more flight instrument, shall be equipped
with:
(a)
a magnetic compass;
(b)
an accurate timepiece indicating hours, minutes, and seconds;
(c)
two sensitive pressure altimeters (not 3 pointer nor drum pointer types);
(Note. The requirements of a, b) and c) may be met by combinations of instrument or by integrated

flight director systems provided that the safeguards against total failure, inherent in the three
separate instruments, are retained).
Chapter 2 Page 30
(d)
airspeed indicating system with means of preventing malfunctioning due to

condensation or icing;
(e)
a turn and slip indicator;

(f)
an attitude indicator (artificial horizon);
(g)
a heading indicator (directional gyroscope);
(h)
a means of indicating whether the power supply to the gyroscopic instrument is

adequate;
(i)
a means of indicating in the flight crew compartment the outside air temperature;
(j)
a rate-of-climb and descent indicator.
93.
All aeroplanes over 5 700 kg Emergency power supply of electrically operated attitude
indicating instruments.
94.
All aeroplanes of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5 700 kg newly introduced
into service after 1 January 1975 shall be fitted with an emergency power supply, independent of the
main electrical generating system, for the purpose of operating and illuminating, for a minimum
period of 30 minutes, an attitude indicating instrument (artificial horizon), clearly visible to the pilotin-command.
Operating at Night
95.
Chapter 2 Page 31
All aeroplanes, when operated at night shall be equipped with:

(a)
all equipment specified under IFR Flight.
(b)
the lights required by Annex 2 for aircraft in flight or operating on the movement area
of an aerodrome.

(c)
two landing lights;
(Note. Aeroplanes not certificated in accordance with Annex 8 which are equipped with a
single landing light having two separately energised filaments will be considered to have
complied with this requirement).
(d)
illumination for all instruments and equipment that are essential for the safe operation
of the aeroplane that are used by the flight crew;
(e)
lights in all passenger compartment; and
(f)
an electric torch for each crew member station.
Operating over Water - Land Planes

96.
Requirement for life saving equipment. The carriage of life saving equipment is mandatory in
the following cases:
Chapter 2 Page 32
(a)
Landplanes with two or more engines when operating more than 93km (50nm) over
water;
(b)
All other aeroplanes when beyond gliding distance from land;
(c)
When taking off or landing at an aerodrome where, in the opinion of the State of the
Operator, there is a likelihood of ditching in the event of a mishap occurring during
take-off or approach.

97.
The equipment referred to above shall comprise one life jacket or equivalent individual
floatation device for each person on board, stowed in a position easily accessible from the seat of
berth of the person for whose it is provided.
All Aeroplanes on Long Range over Water Flights

98.
In addition to the equipment prescribed previously the following equipment shall be installed
in all aeroplanes when used over routes on which the aeroplane may be over water and at more than
a distance corresponding to 120 minutes at cruising speed or 740 km (400 nm), whichever is the
lesser, away from land suitable for making an emergency landing in the case of aeroplanes with 2 or
more engines, and for all other aeroplanes, 30 minutes or 185 km (100 nm), whichever is the lesser:
(a)
Life-saving rafts - in sufficient number to carry all persons on board, stowed so as to

facilitate their ready use in emergency, provided with such life-saving equipment
including means of sustaining life as is appropriate to the flight to be undertaken (e.g.
food, water, protective clothing) and equipment for making the pyrotechnical distress
signals described in Annex 2; and
(b)
Emergency locator Transmitter (ELT). All aeroplanes on long range over water flights
must be equipped with at least two ELT(s).
99.
Life Jackets. Each life jacket and equivalent individual floatation device, when carried shall be
equipped with a means of electric illumination for the purpose of facilitating the location of persons.
Chapter 2 Page 33

Flights over Designated Land Areas
100. Aeroplanes when operated across land areas which have been designated by the State
concerned as areas in which search and rescue would be especially difficult, shall be equipped with
such signalling devices and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life), as may be
appropriate to the area overflown. In addition, Annex 6 requires that at least one ELT shall also be
carried.
High Altitude Flights

101. An aeroplane intended to be operated with atmospheric pressures less than 700 hPa in
personnel compartments shall be equipped with oxygen storage and dispensing apparatus capable of
storing and dispensing oxygen as described under OXYGEN SUPPLY.
Flight in Icing Conditions

102. All aeroplanes shall be equipped with anti-icing and/or de-icing devices when operating in
circumstances in which icing conditions are reported to exist or are expected to be encountered.
Pressurised Aeroplanes when Carrying Passengers Weather Radar

103. Pressurised aeroplanes when carrying passengers should be equipped with operative weather
radar whenever such aeroplanes are being operated in areas where the thunderstorms or other
potentially hazardous weather conditions, regarded as detectable with airborne weather radar, may
be expected to exist along the route either at night or under instrument meteorological conditions.
Chapter 2 Page 34

All Aeroplanes Operated above 15000m (49000 ft) - Radiation
Indicator
104. All aeroplanes operated above 15,000 m (49,000 ft) shall carry equipment to measure and
indicate continuously the dose rate of total cosmic radiation being received, and the cumulative dose
on each flight. The display unit of the equipment shall be readily visible to a flight crew member.
All Aeroplanes Complying with the Noise Certification Standards

105.
An aeroplane shall carry a document attesting noise certification.
Note. The attestation may be contained in any document, carried on board, approved by the State of
Registry.
Aeroplanes Requiring Mach Number Indicator

106. All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number, shall be equipped
with a Mach number indicator.
Note. This does not preclude the use of the airspeed indicator to derive Mach number for ATS
purposes.
Aeroplanes Requiring Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS)

107.
Aeroplanes in the following categories are required by Annex 6 to be equipped with GPWS:
(a)
Chapter 2 Page 35
Turbine-engined aeroplanes of more than 15000kg maximum certificated take-off

mass or authorised to carry more than 30 passengers with a C of A issued on or after
to 1 Jul 79;

(Note. Annex 6 recommends that aeroplanes with a C of A issued prior to that date should have
GPWS).
(b)
Turbine-engined aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off mass of more than

5700kg or authorised to carry more than 9 passengers from 1 Jan 99;
(Note. Annex 6 recommends that this requirement should also apply to piston-engined aeroplanes
meeting the same criteria).
Information provided by GPWS. From 1 Jan 99, a GPWS must provide, as a minimum, warnings of
the following:
Chapter 2 Page 36
(i)
excessive descent rate;
(ii)
excessive terrain closure rate;
(iii)
excessive altitude loss after take-off or go-around;
(iv)
unsafe terrain clearance while not in the landing configuration;
(v)
gear not locked down;
(vi)
flaps not in landing position;
(vii)
excessive descent below instrument glide path.
Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL)

108. Master minimum equipment list (MMEL). The organisation responsible for the type design of
an aircraft in conjunction with the State of Design is responsible for the production of a master
minimum equipment list (MMEL).
109. MEL. The State of the Operator should require the operator to prepare a minimum
equipment list (MEL) designed to allow operation of the aircraft with systems or equipment
inoperative provided an acceptable level of safety is maintained.
110. Approval of MEL. The State of the Operator should indicate, through the approval of an
MEL, those systems and items of equipment that may be inoperative for certain flight conditions but
not for any other than those specified.
111. Multiple MEL items inoperative. Operators must ensure that no flight is commenced with
multiple MEL items inoperative without determining that any interrelationship between inoperative
systems or components will not result in an unacceptable degradation in the level of safety and/or
undue increase in flight crew workload.
112. Placarding. Systems or equipment accepted as inoperative for such a flight should be
placarded where appropriate and all such items noted in the aircraft technical log.
Chapter 2 Page 37
Aeroplane Communication and Navigation

Equipment
Communication Equipment
113.
An aeroplane shall be provided with radio communication equipment capable of:

(a)
conducting two-way communication for aerodrome control purposes;
(b)
receiving meteorological information at any time during flight;
(c)
conducting two-way communication at any time during flight with at least one
aeronautical station and with such other aeronautical stations and on such frequencies
as may be prescribed by the appropriate authority.
114. The radio communication equipment required in accordance with the previous paragraph
shall provide for communications on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121.5 MHz.
Navigation Equipment
115.
Chapter 2 Page 38
An aeroplane shall be provided with navigation equipment which will enable it to proceed:
(a)
in accordance with its operational flight plan; and
(b)
in accordance with prescribed RNP types; and

(c)
in accordance with the requirements of air traffic services except when, if not so
precluded by the appropriate authority, navigation for flights under the visual flight
rules is accomplished by visual reference to landmarks.
116. Minimum navigation performance specification (MNPS). For flights in defined portions of
airspace where, based on Regional Air Navigation Agreement, MNPS are prescribed, an aeroplane
shall be provided with navigation equipment which:
(a)
continuously provides indication to the flight crew of adherence to or departure from

track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that track; and
(b)
has been authorised by the State of the Operator for MNPS operations concerned.
Note. The prescribed minimum navigation performance specifications and the procedures governing
their application are published in Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030).
117. Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM). For flights in defined portions of airspace in
which, by Regional Air Navigation Agreement, a reduced vertical separation minimum of 300m
(1000ft) applies above FL 290, an aeroplane must be provided with equipment which is capable of:
Chapter 2 Page 39
(a)
indicating the FL being flown;
(b)
automatically maintaining a selected FL;
(c)
providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the selected FL. The
threshold of detection of such a deviation must not exceed 90m (300ft); and,
(d)
automatically reporting pressure altitude.

Such equipment must be authorised by the State of the Operator for operation in the airspace
concerned.
118. Redundancy. The navigation equipment shall be so provided as to ensure that, in the event of
the failure of one item of equipment at any stage of the flight, the remaining equipment will be
sufficient to enable the aeroplane to continue in accordance with the above paragraphs.
119. Instrument Landing Systems. On flights in which it is intended to land in instrument
meteorological conditions an aeroplane shall be provided with radio equipment capable receiving
signals providing guidance to a point from which a visual landing can be effected. This equipment
shall be capable of providing such guidance a each aerodrome at which it is intended to land in
instrument meteorological conditions and at any designated alternate aerodromes.
120. The equipment installation shall be such that the failure of any single unit required for either
communications or navigation purposes or both will not result in the failure of another unit required
for communications or navigation purposes.
Aeroplane Maintenance
Maintenance Release
121. The approved maintenance organisation is responsible for completing the required
maintenance on a commercial aeroplane and indicating completion with a certificate called the
maintenance release. The maintenance release is required to contain certification including:
Chapter 2 Page 40
(a)
basic details of maintenance carried out;
(b)
date such maintenance was completed;

(c)
when applicable, the identity of the approved maintenance organisation;
(d)
the identity of the person signing the release.
122. Responsibility of pilot-in-command. Annex 6 requires that a flight is not commenced until the
pilot-in-command has checked that the maintenance release has been issued and that it contains all
the details required.
Aeroplane Flight Crew

Composition of the Flight Crew
123. The number and composition of the flight crew shall not be less than that specified in the
operations manual. The flight crews shall include flight crew members in addition to the minimum
numbers specified in the certificate of airworthiness of the aeroplane of the aeroplane flight manual
or other document associated with the certificate of airworthiness, when necessitated by
considerations related to the type of aeroplane used, the type of operation involved and the duration
of flight between points where flight crews are changed.
124. Radio Operator. The flight crew shall include at least one member who holds a valid licence,
issued or rendered valid by the state of Registry, authorising operation of the type of radio
transmitting equipment to be used.
125. Flight Engineer. When a separate flight engineers station is incorporated in the design of an
aeroplane, the flight crew shall include at least one flight engineer especially assigned to that station,
unless the duties associated with that station can be satisfactorily performed by another flight crew
member, holding a flight engineer licence, without interference with regular duties.
Chapter 2 Page 41

126. Flight Navigator. The flight crew shall include at least one member who hold a flight
navigator licence in all operations where, as determined by the State of the Operator, navigation
necessary for the safe conduct of the flight cannot be adequately accomplished by the pilots from the
pilot station.
Flight Crew Member Training Programmes

127. An operator shall establish and maintain a ground and flight training programme, approved
by the State of the Operator, which ensures that all flight crew members are adequately trained to
perform their assigned duties.
128. The requirement for recurrent flight training in a particular type of aeroplane shall be
considered fulfilled by:
(a)
the use, to the extent deemed feasible by the State of the Operator, of aeroplane
synthetic flight trainers approved by that State for that purpose; or
(b)
the completion within the appropriate period of the proficiency check required in that
type of aeroplane.
Qualifications
129. Recent Experience Pilot-In-Command. An operator shall not assign a pilot to act as pilot-incommand of an aeroplane unless, on the same type of aeroplane within the preceding 90 days, that
pilot has made at least three take-offs and landings.
Chapter 2 Page 42

130. Recent Experience Co-Pilot. An operator shall not assign a co-pilot to serve at the flight
controls during take-off and landing unless, on the same type of aeroplane within the proceeding 90
days, that co-pilot has served as pilot-in-command or co-pilot at the flight controls or has otherwise
demonstrated competence to act as co-pilot on a flight simulator approved for the purpose.
Pilot-In-Command Route and Airport Qualification

An operator shall not utilise a pilot as pilot-in-command of an aeroplane on a route or route segment
for which that pilot is not currently qualified until such pilot has complied with the following
paragraphs.
131.
of:
Route Knowledge. Each such pilot shall demonstrate to the operator an adequate knowledge
(a)
Chapter 2 Page 43
The route to be flown, and the aerodromes which are to be used. This shall include
knowledge of:
(i)
the terrain and minimum safe altitudes;
(ii)
the seasonal meteorological conditions;
(iii)
the meteorological, communication and air traffic facilities, services and

procedures;
(iv)
the search and rescue procedures; and
(v)
the navigational facilities and procedures, including and long-range navigation

procedures, associated with the route along which the flight is to take place;
and

(b)
Procedures applicable to flight paths over heavily populated areas and areas of high
air traffic density, obstructions, physical layout, lighting, approach aids and arrival,
departure, holding and instrument approach procedures, and applicable operating
minima.
Note. The portion of the demonstration relating to arrival, departure, holding and instrument
approach procedures may be accomplished in an appropriate training device which is adequate for
this purpose.
132. Aerodrome knowledge. A pilot-in-command shall have made an actual approach into each
aerodrome of landing on the route, accompanied by a pilot who is qualified for the aerodrome, as a
member of the flight crew or as an observer on the flight deck, unless:
Chapter 2 Page 44
(c)
the approach to the aerodrome is not over difficult terrain and the instrument
approach procedures and aids available are similar to those with which the pilot is
familiar, and a margin to be approved by the State of the Operator is added to the
normal operating minima, or there is reasonable certainty that approach and landing
can be made in visual meteorological conditions; or
(d)
the descent from the initial approach altitude can be made by day in visual
meteorological conditions; or
(e)
the operator qualifies the pilot-in-command to land at the aerodrome concerned by

means of an adequate pictorial presentation; or
(f)
the aerodrome concerned is adjacent to another aerodrome at which the pilot-incommand is currently qualified to land.

133. Recency. An operator shall not continue to utilise a pilot as a pilot-in-command on a route
unless, with the preceding 12 months, the pilot has made at least one trip between the terminal points
of that route as a pilot member of the flight crew, or as a check pilot, or as an observer on the flight
deck.
(Note. In the event that more than 12 months elapse in which a pilot has not made such a trip on a
route in close proximity and over similar terrain, prior to again serving as a pilot-in-command on
that route, that pilot must requalify in accordance with the preceeding guidelines).
Pilot Proficiency Checks

134. Requirement for 6 monthly checks. An operator shall ensure that piloting technique and the
ability to execute emergency procedures is checked in such a way as to demonstrate the pilots
competence. Where the operation may be conducted under instrument flight rules, an operator shall
ensure that the pilots competence to comply with such rules is demonstrated to either a check pilot
of the operator or to a representative of the State of the Operator. Such checks shall be performed
twice within any period of one year. Any two such checks which are similar and which occur within
a period of four consecutive months shall not alone satisfy this requirement.
Note. Flight simulators approved by the State of the Operator may be used for those parts of the
checks for which they are specifically approved.
Flight Crew Use of Correcting Lenses

135. A flight crew member assessed as fit to exercise the privileges of a licence subject to the use of
suitable correcting lenses, shall have a spare set of the correcting lenses readily available when
exercising those privileges.
Chapter 2 Page 45
Manuals, Logs and Records

Operations Manual
136.
Annex 6 specifies the content of the Operations Manual that must be provided by the
operator for the guidance of operations personnel (including crew/flight crew of a commercial
aircraft). The manual must contain at least the information/instructions contained in the following
list. (Candidates please note we consider the detailed sub-list at item (e) to be to long to memorise in
detail for examination purposes and suggest it be regarded as general information only.)
(a)
Responsibilities of personnel for the conduct of a flight including:

(i)
checklists for emergency and safety equipment;
(ii)
minimum equipment list and any requirements regarding RNP airspace;
(iii)
refuelling safety precautions with passengers on board.
(b)
Accident prevention and flight safety. Details of policy and responsibilities.
(c)
Training. Details of flight and cabin crew training programmes.
(d)
Fatigue and flight time limitations. Details of rules and flight duty periods for flight
and cabin crew.
(e)
Flight operations. Instructions pertaining operating matters such as:

(i)
Chapter 2 Page 46
flight crew required and designation of succession of command;
Chapter 2 Page 47
(ii)
emergency and in-flight duties;
(iii)
fuel/oil calculations required including engine failure considerations;
(iv)
use of oxygen;
(v)
ground de/anti icing;
(vi)
operational flight plan specifications;
(vii)
checklists and their use, (normal, abnormal and emergency and systems
information);
(viii)
standard operating procedures (SOP) for each phase of flight.
(f)
Aeroplane performance.
(g)
Route guides and charts.
(h)
Minimum flight altitudes. Method of determining the minimum flight altitude for the
route flown.
(i)
Aerodrome operating minima (AOM). Details of minima to be used including after

engine failure.
(j)
Search and rescue. Ground-air visual code and procedures to be followed by the pilotin-command observing an accident.
(k)
Dangerous goods. Instructions for carriage including action required in emergencies.

(l)
Navigation. List of navigation equipment to be carried including any RNP

requirements.
(m)
Communications. Maintenance of radio listening watch.
(n)
Security.
(o)
Human factors.
Maintenance Release
137. A maintenance release shall contain a certification as to the satisfactory completion of
maintenance work carried out in a accordance with the methods prescribed in the maintenance
manual. The pilot-in-command is required to check that a certificate of maintenance release has been
issued, where necessary as part of the flight preparation.
Journey Log Book

138. The Chicago Convention requires that each aircraft engaged in international air navigation
must have a journey log book. The aeroplane journey logbook should contain the following items
(and corresponding Roman numerals):
Chapter 2 Page 48
(i)
Aeroplane nationality and registration.
(ii)
Date.
(iii)
Names of crew members.

(iv)
Duty assignments of crew members.
(v)
Place of departure.
(vi)
Place of arrival.
(vii)
Time of departure.
(viii)
Time of arrival.
(ix)
Hours of flight.
(x)
Nature of flight (private, aerial work, scheduled or non-scheduled).
(xi)
Incidents, observations, if any.
(xii)
Signature of person in charge.
139. Entries in the journey logbook are to be made concurrently and are to be permanent in
nature.
140. The Completed journey logbook should be retained to provide a continuous record of the last
six months operations.
Chapter 2 Page 49
Records of Emergency and Survival Equipment Carried

141. Operators shall at all times have available for immediate communication to rescue coordination centres, lists containing information on the emergency and survival equipment carried on
board any of their aeroplanes engaged in international air navigation. The information shall include
as applicable:
(a)
life rafts (number, colour and type);
(b)
pyrotechnics;
(c)
emergency medical supplies;
(d)
water supplies;
(e)
emergency portable radio equipment (type and frequencies).
Security
Note. In the context of ICAO Annex 6, security is used in the sense of prevention of illegal acts
against civil aviation.
142. Security of the Flight Crew Compartment. In all aeroplanes which are equipped with a flight
crew compartment door, this door should be capable of being locked from within the compartment
only.
Chapter 2 Page 50

143. Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist. An operator shall ensure that there is on board a
checklist of the procedures to be followed in searching for a bomb in case of suspected sabotage. The
checklist shall be supported by guidance on the course to be taken should a bomb or suspicious
object be found and information on the least-risk bomb location specific to the aeroplane.
144. Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference. Following an act of unlawful interference the pilotin-command shall submit, without delay, a report of such an act to the designated local authority.
Lights To Be Displayed By Aeroplanes

145.
Terminology in relation to aircraft lights:
Angle of coverage. This is a specified angle through which an aircraft light must be visible.
Horizontal plane.
The plane containing the longitudinal axis and perpendicular to the plane of
symmetry of the aeroplane.
Longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. A selected axis parallel to the direction of flight at a
normal cruising speed, and passing through the centre of gravity of the aeroplane.
Making way.
An aeroplane on the surface of the water is making way when it is under way and
has a velocity relative to the water. (Note, the same term is used in relation to an airship with respect
to the air).
Under command. An aeroplane on the surface of the water is "under command" when it is able
to execute manoeuvres as required by the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
for the purpose of avoiding other vessels. (See note above under Making way.
Chapter 2 Page 51

Under way. An aeroplane on the surface of the water is "under way" when it is not aground or
moored to the ground or to any fixed object on the land or in the water.
Vertical planes.
Visible.
Planes perpendicular to the horizontal plane.
Visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere.
Navigation Lights to be Displayed in the Air

146.
Chapter 2 Page 52
As illustrated in Figure 2-2, the following unobstructed navigation lights shall be displayed.
(a)
a red light projected above and below the horizontal plane through angle of coverage
110
(b)
a green light projected above and below the horizontal plane through angle of
coverage 110
(c)
a white light projected above and below the horizontal plane rearward through angle
of coverage 140

FIGURE 2-2
Navigation Lights
Chapter 2 Page 53

Self Assessed Exercise No. 1
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
List the components of aerodrome operating minima for take-off and landing.
QUESTION 2.
List the main contents of the aircraft operating manual.
QUESTION 3.
Define configuration deviation list (CDL)
QUESTION 4.
Define decision altitude/height
QUESTION 5.
Define flight time
QUESTION 6.
Describe the difference between precision and non-precision instrument approach systems
QUESTION 7.
List the ICAO minima for CAT I, II, III approaches.
Chapter 2 Page 54

QUESTION 8.
State which organisation is responsible for the MMEL.
QUESTION 9.
Describe the purpose of the operational flight plan.
QUESTION 10.
State the meaning of RNP 4.
QUESTION 11.
State the meaning of the term Authority as used in ICAO Annex 6.
QUESTION 12.
State the main rule regarding the in-flight simulation of emergencies.
QUESTION 13.
List the factors to be considered in establishing minimum flight altitudes.
QUESTION 14.
List the factors to be taken into account in establishing aerodrome operating minima
QUESTION 15.
State when seatbelts must be secured by passengers.
Chapter 2 Page 55

QUESTION 16.
List the items to be checked by the pilot-in-command prior to flight.
QUESTION 17.
With regard to international commercial flights, state when a take-off alternate must be selected and
specified in the operational flight plan.
QUESTION 18.
State the maximum distance of a take-off alternate for a twin engined aeroplane.
QUESTION 19.
State when a destination alternate is not required by an IFR flight.
QUESTION 20.
State the minimum fuel reserve required at the most critical alternate by a propeller driven aeroplane.
QUESTION 21.
Where an isolated destination has no suitable alternate, state the minimum fuel reserve at the
destination.
QUESTION 22.
State the minimum reserve fuel at the alternate required by a turbo-jet aeroplane.
Chapter 2 Page 56

QUESTION 23.
State the minimum fuel required by a turbo-jet aeroplane at an isolated destination.
QUESTION 24.
State the precautions required to be observed when refuelling operations take place with passengers
on board
QUESTION 25.
State the minimum amount of stored 02 required on an unpressurised aeroplane;
for flight between 10,000 and 13,000ft
for flight >13,000ft
QUESTION 26.
State when flight crew members are required to have their seat belts fastened.
QUESTION 27.
State when the pilot-in-command must report an aeroplane accident
Chapter 2 Page 57

QUESTION 28.
State the minimum landing distance that must be available at the destination as a proportion of the
landing distance required for:
a turbo-jet aeroplane
a turbo-prop aeroplane
QUESTION 29.
State, in which document, the MEL must be included.
QUESTION 30.
State the minimum requirement for the carriage of portable fire extinguishers.
QUESTION 31.
List the 5 basic parameters that a FDR must be capable of recording.
QUESTION 32.
State the length of time for which a FDR recording must be preserved.
QUESTION 33.
For what period of time must a cockpit voice recording be preserved.
QUESTION 34.
List the minimum equipment for a VFR flight.
Chapter 2 Page 58

QUESTION 35.
When must a VFR flight carry IFR equipment.
QUESTION 36.
State the minimum period that an emergency power supply for the altitude indicator must be
available.
QUESTION 37.
State when the carriage of life saving equipment by landplanes equipped with two or more engines is
mandatory.
QUESTION 38.
When must aeroplanes with two or more engines carry life-rafts.
QUESTION 39.
Above what altitude must cosmic radiation monitoring equipment be carried.
QUESTION 40.
When must turbine-engined aeroplanes carry GPWS.
QUESTION 41.
Who approves the MEL.
Chapter 2 Page 59

QUESTION 42.
State where MNPS procedures are published.
QUESTION 43.
State when ILS must be carried.
QUESTION 44.
List the contents of the certificate of maintenance release.
QUESTION 45.
State the minimum recency experience required to act as pilot-in-command.
QUESTION 46.
Commercial pilots are required to undertake proficiency checks at what intervals.
QUESTION 47.
List the contents of the journey log book.
QUESTION 48.
List the information on aeroplane emergency and survival equipment which the operator must be
able to provide when required.
QUESTION 49.
Following an act of unlawful interference, what action must the pilot-in-command carry out.
Chapter 2 Page 60

QUESTION 50.
Through what angle of coverage in azimuth navigation
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071- Chapter 1-Para 1 Page 1-1
ANSWER 2.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-1/2
ANSWER 3.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-3
ANSWER 4.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-3
Chapter 2 Page 61

ANSWER 5.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-4
ANSWER 6.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-4
ANSWER 7.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-5
ANSWER 8.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-6
ANSWER 9.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-7
Chapter 2 Page 62

ANSWER 10.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-1-1 Page 1-7
ANSWER 11.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-1 Page 2-1
ANSWER 12.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-16 Page 2-3
ANSWER 13.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-19 Page 2-3
ANSWER 14.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-21 Page 2-4
Chapter 2 Page 63

ANSWER 15.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-24 Page 2-5
ANSWER 16.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-25 Page 2-5
ANSWER 17.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-29 Page 2-6
ANSWER 18.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-30 Page 2-6
ANSWER 19.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-33 Page 2-7
Chapter 2 Page 64

ANSWER 20.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-38 Page 2-8
ANSWER 21.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-39 Page 2-8
ANSWER 22.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-40 Page 2-9
ANSWER 23.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-41 Page 2-9
ANSWER 24.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-43/44 Page 2-10
Chapter 2 Page 65

ANSWER 25.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-45 Page 2-11
ANSWER 26.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-51 Page 2-11
ANSWER 27.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-56 Page 2-12
ANSWER 28.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-68 Page 2-15
ANSWER 29.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-70 Page 2-15
Chapter 2 Page 66

ANSWER 30.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-74 Page 2-16
ANSWER 31.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-83 Page 2-18
ANSWER 32.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-84 Page 2-19
ANSWER 33.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-88 Page 2-19
ANSWER 34.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-90 Page 2-19
Chapter 2 Page 67

ANSWER 35.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-91 Page 2-20
ANSWER 36.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-94 Page 2-20
ANSWER 37.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-96 Page 2-21
ANSWER 38.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-98 Page 2-22
ANSWER 39.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-104 Page 2-23
Chapter 2 Page 68

ANSWER 40.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-107 Page 2-23
ANSWER 41.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-110 Page 2-24
ANSWER 42.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-116 Page 2-26
ANSWER 43.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-119 Page 2-26
ANSWER 44.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-121 Page 2-27
Chapter 2 Page 69

ANSWER 45.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-129 Page 2-28
ANSWER 46.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-134 Page 2-30
ANSWER 47.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-138 Page 2-32
ANSWER 48.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-141 Page 2-33
ANSWER 49.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-144 Page 2-33
Chapter 2 Page 70

ANSWER 50.
JAR Ref: 071-01-01-00
071-2-146 Page 2-34
Chapter 2 Page 71
Introduction
General Requirements for Commercial Operation
Information and Document Requirements
Operator Certification and Supervision Requirements
Operational Procedures - Operator Requirements
All Weather Operations Requirements
Instrument And Equipment Requirements
Communication And Navigation Equipment
Requirements
Aeroplane Maintenance Requirements
Introduction
1.
The Civil Aviation Authorities of certain European countries have agreed common
comprehensive and detailed aviation requirements, referred to as the Joint Aviation Requirements
(JAR) in order to harmonise aircraft Type Certification requirements, maintenance procedures,
regulation of commercial air transport operations and to facilitate the export and import of aviation
products.
2.
ICAO Annex 6 has been selected to provide the basic structure of JAR-OPS added to where
necessary by making use of existing European regulations and the Federal aviation Requirements of
the USA where acceptable.
3.
JAR-OPS Part 1 prescribes requirements applicable to the operation of any civil aeroplane for
the purpose of commercial air transportation by any operator whose principal place of business is in
a JAA Member State.
The requirements of JAR-OPS Part 1 are applicable for operators of all aeroplanes from no later than
1 October 1999.
(Note. In the following notes where information is extracted from JAR-OPS 1 the JAR-OPS reference
number is quoted for information only).
Chapter 3 Page 1
General Requirements for Commercial Operation

4.
Miscellaneous requirements prescribed in JAR-OPS 1 are:
JAR-OPS Minimum Equipment Lists - Operators Responsibilities (1.030).

An operator is required to establish, for each aeroplane, a Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
approved by the Authority (eg in the UK the Authority is the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). The
MEL shall be based but no less restrictive than the relevant Master Minimum Equipment List
(MMEL) (if this exists) produced by the organisation responsible for the type design of the
aeroplane and accepted by the State of Registry.
JAR-OPS1.035 Quality System

An operator shall establish one quality system and designate one quality manager to monitor
compliance with, and adequacy of, procedures required to ensure safe operational practices and
airworthy aeroplanes.
Chapter 3 Page 2
(a)
The quality system must include a quality assurance programme that contains
procedures designed to verify that all operations are being conducted in accordance
with all applicable requirements, standards and procedures.
(b)
The quality system, and the quality manager, must be acceptable to the Authority.
(c)
The quality system must be described in relevant documentation.
JAR-OPS1.040 Additional Crew Members
An operator shall ensure that crew members who are not required flight or cabin crew members,
have also been trained in, and are proficient to perform, their assigned duties.
JAR-OPS1.075 Method of Carriage of Persons

No person shall be in any part of the aeroplane in flight which is not a part designed for the
accommodation of persons unless temporary access has been granted by the commander to any
part of the aeroplane:
(a)
For the purpose of taking action necessary for the safety of the aeroplane or of any
person, animal or goods therein; or
(b)
In which cargo or stores are carried, being a part which is designed to enable a
person to have access thereto while the aeroplane is in flight.
JAR-OPS 1.100 Admission to Flight Deck

An operator must ensure that no person, other than a flight crew member assigned to a flight, is
admitted to, or carried in, the flight deck unless that person is:
Chapter 3 Page 3
(a)
An operating crew member;
(b)
A representative of the Authority responsible for certification, licensing or inspection

if this is required for the performance of his official duties; or
JAR-OPS 1.100 Admission to Flight Deck
(c)
Permitted by, and carried in accordance with instructions contained in the

Operations Manual.
The commander shall ensure that:
In the interests of safety, admission to the flight deck does not cause distraction and/or interfere with the operation of the flight; and
All persons carried on the flight deck are made familiar with the relevant safety procedures.
The final decision regarding the admission to the flight deck shall be the responsibility of the
commander.
JAR-OPS1.105 Unauthorised Carriage

An operator shall take all reasonable measures to ensure that no person secretes himself or secretes
cargo on board an aeroplane.
JAR-OPS1.110 Portable Electronic Devices

An operator shall not permit any person to use, and take all reasonable measures to ensure that no
person does use, on board an aeroplane a portable electronic device that can adversely affect the
performance of the aeroplanes systems and equipment.
Chapter 3 Page 4
JAR-OPS1.120 Endangering Safety
An operator shall take all reasonable measures to ensure that no person recklessly or negligently
acts or omits to act:
(a)
so as to endanger an aeroplane or person therein; or,
(b)
so as to cause or permit an aeroplane to endanger any person or property.
Information and Document Requirements

5.
Documentary requirements prescribed in JAR-OPS 1 are:
JAR-OPS1.125 Documents to be Carried

An operator is required to ensure that the following documents or copies thereof are carried on each
flight
Chapter 3 Page 5
(a)
Certificate of Registration;
(b)
Certificate of Airworthiness;
(c)
Noise certificate (if applicable);
(d)
Air Operator Certificate;
(e)
Aircraft Radio Licence; and
(f)
Third party Liability Insurance Certificate.
(g)
Each flight crew member is required to carry a valid flight crew licence and
appropriate rating(s) on every flight.
JAR-OPS 1.130 Carriage of Manuals
An operator is required to ensure that:
(a)
the current parts of the Operation Manual relevant to the duties of the crew are
carried on each flight in a position easily accessible to the crew; and
(b)
The current Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) is carried in the aeroplane unless the
Authority has accepted that the Operations Manual contains relevant information
for that aeroplane.
JAR-OPS 1.135 Additional Information and Forms to be Carried

An operator shall ensure that, the following information and form, relevant to the type and area of
operation, are carried out on each flight:
Chapter 3 Page 6
(a)
Operational Flight Plan;
(b)
Aeroplane Technical Log;
(c)
Details of the filed ATS flight plan;
(d)
Appropriate NOTAM/AIS briefing documentation;
(e)
Appropriate meteorological information;
(f)
Mass and balance documentation;
(g)
Notification of special categories of passenger such as security personnel, if not

considered as crew, handicapped persons, inadmissible passengers, deportees and
persons in custody;
JAR-OPS 1.135 Additional Information and Forms to be Carried
(h)
Notification of special loads including dangerous goods including written

information to the commander;
(i)
Current maps and charts and associated documents;
(j)
Any other documentation which may be required by the States concerned with this
flight, such as cargo manifest, passenger manifest etc; and
(k)
Forms to comply with the reporting requirements of the Authority and the operator.
The Authority may permit the information detailed in sub-paragraph (a) above, or parts thereof, to
be presented in a form other than on printed paper. An acceptable standard of accessibility,
usability and reliability must be assured.
JAR-OPS 1.140 Information Retained on the Ground by the Operator

An operator shall ensure that:
(a)
(b)
At least for the duration of each flights or series of flights;

(i)
information relevant to the flight and appropriate for the type of operation is
preserved on the ground; and
(ii)
the information is retained until it has been duplicated at the place at which it
will be stored; or, if this is impracticable,
(iii)
the same information is carried in a fireproof container in the aeroplane.
the information to be retained referred to in subparagraph (a) (i) above includes:

(i)
Chapter 3 Page 7
A copy of the operational flight plan where appropriate;
JAR-OPS 1.140 Information Retained on the Ground by the Operator
(ii)
Copies of the relevant part(s) of the aeroplane technical log;
(iii)
Route specific NOTAM documentation if specifically edited by the operator;
(iv)
Mass and balance documentation if required (JAR-OPS 1.625 refers); and
(v)
Special loads notification.
JAR-OPS 1.145 Power to Inspect - Operators Responsibility

An operator shall ensure that any person authorised by the Authority is permitted at any time to
board and fly in any aeroplane operated in accordance with an AOC issued by that Authority and
to enter and remain on the flight deck provided that the commander may refuse access to the flight
deck if, in his opinion, the safety of the aeroplane would thereby be endangered.
JAR-OPS 1.150 Production of Documentation and Records

The responsibilities of the operator and pilot-in command are
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 8
The operator shall:

(i)
give any person authorised by the Authority access to any documents and
records which are related to flight operations or maintenance; and
(ii)
produce all such documents and records, when requested to do so by the

Authority, within a reasonable period of time.
JAR-OPS 1.150 Production of Documentation and Records
(b)
the pilot-in command shall, within a reasonable time of being requested to do so by

a person authorised by an Authority, produce to that person the documentation
required to be carried on board.
JAR-OPS 1.155 Preservation of Documentation

An operator shall ensure that:
(a)
any original documentation, or copies thereof, that he is required to preserve is

preserved for the required retention period even if he ceases to be the operator of the
aeroplane; and
(b)
where a crew member, in respect of whom an operator has kept a record of flight
times, becomes a crew member for another operator, that record is made available to
the new operator.
Leasing of Aircraft
(JAR-OPS 1.165)
6.
An operator is permitted to operate an aeroplane(s) for the purpose of commercial air
transport only under the terms of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC). The AOC holder does not have
to be the owner of the aeroplanes used provided they are leased in accordance with JAR-OPS
requirements.
Chapter 3 Page 9
Terminology
7.
The principle terms used in leasing are:

(a)
Dry Lease. In this case the aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee.
(b)
Wet Lease. In this case the aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessor.
(c)
JAA Operator. This term describes an operator certificated under JAR-OPS 1 by a

JAA member state.
Types of Lease
8.
9.
Leasing arrangements between JAA operators.

(a)
Wet Lease-out. In this situation a JAA operator provides an aeroplane and complete
crew to another JAA operator but retains all the functions and responsibilities
prescribed for an AOC holder and remains the operator of the aeroplane. The prior
approval of the Authority is not required in this case.
(b)
All Leases except Wet Lease-out. Prior approval by the Authority is required in all
cases. Any conditions which are part of this approval must be included in the lease
agreement.
Leasing between JAA and non-JAA operators.

(a)
Chapter 3 Page 10
Dry Lease-in by JAA Operator. The dry lease-in must be approved by the Authority
and differences from the requirements for aircraft equipment specified in JAR-OPS
must be notified to and approved by the Authority.
(b)
Wet Lease-in by JAA Operator. The wet lease-in must be approved by the Authority.
Furthermore, the JAA operator is required to ensure that:
(i)
the safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation
are equivalent to JARs;
(ii)
the lessor holds an AOC issued by a State which is signatory to the Chicago
Convention;
(iii)
the aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Authorisation issued in accordance

with ICAO Annex 8.
(iv)
any JAA requirement made applicable by the Lessees Authority is complied

with.
(Note. A JAA operator is permitted to wet lease-in without prior approval if the
situation is urgent. The lessor must hold an AOC issued by a Chicago Convention
State, the lease must not exceed 5 consecutive days and the Authority must be
informed immediately).
(c)
Dry Lease-out by JAA Operator. A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane to
any operator of a Chicago Convention signatory State providing:
(i)
Chapter 3 Page 11
the Authority has exempted the JAA operator from its relevant AOC
responsibilities and after the Authority of the lessee has accepted responsibility
for monitoring the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane, has removed
it from the AOC and;
(ii)
(d)
the aeroplane is maintained according to an approved maintenance

programme.
Wet lease-out by JAA Operator. A JAA operator providing an aeroplane and complete
crew to another non-JAA operator retaining all the functions and responsibilities as
AOC holder remains the operator of the aeroplane.
Operator Certification and Supervision

Requirements
10.
The JAR-OPS rules applicable to Air Operator Certification are:
JAR-OPS 1.175 General Rules for Air Operator Certification
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(a)
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air
transportation otherwise, other than under, and in accordance with, the terms and
conditions of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC).
(b)
An applicant for an AOC, or variation of an AOC, shall allow the Authority to

examine all safety aspects of the proposed operation.
(c)
An applicant for an AOC must:

(i)
not hold an AOC issued by another Authority unless specifically approved by

the Authorities concerned;
(ii)
have his principal place of business, and, if any, his registered office located
in the State responsible for issuing the AOC;
JAR-OPS 1.175 General Rules for Air Operator Certification
(iii)
have registered the aeroplanes which are to be operated under the AOC in
the State responsible for issuing the AOC; and
(iv)
satisfy the Authority that he is able to conduct safe operations.
that every flight is conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Operations Manual.
appropriate ground handling facilities are available to ensure the safe handling of its flights.
that its aeroplanes are equipped and its crews are qualified, as required for
the area and type of operation.
it complies with the maintenance requirements, under the terms of its AOC.
the Authority is provided with a copy of the Operations Manual, and all
amendments or revisions to it.
operational support facilities at the main operating base are maintained and
are appropriate for the area and type of operation.
JAR-OPS 1.180 Issue, Variation and Validation of an AOC

An operator will not be granted an AOC, or a variation to an AOC or a revalidation of an AOC
unless:
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 13
its aeroplanes have standard C of A issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8 by a

JAA member State
JAR-OPS 1.180 Issue, Variation and Validation of an AOC
(b)
the maintenance system has been approved by the Authority;
(c)
the organisational, quality system, training and maintenance requirements can be

maintained.
Operational Procedures - Operator Requirements

11.
The operators responsibilities are:
JAR-OPS1.195 Operational Control and Supervision

An operator shall exercise operational control and establish and maintain a method of supervision
of flight operations approved by the Authority.
JAR-OPS1.200 Operations Manual

An operator must provide an operations manual of the approved type for the use and guidance of
operations personnel.
JAR-OPS1.205 Training of Personnel

An operator is responsible for training all personnel involved in ground or flight operations.
Chapter 3 Page 14
JAR-OPS1.210 Standardisation of Procedures
An operator is required to establish:
(a)
procedures and instructions, for each aeroplane type, for the duties of ground and
flight operations personnel;
(b)
a checklist system to be used by crew members for all phases of operation under,
normal, abnormal and emergency conditions as applicable in accordance with the
operations manual;
(Note. An operator shall not require a crew member to perform any activities during a critical
phase of flight other than those required for the safe operation of the aeroplane.)
JAR-OPS1.215 Use of Air Traffic Services

An operator shall ensure that Air Traffic Services are used for all flights whenever available.
JAR-OPS1.230 Use of Instrument Departure and Approach Procedures
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(a)
An operator shall ensure that instrument departure and approach procedures

established by the State in which the aerodrome is located are used.
(b)
Notwithstanding subparagraph (a) above, a commander may accept an ATC

clearance to deviate from a published departure or arrival route, provided obstacle
clearance criteria are observed and full account is taken of the operating conditions.
JAR-OPS1.230 Use of Instrument Departure and Approach Procedures
(c)
Different procedures to those required to be used in accordance with sub-paragraph

(a) above may only be implemented by an operator provided they have been
approved by the State in which the aerodrome is located, if required and accepted by
the Authority.
JAR-OPS 1.235 Noise Abatement Procedures

An operator must establish noise abatement procedures in compliance with ICAO PANS OPS Vol
1(Doc 8168). The take-off climb procedures for noise abatement specified by an operator for any
one aeroplane type should be the same for all aerodromes.
Chapter 3 Page 16
JAR-OPS1.240 Routes and Areas of Operation
An operator is required to ensure that operations are only conducted along such routes or within
such areas for which:
(a)
ground facilities and services including meteorological services, are adequate for the
flight;
(b)
aeroplane performance is adequate to comply with minimum flight altitudes;
(c)
the aeroplane is suitably equipped;
(d)
appropriate maps and charts are available;
(e)
if two-engined aeroplanes are used, adequate aerodromes are available within the
time/distance limitations specified in JAR-OPS;
(f)
if single engined aeroplanes are used, surfaces are available that will permit a safe
forced landing to be executed.
JAR-OPS1.260 Carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility
Chapter 3 Page 17
(a)
An operator shall establish procedures for the carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility
(PRMs).
(b)
An operator shall ensure that PRMs are not allocated, nor occupy, seats where their presence
could:
JAR-OPS1.260 Carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility
(c)
(i)
impede the crew in their duties;
(ii)
obstruct access to emergency equipment; or
(iii)
impede the emergency evacuation of the aeroplane.
The commander must be notified when PRMs are to be carried on board.
JAR-OPS 1.265 Carriage of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons in

custody
An operator shall establish procedures for the transportation of inadmissible passengers, deportees
or persons in custody to ensure the safety of the aeroplane and its occupants. The commander
must be notified when such persons are to be carried on board.
JAR-OPS1.270 Stowage of baggage and cargo
Chapter 3 Page 18
(a)
An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that only such hand baggage is carried into
an aeroplane and taken into the passenger cabin as can be adequately and securely stowed.
(b)
An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that all baggage and cargo on board, which
might cause injury or damage, or obstruct aisles and exits if displaced, is placed in stowages
designed to prevent movement.
Appendix 1 to
JAR-OPS1.270 Stowage of baggage and cargo
Procedures established by an operator to ensure that hand baggage and cargo is adequately and
securely stowed must take account of the following:
Chapter 3 Page 19
1.
Each item carried in a cabin must be stowed only in a location that is capable of restraining
it;
2.
Mass limitations placarded on or adjacent to stowages must not be exceeded;
3.
Underseat stowages must not be used unless the seat is equipped with a restraint bar and the
baggage is equipped with a restraint bar and the baggage is of such size that it may
adequately be restrained by this equipment.
4.
Items must not be stowed in toilets or against bulkheads that are incapable of restraining
articles against movement forwards, sideways or upwards and unless the bulkheads carry a
placard specifying the greatest mass that may be placed there;
5.
Baggage and cargo placed in lockers must not be of such size that they prevent latched doors
from being closed securely;
6.
Baggage and cargo must not be placed where it can impede access to emergency equipment;
and
7.
Checks must be made before take-off, before landing, and whenever the pilot-in-command
illuminates the fasten seat belts signs (or otherwise so orders) to ensure that baggage is
stowed where it cannot impede evacuation from the aircraft or cause injury by falling (or
other movement) as may be appropriate to the phase of flight.
JAR-OPS 1.280 Passenger Seating

An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that passengers are seated where, in the event that
an emergency evacuation is required, they may best assist and not hinder evacuation from the
aeroplane.
JAR-OPS1.325 Security of passenger cabin and galley(s)

(a)
An operator shall establish procedures to ensure that before taxying, take-off and
landing all exits and escape paths are unobstructed.
(b)
The commander shall ensure that before take-off and landing, and whenever deemed
necessary in the interest of safety, all equipment and baggage is properly secured.
JAR-OPS1.335 Smoking on board

The commander shall ensure that no person on board is allowed to smoke;
Chapter 3 Page 20
1.
Whenever deemed necessary in the interest of safety;
2.
While the aeroplane is on the ground unless specifically permitted in accordance with
procedures defined in the Operations Manual;
3.
Outside designated smoking areas, in the aisle(s) and in the toilet(s);
4.
In cargo compartments and/or other areas where cargo is carried which is not stored in
flame resistant containers or covered by flame resistant canvas; and
5.
In those areas of the cabin where oxygen is being supplied.
JAR-OPS 1.355 Take-off conditions
Before commencing take-off, a commander must satisfy himself that, according to the information
available to him, the weather at the aerodrome and the condition of the runway intended to be
used should not prevent a safe take-off and departure.
JAR-OPS1.360 Application of take-off minima

Before commencing take-off, a commander must satisfy himself that the RVR or visibility in the
take-off direction of the aeroplane is equal to or better than the applicable minimum.
All Weather Operations Requirements

Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM)
Operators Responsibilities
12.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS 1.430 to establish, for each aerodrome planned to be
used, aerodrome operating minima that are not lower than the values specified in JAR-OPS. The
method of determining such minima must be acceptable to the Authority and the minima must not
be lower than any established by the State in which the aerodromes are located (except when
specifically approved by that State.)
13.
The requirements given above do not prohibit the in-flight calculation of minima for an
unplanned alternate aerodrome if carried out in accordance with an accepted method.
Chapter 3 Page 21
Factors Considered in Calculating Minima
14.
In establishing aerodrome operating minima for a particular operation the operator must take
full account of:
Chapter 3 Page 22
(a)
aeroplane type, performance and handling characteristics;
(b)
flight crew composition, competence and experience;
(c)
runway dimensions and characteristics;
(d)
visual and non-visual ground aids available;
(e)
aeroplane equipment available for navigation and/or control of the flight path during
take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out and missed approach;
(f)
obstacles in the approach, missed approach and climb-out areas;
(g)
obstacle clearance altitude/height for the instrument approach procedures;
(h)
the means available to determine/report meteorological conditions.
Aeroplane Categories
15.
The criteria taken into consideration for the classification of aeroplanes by categories is the
indicated airspeed at threshold ( VAT ). This value is equal to the stalling speed ( V SO ) multiplied by
1.3 or, V S1G multiplied by 1.23, in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing
mass. If both methods are available the higher resulting V AT must be used. Aeroplane categories are
shown in Figure 3-1.
FIGURE 3-1
Aeroplane
Categories
Aeroplane category
VAT
Less than 91 kt
From 91 to 120 kt
From 121 to 140 kt
From 141 to 165 kt
From 166 to 210 kt
Definition of Terms Used in Approach Procedures

16.
Circling. The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for
landing on a runway which is not suitably located for a straight-in approach.
17.
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP). Procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of
ensuring safe operations during Category II and III approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs.
Chapter 3 Page 23
18.
Low Visibility Take-off (LVTO). A take-off where the runway visual range (RVR) is <400m.
19.
Flight control system. A system which includes an automatic landing system and/or a hybrid
landing system.
20.
Fail-Passive flight control system. A flight control system is fail passive if, in the event of a
failure, there is no significant out-of-trim condition or deviation of the flight path or attitude but the
landing is not completed automatically.
21.
Fail-Operational flight control system. A flight control system is fail-operational if, in the
event of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can be completed automatically.
22.
Fail-Operational hybrid landing system. A system which consists of a primary fail-passive
automatic landing system and a secondary independent guidance system enabling the pilot to
complete a landing manually after failure of the primary system.
(Note. A typical secondary independent guidance system consists of a head-up display providing
guidance, which normally takes the form of command information, but it may alternatively be
situation (or deviation) information.)
23.
Visual approach. An approach when either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is
not completed and the approach is executed with visual reference to the terrain.
24.
Missed approach. The missed approach procedure is the procedure to be followed if the
approach cannot be continued. The missed approach point in an instrument approach procedure is
the point at or before which the prescribed missed approach procedure must be initiated in order to
ensure that the minimum obstacle clearance is not infringed. Published missed approach procedures
are normally based on a nominal gross climb gradient of 2.5%.
Chapter 3 Page 24
Take-Off Procedures and Minima
25.
Take-off Minima. Take-off minima established by the operator must be expressed as visibility
or RVR limits taking into account the relevant factors for each aerodrome and the aeroplane
characteristics. Where there is a specific need to see and avoid obstacles on departure and/or forced
landing, additional considerations eg cloud ceiling must also be specified.
26.
Take-off - Commanders Responsibilities. The commander:

(a)
may not commence take-off unless the weather conditions at the aerodrome of
departure are equal to or better than applicable minima for landing at that aerodrome
unless a suitable take-off alternate aerodrome is available;
(b)
may, when the reported meteorological visibility is below the required value or is not
reported, and RVR is not available, only take-off if he can determine that the RVR/
visibility along the runway is equal to or better than the required minimum;
27.
Visual reference. The take-off minima must be selected to ensure sufficient guidance to
control the aeroplane in the event of both a discontinued take-off in adverse circumstances and a
continued take-off after failure of the critical power unit.
28.
RVR Minima - multi-engined aeroplanes. Minimum RVR values for take-off applicable to
multi-engined aeroplanes which, following the failure of a critical power unit, are capable of either
stopping or continuing take-off to a height above 1500ft aal whilst clearing obstacles by the required
margin are:
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 25
For runway equipped with edge and centreline lighting and multiple RVR
information;
(b)
(i)
Category A,B,C aeroplanes 150m;
(ii)
Category D aeroplanes 200m;
For runway not equipped with lighting (applicable by day only) 500m.
Note 1. The required RVR value must be achieved for all of the relevant RVR reporting points
however, the reported RVR/visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can be
replaced by the pilot assessment.
Note 2. For night operations at least runway edge and runway end lights are required.
Note 3. JAR-OPS permits lower RVR values (125m Cat A, B, C; 150m Cat D) to be used when
certain specific conditions apply eg. Low Visibility Procedures in force.
29.
Aeroplanes with a lower performance capability may, in the event of a critical power unit
failure need to land immediately and to see and avoid obstacles in the take-off area. These aeroplanes
are required to comply with increased minima depending on the height from which the one engine
inoperative net take-off flight path can be constructed.
Approach Minima
30.
Non-precision approach. Approach minima consist of 3 elements, minimum descent height
(MDH), visual reference and RVR.
(a)
MDH. An operator must ensure that the MDH for a non-precision approach is not
lower than either:
(i)
Chapter 3 Page 26
the OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane; or
(ii)
(b)
Chapter 3 Page 27
the approach system minimum. (Note. Non-precision approach system minima

are not less than 250ft)
Visual reference. A pilot may not continue an approach below minimum descent
altitude (MDA) or MDH unless at least one of the following visual references for the
intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:
(i)
elements of the approach light system;
(ii)
the threshold;
(iii)
threshold markings;
(iv)
threshold lights
(v)
threshold identification lights;
(vi)
visual glide slope indicator;
(vii)
touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings;
(viii)
touchdown zone lights;
(ix)
runway edge lights; or
(x)
other visual references accepted by the Authority.
(c)
RVR. The required RVR value depends on the MDH and aeroplane category. The
lowest RVR value applicable to a Cat A aeroplane with the lowest MDH value (250ft)
for a runway with full lighting facilities is 800m. For the same aeroplane and MDH
for a runway with no approach lighting the RVR value is 1500m. JAR-OPS contains
tables of RVR values applicable for each aircraft category, MDH and runway/
approach lighting facilities.
31.
Precision approach - Category I operations. A Category I operation is a precision instrument
approach and landing using ILS, MLS (microwave landing system) or PAR (precision approach
radar) with a decision height not lower than 200ft and an RVR not less than 550m.
Approach minima consist of 3 elements, Decision Height (DH), visual reference, and RVR.
(a)
(b)
Chapter 3 Page 28
Decision Height. An operator must ensure that the DH to be used for a Category I
precision approach is not lower than:
(i)
the minimum DH specified in the aeroplane flight manual (AFM), if stated;
(ii)
the minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used (system
minimum) without the required visual reference;
(iii)
the OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane; or
(iv)
200ft.
Visual reference. Visual references are the same as for non-precision approaches in
paragraph 29 excluding item (x).
(c)
RVR. Minimum RVR values for Category I operations are specified in JAR-OPS based
on DH value and aerodrome approach and runway lighting facilities available. For a
DH of 200ft with full facilities the minimum RVR is 550m, with no lighting the value
becomes 1000m.
(Note 1. Full lighting facilities comprises 720m or more of high or medium intensity approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights, which must be on.)
(Note 2. For single pilot operations the operator must calculate the minimum RVR as described
above except that the minimum RVR is to be not less than 800m unless the aeroplane has a suitable
autopilot coupled to an ILS or MLS, in which case normal minima apply. The DH must not be less
than 1.25 x the minimum use height for the autopilot.)
32.
Circling Approach. The lowest minima to be used by an operator for circling are published in
JAR-OPS. For a Category A aeroplane the minimum MDH is 400ft and the minimum
meteorological visibility 1500m.
33.
Visual Approach. An operator is not permitted by JAR-OPS to use an RVR <800m for a
visual approach.
34.
Conversion of reported meteorological visibility to RVR. An operator must ensure that a
meteorological visibility to RVR conversion is not used for calculating, take-off minima, Category II
or III minima, or when a reported RVR is available. Conversions to be used in other circumstances
are shown in Figure 3-2.
Chapter 3 Page 29
FIGURE 3-2
Conversion of
Visibility to RVR
Lighting elements in operation
RVR = Reported Met visibility x

Day
Night
HI approach and runway lighting
1.5
2.0
Any type of lighting installation other than above
1.0
1.5
No lighting
1.0
Not applicable
Low Visibility Operations

35.
Low visibility operations comprise take-offs when the RVR is <400m and Category II and III
approaches.
General Rules for Low Visibility Operations

36.
JAR-OPS (1.440) requires that an operator shall not conduct Category II or III operations
unless:
Chapter 3 Page 30
(a)
each aeroplane concerned is certificated for operations with decision heights below
200ft, or no decision height, and is equipped in accordance with JAR all weather
operations (AWO) requirements or an equivalent accepted by the Authority;
(b)
a suitable system for recording approach and/or automatic landing success and failure
is established and maintained to monitor the overall safety of the operation;
(c)
the operations are approved by the Authority;
(d)
the flight crew consists of at least 2 pilots;
(e)
Decision Height is determined by means of a radio altimeter.
37.
Take-off minima. Low visibility take-offs are not permitted when the RVR is <150m for
aircraft category A, B, C and when <200m for aircraft category D unless approved by the Authority.
Aerodrome Facilities
38.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS (1.445) to conduct CAT II or III operations only at
aerodromes approved for such operations by the State in which the aerodrome is located. An
operator is required to verify that Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) have been established and will be
enforced where such operations are to be conducted.
Flight Crew - Training and Qualifications

39.
An operator is required to ensure that prior to conducting Low Visibility Take-off, and CAT
II and III operations:
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 31
each flight crew member:

(i)
has completed the training and checks required by JAR-OPS; and
(ii)
is qualified in accordance with JAR-OPS;
(b)
the training and checking of flight crew has been conducted in accordance with a
detailed syllabus approved by the Authority and included in the Operations Manual;
(c)
the flight crew are qualified for the specific operation and aeroplane type.
Operating Procedures
40.
Operators responsibilities. An operator is required by JAR-OPS (1.455) to establish
procedures and instructions to be used for Low Visibility Take-off and Cat II and III operations.
These procedures must be included in the Operations Manual and must contain the duties of flight
crew members during:
(a)
taxying;
(b)
take-off;
(c)
approach;
(d)
flare;
(e)
landing;
(f)
roll-out;
(g)
missed approach.
41.
Pilot-in command responsibilities.
commander must be sure that:
Chapter 3 Page 32
Before conducting Low Visibility Operations the
(a)
the visual and non-visual facilities at the aerodrome are adequate for the operation;
(b)
appropriate LVPs are in force at the aerodrome according to information from Air
Traffic Services;
(c)
flight crew members are properly qualified for the operation.
Low Visibility Operations Minimum Equipment

42.
The operator must include in the Operations Manual the minimum equipment that must be
serviceable prior to conducting any low visibility procedure. The commander must be satisfied that
the status of the aeroplane and its systems is appropriate for the specific operation to be conducted.
Low Visibility Approaches - Operating Minima

43.
Category II operations. A Category II operation is a precision instrument approach and
landing using ILS or MLS with a DH below 200ft but not lower than 100ft and an RVR not less than
300m.
Approach minima consists of 3 elements, DH, visual reference and RVR.
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 33
Decision Height. An operator must ensure that the DH for a Category II operation is
not lower than:
(i)
the minimum DH specified in the AFM, if stated;
(ii)
the minimum height to which the approach aid can be used without the
required visual reference;
(iii)
the OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane;
(iv)
the DH to which the flight crew is authorised to operate; or,
(v)
100ft.
(b)
Visual reference. A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category II decision
height unless visual reference containing a segment of at least 3 consecutive lights has
been attained and can be maintained. (The lights may be the centreline of the
approach lights, or touchdown zone lights, or runway centreline lights, or runway
edge lights, or a combination of these). A lateral element of the ground pattern such as
approach lighting crossbar or, landing threshold or barrette of the touchdown zone
lighting, must also be visible.
(c)
RVR. The lowest minima to be used by an operator based on calculated DH, and
aeroplane category are published in JAR-OPS. The absolute minimum value of RVR is
300m.
Category III Operations

44.
Category III operations are subdivided into:
Category IIIA
Category IIIB
Category III operations with no decision height (formerly Cat IIIC)
45.
Category IIIA operations. A CAT IIA operation is a precision instrument approach and
landing using ILS or MLS with a DH lower than 100ft and an RVR not less than 200m.
46.
Category IIIB operations. A CAT IIIB operation is a precision instrument approach and
landing using ILS or MLS with a DH lower than 50ft, or no DH, and an RVR lower than 200m but
not less than 75m.
Chapter 3 Page 34
47.
Calculation of decision height. For operations in which a DH is used, an operator must
ensure that the DH is not lower than:
48.
(a)
the minimum DH specified in the AFM, if stated;
(b)
the minimum height to which the approach aid can be used without the required
visual reference; or,
(c)
the DH to which the flight crew is authorised to operate.
Operations with no decision height. Operations with no DH may only be conducted if;
(a)
the operation with no DH is authorised in the AFM;
(b)
the approach aid and the aerodrome facilities can support operations with no DH;
and,
(c)
the operator has an approval for CAT III operations with no DH.
(Note. In the case of a CAT III runway, it may be assumed that operations with no DH can be
supported unless specifically restricted as published in the AIP or by NOTAM.)
49.
or B.
Visual reference. The required visual reference depends on whether the operation is CAT IIIA
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 35
CAT IIIA. For CAT IIIA operations the required visual reference is the same as for
CAT II operations.
(b)
CAT IIIB. For CAT IIIB operations with a decision height a pilot may not continue an
approach below the DH unless a visual reference containing at least one centreline
light is attained and can be maintained.
Note. For CAT III operations with no DH there is no requirement for visual contact with the runway
prior to touchdown.
50.
RVR. The RVR minima to be used in CAT III operations are published in JAR-OPS. Values of
RVR minima are based on DH and flight control systems. (Note. Roll-out guidance is an essential
component in CAT IIIB and CAT III with no DH operations.)
VFR Operating Minima

51.
Chapter 3 Page 36
The operator is required by JAR-OPS (1.465) to ensure that:

(a)
VFR flights are conducted in accordance with the Visual Flight Rules and in
accordance with the flight visibility and separation from cloud specified in Figure 3-2.
(b)
Special VFR flights are not commenced when the visibility is less than 3km and not
otherwise conducted when the visibility is less than 1.5km.
FIGURE 3-3
Minimum Visibility
Criteria for VFR
Operations
Airspace class
Above 900 m (3000 ft)

AMSL or above 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain,
whichever is the higher
1500 m horizontally
300 m (1000 ft) vertically
At and below 900 m

(3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain,
whichever if the higher
Distance from
cloud
Clear of
cloud
Clear of cloud and in sight

of the surface
Flight visibility
8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL (Note 5 km (Note 2)

1) 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL
Note 1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050m (10 000 ft) AMSL, FL 100
should be used in lieu of 10 000 ft.
Note 2. Cat A and B aeroplanes may be operated in flight visibilities down to 3000m, provided the
appropriate ATS authority permits use of a flight visibility less than 5 km, and the circumstances are
such, that the probability of encounters with other traffic is low, and the IAS is 140 kt or less.
Instrument And Equipment Requirements

General Requirements
52.
JAR-OPS required that an operator must ensure that a flight does not commence unless the
instruments and equipment required under JAR-OPS are approved, properly installed and
serviceable.
Chapter 3 Page 37
53.
In general, instruments and equipment must meet minimum performance standards as
described in Joint Technical Standard Orders (JTSO) as listed in JAR-TSO. Some items of equipment
are exempt from this requirement and these are listed in JAR-OPS. The requirements regarding
specific items of equipment are given in the following extracts for JAR-OPS.
JAR-OPS 1.635 Circuit protection devices

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane in which fuses are used unless there are spare fuses
available for use in flight equal to at least 10% of the number of fuses of each rating or three of
each rating whichever is the greater.
JAR-OPS 1.645 Windshield wipers

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass of more
than 5700 kg unless it is equipped at each pilot station with a windshield wiper or equivalent
means to maintain a clear portion of the windshield during precipitation.
JAR-OPS 1.670 Airborne weather radar equipment

(a)
Chapter 3 Page 38
An operator shall not operate:

(i)
a pressurised aeroplane; or
(ii)
an unpressurised aeroplane which has a maximum certificated take-off mass

of more than 5700 kg; or
(iii)
an unpressurised aeroplane having a maximum approved passenger seating

configuration of more than 9 seats after April 1999;
JAR-OPS 1.670 Airborne weather radar equipment
unless it is equipped with airborne weather radar equipment whenever such an aeroplane is
being operated at night or in instrument meteorological conditions in areas where
thunderstorms or other potentially hazardous weather conditions, regarded as detectable
with airborne weather radar, may be expected to exist along the route.
(b)
For propeller driven pressurised aeroplanes having a maximum certificated take-off mass
not exceeding 5700 kg with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration not
exceeding 9 seats the airborne weather radar equipment may be replaced by other
equipment capable of detecting thunderstorms and other potentially hazardous weather
conditions, regarded as detectable with airborne weather radar equipment, subject to
approval by the Authority.
54.
Flight without AWR. By implication from JAR-OPS 1.670 an aeroplane which is operating
by day, in VMC in areas where thunderstorms/CB clouds are not expected may operate without
airborne weather radar.
In addition, in the case of an unpressurised propeller-driven aeroplane with a MTOM 5700kg or less
and certified seating for 9 or less passengers may carry other equipment (such as stormscope) instead
of airborne weather radar.
Chapter 3 Page 39
JAR-OPS 1.685 Flight crew interphone system
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane on which a flight crew of more than one is required
unless it is equipped with a flight crew interphone system, including headsets and microphones,
not of a handheld type for use by all members of the flight crew, except that for aeroplanes already
registered in a JAA member State on 1 April 1995 and first issued with an individual certificate of
airworthiness in a JAA member State or elsewhere before 1 April 1975 a flight crew interphone
system is not mandatory until 1 April 2002.
JAR-OPS 1.6990 Crew Member Interphone System

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane with a maximum certified take-off mass exceeding
15,000kg or having a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of more than 19 unless
it is equipped with a crew member interphone system except for aeroplanes first issued with an
individual certificate of airworthiness in a JAA member State or elsewhere before 1 April 1965 and
already registered in a JAA member State on 1 April 1995.
JAR-OPS1.695 Public address system

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane with a maximum approved passenger seating
configuration of more than 19 unless a public address system is installed. The public address system
required by this paragraph must:
Chapter 3 Page 40
(a)
operate independently of the interphone systems except for handsets, headsets,

microphones, selector switches and signalling devices.;
(b)
be readily accessible for immediate use from each required flight crew member station;
JAR-OPS1.695 Public address system
(c)
for each required floor level passenger emergency exit which has an adjacent cabin crew
seat, have a microphone which is readily accessible to the seated cabin crew member, except
that one microphone may serve more than one exit, provided the proximity of the exits
allows unassisted verbal communication between seated cabin crew members.
(d)
be capable of operation within 10 seconds by a cabin crew member at each of those

stations in the compartment from which its use is accessible; and
(e)
be audible and intelligible at all passenger seats, toilets and cabin crew seats and work
stations.
JAR-OPS 1.735 Internal doors and curtains

An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless the following equipment is installed:
Chapter 3 Page 41
(a)
In an aeroplane with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of more than 19

passengers, a door between the passenger compartment and the flight deck compartment
with a placard crew only and a locking means to prevent passengers from opening it
without the permission of a member of the flight crew;
(b)
A means for opening each door that separates a passenger compartment from another
compartment that has emergency exit provisions. The means for opening must be readily
accessible;
(c)
If it is necessary to pass through a doorway or curtain separating the passenger cabin from
other areas to reach any required emergency exit from any passenger seat, the door or curtain
must have a means to secure it in the open position;
JAR-OPS 1.735 Internal doors and curtains
(d)
A placard on each internal door or adjacent to a curtain that is the means of access to a
passenger emergency exit, to indicate that it must be secured open during take-off and
landing; and
(e)
A means for any member of the crew to unlock any door that is normally accessible to
passengers and that can be locked by passengers.
Communication And Navigation Equipment

Requirements
JAR-OPS 1.845 General Introduction
(a)
Chapter 3 Page 42
An operator shall ensure that flight does not commence unless the communication and
navigation equipment required under this Subpart is:
(i)
approved and installed in accordance with the requirements applicable to

them, including the minimum performance standard and the operational
and airworthiness requirements;
(ii)
Installed such that the failure of any single unit required for either
communication or navigation purposes, or both, will not result in the
inability to communicate and/or navigate safely on the route being flown;
(iii)
In operable condition for the kind of operation being conducted except as

provided in the MEL (JAR-OPS 1.030 refers); and
JAR-OPS 1.845 General Introduction
(iv)
(b)
So arranged that if equipment is to be used by one flight crew member at his

station during flight it must be readily operable from his station. When a
single item of equipment is required to be operated by more than one flight
crew member it must be installed so that the equipment is readily operable
from any station at which the equipment is required to be operated.
Communication and navigation equipment minimum performance standards are those

prescribed in the applicable Joint Technical Standard Orders (JTSO) as listed in JAR-TSO,
unless different performance standards are prescribed in the operational or airworthiness
codes.
JAR-OPS 1.850 Radio Equipment
Chapter 3 Page 43
(a)
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is equipped with radio required for this
kind of operation being conducted.
(b)
Where two independent (separate and complete) radio systems are required under this
Subpart, each system must have an independent antenna installation except that, where
rigidly supported non-wire antennae or other antenna installations of equivalent reliability
are used, only one antenna is required.
(c)
The radio communication equipment required to comply with paragraph (a) above must
also provide for communication on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121.5 MHz.
JAR-OPS 1.855 Audio Selector Panel
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane under IFR unless it is equipped with an audio selector
panel accessible to each required flight crew member.
JAR-OPS 1.860 Radio Equipment for Operation Under VFR Over Routes Navigated
by Reference to Visual Landmarks
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane under VFR over routes that can be navigated by
reference to visual landmarks, unless it is equipped with the radio equipment (communication and
SSR) necessary under normal operating conditions to fulfil the following:
(a)
Communicate with appropriate ground stations;
(b)
Communicate with appropriate ATC facilities in controlled airspace;
(c)
Receive meteorological information; and
(d)
Reply to SSR interrogations for the route flown.
JAR-OPS 1.865 Communications and Navigation Equipment for Operations Under

IFR or Under VFR Over Routes not Navigated by Reference to Visual Landmarks
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane under IFR, or under VFR over routes that cannot be
navigated by reference to visual landmarks unless the aeroplane is equipped with radio
(communication and SSR) and navigation equipment in accordance with the requirements of air
traffic services in the area(s) of operation.
55.
Chapter 3 Page 44
The radio and navigation equipment specified in JAR-OPS 1.865:
(a)
(b)
Radio Equipment:
(i)
Two independent radio communications systems; and
(ii)
SSR equipment as required for the route flown.
Navigation Equipment comprising not less than:
one VOR, ADF, DME;
ILS or MLS, when required for approach purposes;
marker beacon receiver, when required for approach purposes;
RNAV, when required for the route flown;
additional DME, where navigation is based only on DMEs
additional VOR, where navigation is based only on VORs (unless otherwise

authorised by the Authority); and,
additional ADF, where navigation is based only on NDBs (unless otherwise

authorised by the Authority);
Navigation equipment must comply with the Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Type for operation in the airspace concerned.
Chapter 3 Page 45
Aeroplane Maintenance Requirements

JAR-OPS 1.875 General
(a)
An operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is maintained and released to service by
an organisation appropriately approved/accepted in accordance with JAR-145 except that
pre-flight inspections need not necessarily be carried out by the JAR-145 organisation.
(b)
This Subpart prescribes aeroplane maintenance requirements needed to comply with the
operator certification requirements.
JAR-OPS 1.880 Terminology

The following definitions from JAR-145 shall apply to this Subpart:
Chapter 3 Page 46
(a)
Preflight inspection means the inspection carried out before the flight to ensure that the
aeroplane is fit for the intended flight. It does not include defect rectification.
(b)
Approved standard means a manufacturing/design/maintenance/quality standard approved

by the Authority.
(c)
Approved by the Authority means approved by the Authority directly or in accordance

with a procedure approved by the Authority.
JAR-OPS 1.885 Application for and Approval of the Operators Maintenance
System
(a)
For the approval of the maintenance system, an applicant for the initial issue, variation and
renewal of an AOC shall submit specified documents concerning the maintenance system.
(b)
An applicant for the initial issue, variation and renewal of an AOC who meets the
requirements of this Subpart of JAR-OPS, in conjunction with an appropriate JAR-145
approved/accepted maintenance organisations exposition, is entitled to approval of the
maintenance system by the Authority.
56.
The principle adopted to ensure that maintenance is carried out to an approved standard is
that of ensuring that the operator is either JAR-145 approved or, is using a JAR-145 approved/
accepted maintenance organisation. Maintenance management personnel must be acceptable to the
Authority and must ensure the functioning of the quality system.
JAR-OPS 1.900 Quality System

(a)
(b)
Chapter 3 Page 47
For maintenance purposes, the operators quality system must include at least the following
functions:
(i)
monitoring that JAR-OPS requirements are being complied with;
(ii)
monitoring that all contracted maintenance is carried out in accordance with

the contract.
Where the operator is approved in accordance with JAR-145, the quality system may be
combined with that required by JAR-145.
JAR-OPS 1.905 Operators Maintenance Management Exposition
An operator must provide an operators Maintenance Management exposition containing details of
the organisation structure.
JAR-OPS 1.910 Operators Aeroplane Maintenance Programme

An operator must ensure that the aeroplane is maintained in accordance with the operators
aeroplane maintenance programme. The programme must contain details, including frequency, of
all maintenance required to be carried out.
JAR-OPS 1.930 Continued Validity of the Air Operator Certificate in Respect of the
Maintenance System
An operator must comply with JAR-OPS 1.175 and 1.180 (general rules for AOC certification) to
ensure continued validity of the air-operators certificate in respect of the maintenance system.
JAR-OPS1.935 Equivalent Safety Case

An operator shall not introduce alternative procedures to those prescribed in this Subpart of JAROPS unless needed and an equivalent safety case has first been approved by the Authority and
supported by JAA Member Authorities.
(Note. An equivalent safety case is interpreted to mean that the alternative procedure meets to an
equivalent level of safety to the prescribed procedure).
Chapter 3 Page 48
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
State the purpose of a quality system:
QUESTION 2.
State who can be carried in the flight deck:
QUESTION 3.
List the documents that must be carried on each flight:
QUESTION 4.
List the manuals that must be carried on each flight:
QUESTION 5.
List the additional information and forms to be carried on each flight:
QUESTION 6.
List the information to be retained on the ground by the operator:
QUESTION 7.
State the responsibility of the pilot-in-command with regard to the presentation of documents:
Chapter 3 Page 49
QUESTION 8.
Define the terms dry lease and wet lease:
QUESTION 9.
Describe the arrangements for wet lease out between JAA operators:
QUESTION 10.
List the 3 requirements for the issue or revalidation of an AOC:
QUESTION 11.
State the JAR-OPS requirements concerning noise abatement procedures:
QUESTION 12.
List the JAR-OPS requirements which must be met before flights may be conducted along given
routes or in given areas:
QUESTION 13.
Where may passengers with reduced mobility not be carried:
QUESTION 14.
State when checks of baggage stowage must be made and when access to emergency exits and escape
paths must be checked:
Chapter 3 Page 50
QUESTION 15.
State the responsibilities of the pilot-in-command regarding the control of smoking in flight:
ALL WEATHER OPERATIONS
QUESTION 16.
List the factors to be considered in establishing aerodrome operating minima:
QUESTION 17.
State the factor used with VSO in establishing aeroplane speed related categories:
QUESTION 18.
List the range of speeds for each aeroplane category:
Chapter 3 Page 51
QUESTION 19.
Define the following terms:
Circling
Low visibility procedures
Low visibility take-off
Flight control system
Fail-Passive flight control system
Fail-Operational flight control system
Fail-Operational hybrid landing system
Visual approach
Missed approach
QUESTION 20.
State the gross climb gradient normally used in published missed approach procedures:
QUESTION 21.
State the two elements of take-off minima:
QUESTION 22.
State the circumstances in which a take-off may be commenced:
Chapter 3 Page 52
QUESTION 23.
State the RVR minima for take-off for multi-engined aeroplanes which, following the failure of a
critical power unit, are capable of stopping or continuing take-off to a height of 1500ft aal whilst
clearing obstacles by the required margin:
QUESTION 24.
State the minimum runway lighting requirements associated with these minima:
QUESTION 25.
State whether the required RVR value must be applicable at one or all relevant RVR reporting points:
QUESTION 26.
State the minimum runway lighting required for operations at night:
QUESTION 27.
State the components of approach minima:
QUESTION 28.
State the minimum value of system minimum for a non-precision approach.
QUESTION 29.
List the possible sources of visual reference (9):
Chapter 3 Page 53
QUESTION 30.
State the minimum RVR value permitted by JAR-OPS for a non-precision approach:
QUESTION 31.
State the minimum RVR and DH for a Category I operation:
QUESTION 32.
List the requirements that must be met before Category II and III operations may be conducted (5):
QUESTION 33.
State the minimum RVR under low visibility procedures in which a category A, B, C aeroplane may
take-off:
QUESTION 34.
State where the operator must describe the procedures to be followed in low visibility operations:
QUESTION 35.
State the responsibility of the operator and the pilot-in-command regarding the minimum equipment
required for low visibility operations:
Chapter 3 Page 54
QUESTION 36.
State the JAR-OPS minima of RVR and DH for:
Cat II
Cat III A
Cat III B
Cat III ops with no DH
QUESTION 37.
State the minimum visual reference for a Cat II, Cat III A and Cat III B approaches:
QUESTION 38.
State the minimum visibility and separation from cloud for VFR in each class of airspace:
QUESTION 39.
State the number of space fuses that JAR-OPS require an aeroplane to carry:
QUESTION 40.
State the maximum Certificated Take-off mass above which windshield wipers for each pilot system
are mandatory:
QUESTION 41.
State under what circumstances the carriage of airborne weather radar (AWR) is not mandatory:
Chapter 3 Page 55
QUESTION 42.
Above what approved passenger seating capacity is a crew member interphone system and a public
address system required by JAR-OPS:
COMMUNICATIONS AND NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
QUESTION 43.
Above what approved seating capacity must a lockable flight-deck compartment door be fitted:
QUESTION 44.
State the JAR-OPS requirements regarding the provision of an audio selector panel:
QUESTION 45.
List the minimum radio equipment that must be carried on a flight being navigated by reference to
visual landmarks (4):
QUESTION 46.
State when additional DME, VOR or ADF equipment must be carried:
QUESTION 47.
List the minimum radio and navigation equipment specified in JAR-OPS for flight under IFR
Chapter 3 Page 56
QUESTION 48.
MAINTENANCE
State the JAR document which contains maintenance requirements:
QUESTION 49.
State whether the pre-flight inspection should include defect rectification:
QUESTION 50.
State the procedure concerning the use of alternative procedures to these specified in JAR 145:
Chapter 3 Page 57
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
Notes Ref:Chap 3 Page 3-2
ANSWER 2.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 3.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
Notes Ref:Chap 3 Page 3-3 Page 3-3/4
ANSWER 4.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 5.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
Chapter 3 Page 58
ANSWER 6.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 7.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 8.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 9.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 01
ANSWER 10.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 02
Chapter 3 Page 59
ANSWER 11.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 03
ANSWER 12.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 03
ANSWER 13.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 03
ANSWER 14.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 03
ANSWER 15.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 03
ALL WEATHER OPERATIONS
Chapter 3 Page 60
ANSWER 16.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 17.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 18.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 19.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Notes Ref:Chap 3 Page 3-15/16
ANSWER 20.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Chapter 3 Page 61
ANSWER 21.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 22.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 23.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 24.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 25.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Chapter 3 Page 62
ANSWER 26.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 27.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 28.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 29.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 30.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Chapter 3 Page 63
ANSWER 31.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 32.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 33.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 34.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 35.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Chapter 3 Page 64
ANSWER 36.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 37.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
ANSWER 38.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 04
Notes Ref:Chap 3 Page 3-25 Figure 3-3
ANSWER 39.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 05
ANSWER 40.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 05
Chapter 3 Page 65
ANSWER 41.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 05
ANSWER 42.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 05
COMMUNICATIONS AND NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
ANSWER 43.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 05
ANSWER 44.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 06
ANSWER 45.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 06
Chapter 3 Page 66
ANSWER 46.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 06
ANSWER 47.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 06
ANSWER 48.
MAINTENANCE
JAR Ref:071 01 02 07
ANSWER 49.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 07
ANSWER 50.
JAR Ref:071 01 02 07
Chapter 3 Page 67
Navigation Requirements for Long Range

Flights
Flight Management
Navigation Requirements for Long Range Flights
Navigation Requirements for Long

Range Flights
4
1.
The planning of long range flights requires a detailed knowledge of the relevant aeronautical
documention and procedures applicable to international flights. Particular attention must be given to
the special considerations when planning flights over areas where navigation is difficult or where
special procedures are necessary such as in polar regions or long over-water flights. Where possible
routes to be flown should be selected so as to combine the need for safety, economy or minimum
time, with the requirements of international regulations and controlled airspace.
2.
The planning of such flights must not be undertaken lightly, and several hours should be set
aside as preparation time prior to the date of the initial flight. This time should be spent reviewing
the aspects of the flight in conjunction with aeronautical publications, NOTAM, arrival and
departure procedures and approach plates etc. Up-to-date charts should be used on which the
route(s) can be selected or drawn, navigation aids identified and adequate alternate airfields located.
3.
The specific responsibilities of aircraft operators and of pilots-in-command in relation to
flight preparation and management for commercial flights are described in ICAO Annex 6 and JAROPS 1.
Chapter 4 Page 1
Flight Management
Navigation Planning
4.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that operations are only conducted along such
routes and in such areas for which:
5.
Chapter 4 Page 2
(a)
adequate ground services, including meteorological services are available;
(b)
the aeroplane performance is sufficient to comply with minimum flight altitude

limitations;
(c)
the aeroplane equipment meets the minimum requirements for the operation;
(d)
appropriate maps and charts are available;
(e)
in the case of two engined aeroplanes adequate aerodromes are available within the
specified time/distance limitations;
(f)
in the case of single engined aeroplanes surfaces are available which permit a safe
forced landing to be executed.
The operator must also ensure that an operational flight plan is completed for each flight.

Commanders Responsibilities
6.
The commander may not, under JAR-OPS, commence a flight unless he is satisfied that:
(a)
the aeroplane is airworthy;
(b)
the aeroplane is not operated contrary to the configuration deviation list (CDL) .
(Reminder. The CDL is a list established by the organisation responsible for the aircraft type design
which identifies any external parts of the aircraft which may be missing at the start of a flight, and
any associated operating limitations and performance corrections.)
Chapter 4 Page 3
(c)
the instruments and equipment required for the flight are available;
(d)
the instruments and equipment are in operable condition except as provided in the
MEL;
(e)
relevant parts of the operations manual are available;
(f)
documents and forms required to be carried are on board;
(g)
current maps, data and associated documentation are available to cover the flight and
any diversion that might be expected;
(h)
ground services and facilities are adequate for the flight;
(i)
the requirements for fuel, oil, oxygen, minimum safe altitudes, aerodrome operating
minima and alternate aerodromes can be complied with;

(j)
the load is properly distributed and secured;
(k)
the aeroplane performance on the flight will be in compliance with JAR-OPS

requirements.
(Note. The ICAO Annex 6 requirements for flight preparation are described in Chapter 2 paragraph
25.
The Operational Flight Plan

7.
The operational flight plan contains full details of a flight and it:
(a)
must be prepared for every flight and a copy filed with the operator or a designated
agent or, if neither of these is available, with the aerodrome operating authority or
otherwise on record at the point of departure.
(b)
must be approved and signed by the commander, and where applicable by the
operations officer/flight despatcher.
8.
Contents of the operational flight plan. Except for items which are available in other
documentation, or from another acceptable source or, are irrelevant to the operation the following
items must be included in the operational flight plan:
Chapter 4 Page 4
(1)
aeroplane registration;
(2)
aeroplane type and variant;
(3)
date of flight;
Chapter 4 Page 5
(4)
flight identification;
(5)
names of flight crew;
(6)
duties assigned to flight crew;
(7)
place of departure;
(8)
time of departure (actual off-block time and take-off time);
(9)
place of arrival (planned and actual);
(10)
time of landing (actual landing time and on-block time);
(11)
type of operation (eg. ETOPS, VFR, Ferry flight etc.);
(12)
route details (route segments, checkpoints/waypoints, tracks, distances and

times);
(13)
planned cruising speeds and elapsed times (estimated and actual overhead
times);
(14)
safe altitudes and minimum levels;
(15)
planned altitudes and flight levels;
(16)
fuel calculations (including record of in-flight checks);
(17)
fuel on board at engine start;

(18)
alternate(s) for destination and if applicable, for take-off and en-route,

(including aspects covered by 12, 13, 14, 15);
(19)
initial ATS flight plan clearance and re-clearance;
(20)
in-flight re-planning calculations;
(21)
relevant meteorological information.
9.
The operator is responsible for ensuring that the operational flight plan and its use are
described in the Operations Manual. In addition, the operator must ensure that entries in the
operational flight plan are made concurrently and that they are permanent in nature.
The ATS Flight Plan

10.
It is a JAR-OPS requirement that a (commercial) flight is not commenced until an ATS flight
plan has been submitted, or adequate information deposited in order to permit alerting services to be
activated if required.
11.
Chapter 4 Page 6
The normal time in advance of departure for filing a flight plan on the ground is 60 minutes.
Selection of Route
General Criteria Applicable to Route and Aerodromes
12.
The specific factors which the operator of a commercial flight must consider before
conducting operations along a route are described in paragraph 4. In general the operator will be
concerned with achieving the most economic or minimum time route consistent with the
requirements of safety and aeroplane performance criteria, air traffic control and international rules.
Aerodromes selected for destination and alternate(s) must be adequate.
13.
Adequate aerodrome. An aerodrome is described as adequate if:

(a)
it is available or expected to be available (at the anticipated time of use); and,
(b)
it meets with the landing performance requirements of the aeroplane; and,
(c)
it has all the necessary facilities such as ATC, lighting, communications,

meteorological services, navigation aids, rescue and fire-fighting services.
14.
For the purposes of extended range twin operations (ETOPS) an adequate aerodrome must
also have at least one let-down aid (ground radar would meet this requirement) for an instrument
approach.
Chapter 4 Page 7

Route Limitations on Non-ETOPS Twin Engined Operations
15.
Maximum distance from an adequate aerodrome. Unless specifically approved by the
Authority (under ETOPS approval) an operator is not permitted to operate a two engined aeroplane
over a route which contains a point further from an adequate aerodrome than that calculated from
the maximum threshold times shown in Figure 4-1.
Chapter 4 Page 8

FIGURE 4-1
Threshold Times
Chapter 4 Page 9

16.
The times given in Figure 4-1 are converted to a distance, known as the threshold distance.
This distance is calculated using the one engine inoperative cruise TAS assuming ISA conditions and
level flight at a level that can be sustained on one engine but, not exceeding FL 170 for turbojet
aeroplanes or, FL 80 for propeller driven aeroplanes. The aeroplane mass is assumed to be the that
based on a take-off at maximum take-off mass (MTOM) less the fuel for the climb to optimum long
range cruise altitude and all engine cruise to the threshold distance.
17.
The one engine inoperative cruising speed and the threshold distance specific to an aeroplane
must be included in the Operations Manual.
ETOPS Approval
18.
An operator is not permitted by JAR-OPS to conduct operations beyond the threshold
distance determined as in paragraphs 16/17 without ETOPS approval. And, prior to conducting an
ETOPS flight an operator must ensure that a suitable ETOPS en-route alternate is available within
either the approved diversion time or a diversion time based on the MEL generated serviceability
status of the aeroplane, whichever is the least.
Route Limitations on Over Water Flights

19.
Under JAR-OPS an aeroplane with an approved passenger seating capacity of >30 may not
operate at a distance from land (which is suitable for an emergency landing) of >2hr at cruising speed
or, 400nm, whichever least, unless it complies with the prescribed ditching requirements.
(ICAO Annex 8 requires that on aeroplanes certificated for ditching conditions provisions must be
made in the design to give maximum practicable assurance that safe evacuation from the aeroplane
of passengers and crew can be executed in the case of a ditching.)
Chapter 4 Page 10

Route Limitations - Aeroplanes of Performance Class A
(Performance class A includes all multi-engined turbojet aeroplanes and all multi-engined turbo
propeller aeroplanes certificated for either 10 or more passengers or which have a MTOM >5700kg.)
20.
En-route - one engine inoperative. JAR-OPS requires an operator to ensure that the one
engine inoperative en-route net flight path data shown in the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM),
appropriate to the meteorological conditions expected complies with the following limitations:
(a)
the net flight path must have a positive gradient (i.e. the aeroplane possesses a positive
rate of climb, typically 150fpm) at 1500ft above the aerodrome where the landing is
assumed to be made after engine failure; and
(b)
the gradient of the net flight path must be positive at an altitude of at least 1000ft
above all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3km (5nm) either side of
track.
(Note. Whenever this obstacle distance is given in the succeeding paragraphs, it can be assumed that
it is automatically increased to 18.5km (10nm) where the navigation accuracy is not within the 95%
containment accuracy specified for the route or area.)
(c)
The net flight path must allow the aeroplane to continue flight from the cruising
altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made clearing by at least 2000ft all
terrain and obstructions within the distances specified in sub-paragraph (b).
(no threshold distance is specified for this case)
Chapter 4 Page 11

21.
En-route aeroplanes with three or more engines two engines inoperative. JAR-OPS
requires that an operator must ensure that at no point along the intended track will an aeroplane
having three or more engines be more than 90 minutes, at an all engines long range cruising speed in
ISA and in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements at the expected
landing mass are met.
22.
An exemption from this requirement is allowed by JAR-OPS if the two engine inoperative net
flight path in the expected meteorological conditions permits the aeroplane to continue to an
aerodrome where a landing can be made clearing en-route all terrain and obstructions within the
distances specified in paragraph 20 (b) by at least 2000ft.
Route Limitations - Aeroplanes of Performance Class B

(Performance class B includes all aeroplanes certificated for 9 or less passenger seats and a MTOM
5700kg or less.)
23.
En-route multi engined aeroplanes. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that the
aeroplane, in the meteorological conditions expected on the flight, in the event of the failure of one
engine, with the remaining engine(s) on maximum continuous power, is capable of continuing flight
at or above the minimum safe altitude specified in the Operations Manual to a height of 1000ft
above an aerodrome at which it can land.
24.
En-route single engined aeroplanes. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that the
aeroplane, in the meteorological conditions expected for the flight, in the event of engine failure, is
capable of reaching a place at a height overhead which (normally 1000ft) permits a safe forced
landing to be made. For land planes, a land surface is required.
Chapter 4 Page 12

Route Limitations - Aeroplanes of Performance Class C
(Performance class C comprises all piston engined aeroplanes which are either, certificated for 10 or
more passenger seats or, which have a MTOM >5700kg.)
25.
En-route all engines operating. An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that the
aeroplane will, in any meteorological conditions expected on the flight, at any point on its route or
diversion therefrom, be capable of a rate of climb of at least 300fpm, at the minimum safe altitude,
with all engines at maximum continuous power.
26.
En-route one engine inoperative. An operator must ensure that in the event of engine
failure, the aeroplane can continue with the remaining engines on maximum continuous power, to an
aerodrome where a landing can be made.
Obstacles within 9.3km (5nm) of track must be cleared by at least 1000ft when the rate of climb is
zero or greater, (2000ft if the rate of climb is less than zero).
27.
En-route aeroplanes with 3 or more engines two engines inoperative. An operator must
ensure that at no point along the intended track, will the aeroplane be more than 90 minutes at the
all engines long range cruising speed, in still air, from an aerodrome at which a landing can be made,
unless:
Chapter 4 Page 13
(a)
with 2 engines inoperative it can clear obstacles within 9.3km (5nm) of track by at
least 2000ft; and,
(b)
if the engines fail at the most critical point on the route, the expected mass of the
aeroplane will be such that it has sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome and hold
overhead for at least 15 minutes at not less than 1500ft.
Practical Route Planning

28.
In order to plan routes that are within the designated threshold time/distance of selected
alternate aerodromes, operators make use of navigation charts on which are drawn equal time lines
(isochrones) to each alternate. These equal time (circles) are typically drawn for an appropriate
threshold time (eg, 60 min, 90 min, or 120 min etc.) in still air at a given TAS, lines may also be
added showing the effect of a selected headwind component.
29.
The planned route, or any subsequent changes from it, must always fall within one or more of
the threshold time lines. The procedure is illustrated in Figure 4-2.
Chapter 4 Page 14

FIGURE 4-2
Chapter 4 Page 15
Selection of Cruising Speed

30.
The selected cruising speed on long range flights will normally be the speed at the appropriate
cruising levels which provides the optimum range. The use of increased speed is likely to be
accompanied by an increase in fuel consumption and either reduced economy and/or range. Where a
higher cruise speed is required for the same route and conditions a higher fuel load will be required.
Selection of Cruising Altitude

31.
The choice of cruising level may be limited by several factors. The appropriate ATS Authority
for the area concerned is required to specify the minimum altitude and the operator is required to
specify a cruising level at or above this figure in the Operations Manual. Air Traffic Control
procedures may also limit the choice of cruising levels, for example, flight in upper airspace must be
above the level published by the appropriate Authority and the use of standard IFR cruising levels is
likely to apply in most areas. Certain airspace procedures may also stipulate the use of specific
cruising levels, such as in the North Atlantic Organised Track System.
32.
Typically, long range cruising levels will be in the band from FL290 to FL410 for turbojet
aeroplanes.
33.
Cruising levels in the North Atlantic Organised Track System are from FL310 to FL390
inclusive. Flights within the area known as Minimum Navigation Performance Specification
(MPNS) airspace can only operate with State of Registry approval. In addition, for operations in
airspace in which Reduced Vertical Separation Minima apply State of Registry approval is also
required. Where this is the case the separation between same direction cruising levels can be reduced
to 1000ft.
Chapter 4 Page 16

34.
Within the constraints described the optimum cruise altitude should normally that which
combines the benefit of long range with the wind velocity. For example, where strong headwinds are
expected at a particular level the selection of a lower or higher level may provide greater overall
economy even though the rate of fuel consumption is higher.
Minimum Flight Altitude

35.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to establish minimum flight altitudes for all route
segments to be flown. An operator is also required to establish the methods to be used to determine
minimum flight altitudes; the Authority must approve each method. The operator must take into
account the following factors when establishing minimum flight altitudes:
(a)
navigational accuracy;
(b)
altimeter inaccuracy;
(c)
the characteristics of the terrain along routes or in areas of operation (eg. sudden
changes in elevation);
(d)
probability of encountering unfavourable meteorological conditions (eg. strong

downdraughts or severe turbulence);
(e)
possible chart inaccuracy.
Additional factors to be considered: temperature corrections to altimeters, ATC requirements, and

any forseeable contingencies along the planned route.
36.
Where the minimum flight altitudes notified by the States to be overflown are higher than
those established by the operator, the higher values must be used.
Chapter 4 Page 17
Planning Minima for Destination Aerodromes

37.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to select as a destination an aerodrome at which the
appropriate weather reports or forecasts (or any combination thereof), indicate that, during a period
from one hour before to one hour after ETA, the weather conditions will be at or above the specified
minima of RVR/visibility and for non-precision or circling approaches, the (cloud) ceiling will be at
or above MDH.
Selection of Alternate Aerodrome

38.
The operator is required by JAR-OPS to specify any required alternate(s) in the operational
flight plan.
Take-off Alternate
39.
Requirement for a take-off alternate. JAR-OPS requires the operator to specify take-off
alternate if it would not be possible for an aeroplane to return to the aerodrome of departure because
of meteorological or performance reasons.
40.
Location of take-off alternate two-engined aeroplanes. The take-off alternate for a twoengined aeroplane must be within either:
Chapter 4 Page 18
(a)
one hour at the one-engine-inoperative cruising speed given in the AFM, in still air and
standard conditions based on the actual take-off mass; or,
(b)
two hours or, the approved ETOPS diversion time, whichever is least, at the oneengine-inoperative cruising speed given in the AFM, in still air and standard
conditions for aeroplanes and crews authorised for ETOPS.

41.
Location of take-off alternate three and four-engined aeroplanes. The take-off alternate for
three and four-engined aeroplanes must be within 2 hours at the one-engine-inoperative cruising
speed given in the AFM, in still air standard conditions based on the actual take-off mass.
(Note. If the AFM does not contain a one-engine-inoperative cruising speed the speed to be used
must be that achieved with remaining engine(s) set at maximum continuous power.
42.
Planning minima for take-off alternate (IFR flights). An operator shall not select an
aerodrome as a take-off alternate unless:
(a)
the weather forecasts or reports for one hour before to one hour after the ETA at the
alternate indicate that conditions will be at or above the applicable landing minima
specified in accordance with JAR-OPS;
(b)
the cloud ceiling is taken into account when only non-precision and/or circling
approaches are available;
(c)
any limitation related to one-engine-inoperative operations is taken into account.
Destination Alternate
43.
Requirement for one destination alternate. An operator is required under JAR-OPS to select
at least one destination alternate for each IFR flight unless:
(a)
both:
(i)
Chapter 4 Page 19
the duration of the flight from take-off to landing does not exceed 6hr; and,

(ii)
(b)
two separate runways are available at the destination and the meteorological
conditions prevailing are such that, for the period from one hour before ETA
to one hour after ETA, the approach from the relevant minimum sector
altitude and the landing can be made in VMC; or,
the destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists.
44.
Requirement for two destination alternates. An operator must select two destination
alternates when:
(a)
the appropriate weather reports or forecasts for the destination for the period from
one hour before, to one hour after, ETA indicate that conditions will be below the
applicable planning minima; or,
(b)
no meteorological information is available.
45.
Planning minima for destination alternate(s). An operator is required by JAR-OPS to select as
a destination alternate an aerodrome at which the appropriate weather reports or forecasts (or any
combination thereof), indicate that during a period from one hour before to one hour after ETA, the
weather conditions will be at or above the following planning minima:
Chapter 4 Page 20
(a)
Cat II and III approach available planning minima based on Cat I RVR;
(b)
Cat I approach available planning minima based on non-precision i.e. RVR, with
cloud ceiling at or above MDH;
(c)
non-precision approach available as (b) plus 200ft and 1000m
(d)
circling approach available planning minima as for circling.

46.
Planning minima for en-route alternate. The planning minima for an en-route alternate are
the same as for a destination alternate.
Landing Requirements
Performance A Aeroplanes
47.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that the landing mass of the aeroplane for the
estimated time of landing at the destination or any alternate, permits a landing from 50ft above the
threshold to full stop within:
(a)
for turbo-jet aeroplanes on dry runways - 60% of the landing distance available;
(b)
for turbo-propeller aeroplanes on dry runways - 70% of the landing distance

available;
(c)
for all types on wet runways 115% of the landing distance required for dry runways
48.
For instrument approaches with decision heights below 200ft the mass of the aeroplane must
be calculated to allow a missed approach gradient of climb, with the critical engine failed, of 2.5%,
or the published gradient, whichever is the greater.
Performance B and C Aeroplanes

49.
The landing mass must permit a full stop landing to be made from 50ft above the threshold
within 70% of the landing distance available on a dry runway at the destination and at any alternate.
For wet runways the landing distance available must be 115% of the landing distance required.
Chapter 4 Page 21
Minimum Time Routes

50.
A minimum time route provides the shortest flight time from departure to destination whilst
adhering to all ATC and airspace restrictions.
Great Circle Tracks

51.
The two primary factors, which determine whether or not a route is a minimum time route
are shortest distance and wind component. The basis of the minimum time route is the great circle
track. On aeroplanes equipped with Flight Management Systems and EFIS, the displayed track
between waypoints will be the great circle track. On navigation charts based on the Lambert
Conformal and the Polar Stereographic Projections, the track can be drawn as a straight line. This
track defines the shortest distance over the Earths surface between two points. (A disadvantage of
the great circle track is that its true direction changes because of the Earth Convergency). However,
the alternative and simpler rhumb line track, which maintains a constant true direction does not give
the shortest distance. The angular difference (conversion angle) between the two types of track can
be calculated and is illustrated at Figure 4-3.
Chapter 4 Page 22

FIGURE 4-3
Comparison of
Great Circle and
Rhumb Line
Tracks
(Note. The total track change due to convergency, between waypoints can also be calculated from
the formula:
Convergency = ch long x Sine Mean Latitude).
52.
The use of minimum time routes is illustrated in the North Atlantic Organised Track System
(OTS). Planners at the appropriate oceanic area control centre (OAC) determine the basic minimum
time tracks for westbound and eastbound North Atlantic traffic taking into account the routes
preferred by airlines and notified to the OAC as well as any airspace restrictions.
Chapter 4 Page 23

North Atlantic Operations
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS)
Airspace Procedures
The Organised Track System (OTS)
The Polar Track Structure
Transoceanic (North Atlantic)

Procedures
5
Regulatory Material
1.
Regulatory material concerning transoceanic aircraft operations is contained in appropriate
ICAO Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc. 7030), ICAO Annexes and PANS/RAC (Doc.
4444). Individual States also publish relevant regulations, information/warnings and guidance in
State AIPs and current NOTAM.
2.
In the case of operations in the North Atlantic region, guidance is also provided in the North
Atlantic MNPS Airspace Operations Manual. This document is published on behalf of the North
Atlantic Systems Planning Group, which is a regional planning body operating under the auspices of
ICAO. This group is responsible for developing the required procedures, services, facilities and
aircraft and operator approval standards employed in the North Atlantic region.
North Atlantic Operations

Characteristics of North Atlantic Region Airspace
3.
The North Atlantic (NAT) region comprises in general, airspace within the FIRs of Bodo
(Norway), Sondrestrom (Greenland), Reykjavic (Iceland), and the Oceanic Control Areas, Gander
(Canada), New York (USA), Santa Maria (Portugal), and Shanwick (UK). The Region extends to the
North Pole. A map of the area concerned is shown at Figure 5-1.
Chapter 5 Page 1

FIGURE 5-1
North Atlantic
(NAT) Region
Chapter 5 Page 2

4.
Most of the airspace within these FIRs is high seas airspace and the Council of ICAO has
resolved that rules appropriate to the high seas apply without exception, however, the responsibility
for enforcement of them rests with the aircraft State of Registry. The airspace is designated in Doc.
7030 as IFR only, (Class A), at or above FL60 or 2000ft (600m) AGL, whichever is higher within
New York, Gander, Shanwick, Santa Maria, Oceanic Control Areas and Sondrestrom and Reykjavik
FIRs, and within Bodo Oceanic FIR when more than 100nm from the shoreline. Therefore all flights
must be subject to an air traffic control service; all flights are separated from each other. Most of the
airspace below FL60 is class G. The airspace between FL285 and FL420 is designated in Doc. 7030
as Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS) Airspace.
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification

(MNPS) Airspace Procedures
5.
The concept of MNPS Airspace (MNPSA) is that all flights operating within it achieve the
highest standards of horizontal and vertical navigation performance and accuracy for the purpose of
enhancing safety whilst permitting efficient use of airspace. Formal monitoring programmes are
undertaken to quantify the achieved performances and compare them with established Target Levels
of Safety (TLS).
6.
Aircraft operating within MNPS Airspace are required to meet a Minimum Navigation
Performance Specification (MNPS) in the horizontal plane through the mandatory carriage and use
of a specified level of navigation equipment which has been approved by the State of Registry or,
State of the Operator, for the purpose.
Chapter 5 Page 3
Dimensions of MNPS Airspace

7.
The vertical extent of MNPS Airspace is between FL285 and FL420. In terms of normal
cruising levels, the practical limits are therefore FL290 to FL410 inclusive.
8.
The lateral dimensions of MNPS Airspace are from latitude 27N to the North Pole, bounded
in the East by the eastern boundaries of control areas Santa Maria Oceanic, Shanwick Oceanic, and
Reykjavik, and in the west by the western boundary of CTA ReykjaviK, the western boundary of
CTA Gander Oceanic and the western boundary of CTA New York Oceanic excluding west of 60N
and south of 3830N.
A map showing the extent of MNPS Airspace is at Figure 5-2.
(The airspace within New York OCA to the west of 060W contains an extensive system of routes
between the USA, Canada, Bermuda and the Caribbean, which known as the Western Atlantic Route
System (WATRS)).
9.
Within MNPS Airspace the concept of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) has been
introduced in order to permit suitably qualified aircraft to operate with reduced vertical separation.
Chapter 5 Page 4

FIGURE 5-2
MNPS Airspace FL
285 - FL 420
Chapter 5 Page 5
RVSM Airspace
10.
The whole of MNPS Airspace from FL310 to FL390 is designated also as RVSM airspace.
Aircraft used to conduct flights within this airspace where RVSM are applied must have State of
Registry approval. Such approvals are granted only after confirmation that each aircraft meets the
Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specification (MASPS). When RVSM levels are used vertical
separation within the altitude band concerned can be reduced to 1000ft.
Air Routes Within MNPS Airspace

Organised Track System (OTS)
11.
Within MNPS Airspace certain tracks are planned by the relevant Oceanic Area Control
Centre (OAC) and then promulgated in a NAT Track Message on a daily basis, for use by eastbound
and westbound flights across the North Atlantic. This system of tracks known as the Organised
Track System (OTS) and its associated procedures is more fully described in subsequent paragraphs.
Routes that are used which are not part of the OTS, are known as Random Routes.
Flights Outside the OTS

12.
Flights conducted wholly or partly outside the organised tracks must be planned along great
circle tracks joining significant points and flight plans are required, under ICAO procedures, to be
made in accordance with the route following descriptions:
(a)
Chapter 5 Page 6
flights operating between North America and Europe are considered to be operating
in a predominantly east-west direction;

(b)
flights planned between those same two continents via the North Pole are considered
to be operating in a predominantly north-south direction.
Flight Plans in MNPS Airspace

Significant points - Flights Operating Predominantly in an East-West
Direction
13.
Flights operating south of 70N. The planned tracks shall normally be defined by significant
points defined by the intersection of whole or half degrees of latitude with meridians spaced at
intervals of 10 of longitude from the Greenwich meridian to 070W.
14.
Flights operating north of 70N. The planned tracks shall normally be defined by significant
points formed by the intersection of parallels of latitude in degrees and minutes with meridians
normally spaced at 20 intervals from the Greenwich meridian to 060W.
15.
The distance between significant points shall, as far as possible, not exceed one hours flight
time.
Significant Points - Flights Operating in a Predominantly North-South

Direction
16.
Flights whose flight paths are predominantly in a north-south direction. The planned tracks
shall normally be defined by significant points formed by the intersection of whole degrees of
longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5 intervals.
Chapter 5 Page 7

Indication of MNPS Approval
17.
In order to signify that a flight is approved to operate in NAT MNPS Airspace, the letter X
shall be inserted, in addition to the letter S in Item 10 of the flight plan. (If the flight is approved to
operate at RVSM levels a W must be included in Item 10).
Cruising Speed
18.
For turbojet aircraft within the oceanic control areas of NAT airspace, the Mach number that
is planned to be used for any portion of their flight within these areas must be specified in Item 15 of
the flight plan. Item 15 of the flight plan should reflect the proposed speeds in the following
sequence:
cruising TAS;
oceanic entry point and cruising Mach number;
oceanic landfall and cruising TAS.
(It is important to note the specific use of Mach number within MNPS Airspace: the Oceanic
Clearance given by ATC will include the ATC approved Mach number which must not be deviated
from without clearance except when necessary for safety reasons (eg. turbulence), in which case ATC
must be informed as soon as possible.
Flight Plans for OTS Flights

19.
If (and only if) the flight is planned to operate along the entire length of one of the organised
tracks, from oceanic entry point to oceanic exit point, as detailed in the NAT Track Message, the
intended organised track should be defined in Item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation NAT
followed by the code letter assigned to the track.
Chapter 5 Page 8

Submission of Flight Plan
20.
Flight plans for flights departing from points within adjacent regions and entering the NAT
Region, without intermediate stops, should be submitted at least 3 hours before departure.
Navigation Performance Accuracy

21.
Regional Supplementary Procedures specify that aircraft used to conduct operations within
MNPS Airspace must meet specified levels of lateral navigation performance, one of the main
requirements of which is that the standard deviation of lateral track error is less than 6.3nm
(11.7km).
(Note. This means that in terms of the more recent reference to Required Navigation Performance
(RNP) this requirement equates to an RNP of 12.6, (in other words, for 95% of a flight, the lateral
track error will not exceed 12.6nm.)
Navigation Systems Requirements

22.
In the case of the North Atlantic, the navigation requirements for operations in MNPS
Airspace are based on the need to achieve the required level of accuracy and, the need to carry
standby equipment with comparable performance characteristics. Therefore, in order to be
considered for State approval for unrestricted MNPS operations an aeroplane must meet the
navigation system specification as follows:
Two fully serviceable Long Range Navigation Systems (LRNSs). A LRNS may be one of the
following:
- one Inertial Navigation System (INS);
Chapter 5 Page 9

- one Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS); or,
- one navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System (IRS) or any
other sensor system complying with MNPS requirements.
Each LRNS must be capable of providing to the flight crew a continuous indication of the aircraft position relative to desired track.
It is also desirable that the navigation system employed for the provision of steering guidance
is capable of being coupled to the autopilot.
(Note aircraft which do not have MNPS approval or are unable to meet the MNPS requirements
should plan to operate outside (including above or below) designated MNPS airspace).
Monitoring Navigation System Accuracy

23.
Avoidance of Gross Navigation Errors (GNE). A Gross Navigation Error is defined as a
deviation from cleared track (course) of 25nm or more. Thorough navigation and cross checking
procedures are required in order to minimise occurrences of GNE. These errors are normally
detected by long range radars as aircraft leave oceanic airspace, or through the scrutiny of routine
position reports.
24.
Three independent systems. Normally, such navigation systems include comparator and/or
warning devices, but it is still necessary for the crew to make frequent comparison checks. When an
installation includes three independent systems, a comparison between outputs should easily reveal
the faulty system.
25.
Two independent systems. When only two systems are provided the identification of a
defective system is likely to be more difficult. If such a situation arises in oceanic airspace any or all
of the following actions should be considered:
Chapter 5 Page 10

(a)
checking malfunction codes for indication of unserviceability;
(a)
obtaining a fix. It may be possible to use:

(i)
the weather radar (range marks and relative bearing lines) to determine the
position relative to an identifiable landmark; or,
(ii)
the ADF to obtain bearings from a suitable NDB, (using the variation at the
aircraft to convert magnetic bearings to true); or,
(iii)
if within range, a VOR, in which case the magnetic variation at the VOR
location should be used to convert the radial to a true bearing (except when
flying in the Canadian Northern Domestic Airspace where VOR bearings may
be oriented with reference to true as opposed to magnetic north). (When
simultaneous DME ranging is also available navigation errors should be
resolved rapidly).
(b)
contacting a nearby aircraft on VHF, and comparing information on spot wind, or

ground speed and drift.
(c)
if such assistance is not available, and as a last resort, the flight plan wind velocity for
the current DR position of the aircraft, can be compared with the navigation system
outputs.
26.
Interpretation of fixing. In addition to the obvious use of establishing position, a series of at
least two fixes can also be used to determine the track made good, ground speed and, if the average
heading and TAS are known, the wind velocity.
Chapter 5 Page 11
Separation of Aircraft
27.
Separation between aircraft in NAT Region (MNPS) airspace is achieved by means of lateral
separation, longitudinal separation (using the Mach Number Technique) and vertical separation,
this is known as composite separation.
Lateral Separation
28.
Minimum lateral separation in the NAT Region defined in Doc.7030 is:

(a)
60nm between aircraft which meet MNPS requirements where a portion of the route
is within, above or below MNPS Airspace;
(b)
120nm between other aircraft.
Longitudinal Separation
29.
Mach Number Technique. In this technique subsonic turbojet aircraft operating successively
along suitable routes are cleared by ATC to maintain appropriate Mach Numbers for a relevant
portion of the en-route phase of their flight. The principle of this procedure is that where successive
aircraft are maintaining the same Mach number their longitudinal separation will be maintained with
only minor variations over long periods. The technique requires that aircraft adhere rigidly to their
approved Mach number and in addition make accurate position reports based on an accurate time
reference. Pilots intending to operate in MNPS Airspace are required therefore to use accurate clocks
and obtain a time check against a standard time signal, based on UTC, before entering MNPS
Airspace.
Chapter 5 Page 12

30.
Minimum separation between subsonic turbojet aircraft meeting the MNPS requirements
when a portion of the route is within, above or below MNPS Airspace is:
(a)
10 minutes providing the (same) Mach number technique is applied whether in level,
climbing or descending flight and the aircraft concerned have reported over a common
reporting point and follow the same or a continuously diverging track;
(b)
between 10 and 5 minutes inclusive, only when it is possible to ensure, by radar or

other means approved by the State, that the required time interval exists and will
continue to exist at the common point, providing the preceding aircraft is maintaining
a greater Mach number than the following aircraft (the length of the specified time
interval depends on the difference between the aircraft speeds, for example, 9 min if
preceding aircraft is MO.02 faster, or 5 min when preceding aircraft is MO.06 faster
than the following aircraft);
(c)
In other cases, 15 minutes
Step Climb Procedure

31.
The application of longitudinal separation between aircraft carrying out climb/descents enroute and other aircraft operating in the same direction shall be maintained throughout the climb/
descent and at the new level, unless lateral separation is provided. When Mach Number technique is
being used the clearance to climb/descend will be based on the assumption that the last assigned
Mach Number is maintained. If this is not feasible ATC must be informed at the time of the climb/
descent request.
Chapter 5 Page 13
ATC Clearances in MNPS Airspace

32.
Standard ATC procedures are applied in MNPS Airspace however, an abbreviated clearance
may be used only when clearing an aircraft to follow one of the organised tracks throughout its flight
within NAT control areas or, along one of the Polar Tracks (described later) or, when clearing an
aircraft to follow its flight planned route.
Clearances to climb or descend maintaining own separation in VMC is not to be granted.
33.
When an abbreviated clearance is issued to follow one of the organised tracks or a Polar
Track it will include:
(a)
cleared track specified by track code;
(b)
cleared flight level(s);
(c)
cleared Mach Number (if required);
(d)
if the aircraft is designated to send meteorological information in flight, the phrase

send met reports.
34.
Read Back. Pilots are required to read back the contents of the clearance message. In addition
when cleared to follow an organised track, unless alternative procedures are approved, the pilot is
required to read back full details of the track specified by the code letter. Where the term cleared via
flight planned route is used the pilot shall read back full details of the flight plan route.
35.
Change of ETA. After obtaining a clearance for oceanic entry, if the forward estimate for the
oceanic entry point changes by 3 minutes or more the pilot must pass a revised estimate to ATC as
soon as possible. This principle applies also to any forward estimate included in a position report.
Chapter 5 Page 14
Position Reporting in MNPS Airspace

36.
Unless otherwise required by ATS, position reports for flights on routes not defined by
designated reporting points must be made at significant points listed in the flight plan.
37.
East-West Flights. ATS may require any flight operating in a predominantly east-west
direction to report its position at any of the intermediate meridians spaced at intervals of:
(a)
10 of longitude south of 70N (between 005W and 065W);
(b)
20 of longitude north of 70N (between 010W and 050W).
38.
North-South Flights. ATS may require any flight operating generally in a north-south
direction to report its position at any intermediate parallel of latitude when deemed necessary.
39.
In requiring aircraft to report their position at intermediate intervals, the ATS authorities will
be guided by the requirement to have position information at approximately hourly intervals.
Content of Position Reports

40.
Verbal position reports are identified by the spoken word Position transmitted immediately
before or after the aircraft identification. Outside ATS routes, position is to be expressed in terms of
latitude and longitude. For flights predominantly east-west, latitude is expressed in degrees and
minutes and longitude in degrees only. For flights that are predominantly north-south, latitude is
expressed in degrees and longitude in degrees and minutes.
41.
Chapter 5 Page 15
Time in position reports is to be expressed using four digits, giving hour and minutes.

Copying Position Reports to Adjacent OCAs
42.
When aircraft are operating within 60nm or less of a common boundary with an adjacent
OCA, including aircraft operating on tracks through successive points on such a boundary, position
reports must also be made to the adjacent area control centre. Responsibility for the transmission of
reports to the adjacent ATS units may be delegated to the appropriate communications station by
local arrangement.
Meteorological Reports
43.
From among the aircraft intending to operate on organised tracks, oceanic control centres
will designate those flights which are required to make routine meteorological observations at each
prescribed reporting point. The designation will be made by the oceanic area control centre
delivering the clearance using the phrase Send Met Reports and should be made so as to designate
one aircraft per track, at hourly intervals.
44.
Chapter 5 Page 16
The content of the routine met report element of a position report is:
(a)
Air temperature
(b)
Wind direction
(c)
Wind speed
(d)
Turbulence
(e)
Aircraft icing
(f)
Humidity (if available)
Contingency Procedures - Aircraft Unable to Continue in

Accordance with ATC Clearance
45.
Regional Supplementary Procedures for the NAT region provide guidance on the procedures
to be followed if an aircraft is unable to continue the flight in accordance with its ATC clearance. The
situations covered are:
(a)
inability to maintain assigned level due to adverse weather, aircraft performance,

pressurisation failure (and problems associated with high-level supersonic flight;
(b)
loss of or, significant reduction in, the navigation capability when operating in parts of
the airspace where a high accuracy of navigation is required; and,
(c)
en-route diversion across the prevailing NAT flow.
General Procedures
46.
Request for ATC clearance. If an aircraft is unable to continue flight in accordance with its
ATC clearance, a revised clearance must be obtained prior to initiating any action. This procedure
also applies when an aircraft is unable to maintain an accuracy of navigation on which the
separation minima applied by ATC between it and adjacent aircraft depends. The request for a
revised clearance must be made using the RT distress or urgency signal as appropriate. Subsequent
ATC action will depend on the intentions of the pilot and the overall air traffic situation.
47.
Aircraft unable to obtain prior clearance. If prior clearance cannot be obtained, ATC
clearance must be obtained as soon as possible and in the meantime, the pilot must:
Chapter 5 Page 17
48.
Chapter 5 Page 18
(a)
broadcast position (including ATS route designator or the track code, as appropriate)
and intentions on 121.5MHz at suitable intervals until ATC clearance is obtained;
(b)
make maximum use of lights to make the aircraft more visible;
(c)
maintain watch for conflicting traffic; and,
(d)
initiate such action as necessary to ensure safety of the aircraft.
Recommended procedure aircraft unable to obtain revised ATC clearance.

(a)
Initial action. If unable to obtain ATC clearance, the aircraft should leave its assigned
route or track by turning 90 degrees to the right or left, whenever this is possible. The
direction of the turn should be based on the position of the aircraft relative to any
adjacent tracks but other factors such as the direction to an alternate aerodrome,
terrain clearance and the levels assigned to adjacent tracks may also be relevant.
(b)
Subsequent action:
aircraft able to maintain assigned flight level should:
(i)
turn to acquire and maintain in either direction a track laterally separated by

30nm from its assigned route or track; and,
(ii)
if above FL410, climb or descend 1000ft; or,
(iii)
if below FL410, climb or descend 500ft; or,
(iv)
if at FL410, climb 1000ft or descend 500ft.
aircraft unable to maintain assigned cruising level should:
(i)
initially, minimise descent rate to the extent feasible;
(ii)
turn while descending to acquire and maintain in either direction a track which
is laterally separated by 30nm from its assigned route or track; and,
(iii)
for the subsequent level, a level should be selected which differs from those
normally used by 1000ft if above FL410 or by 500ft if below FL410.
En-Route Diversion Across the Prevailing NAT Traffic Flow

49.
The basic concept of the guidance provided by Doc.7030 is that, when operationally feasible,
before diverting across tracks or routes carrying heavy traffic, the aircraft should offset from the
assigned route or track by 30nm and expedite a descent to an altitude below or, a climb to an altitude
above, those where the vast majority of NAT traffic operate, before proceeding towards the alternate
aerodrome.
The specific actions in the event of an aircraft needing to make such a diversion when prior ATC
clearance cannot be obtained depend on whether the aircraft is able to maintain its assigned flight
level.
Diversion Aircraft Able to Maintain Assigned Level

50.
An aircraft, which is able to maintain its assigned level, should:

(a)
Chapter 5 Page 19
turn towards the alternate aerodrome to acquire a track which is separated laterally
by 30nm from the assigned route or track; and

(b)
if above FL410, climb or descend 1000ft; or,
(c)
if below FL410, climb or descend 500ft; or,
(d)
if at FL410, climb 1000ft or descend 500ft; and,
(e)
when on the offset track, expedite a descent to an altitude below FL285 or, a climb to
an altitude above FL410; and,
(f)
when at or below FL285 or above FL410, proceed towards the alternate aerodrome
while maintaining a level which differs from those normally used by 500ft if below
FL410 or 1000ft if above FL410; or,
(g)
if unable or unwilling to make a major climb or descent, fly an altitude offset for the
diversion until obtaining an ATC clearance.
Diversion Aircraft Unable to Maintain Assigned Level

51.
Chapter 5 Page 20
An aircraft not able to maintain its assigned level should:

(a)
initially minimise its descent rate to the extent that is operationally feasible; and,
(b)
start its descent while turning to acquire a track separated laterally by 30nm from its
assigned route or track; and,
(c)
unless circumstances dictate otherwise, maintain the offset track while expediting a
descent to below FL285; and,

(d)
unless circumstances dictate otherwise, when below FL285, proceed towards the
alternate aerodrome; and
(e)
continue a descent to a level which can be maintained and which differs from those
normally used, by 500ft, if below FL410.
(Note. ATC must be advised of the actions taken where possible, however, the specific guidance in
Doc.7030 is that when a twin-engined aircraft is involved in such procedures as a result of the
shutdown of a power unit or a primary system failure, ATC should be advised of the aircraft type
and the need for expeditious handling.)
Communications Procedures in MNPS Airspace

52.
Most NAT air/ground communications are conducted on single side-band HF frequencies and
aircraft intending to operate in the Shanwick OCA must be capable of maintaining direct two-way
communication on appropriate frequencies.
Pilots communicate with OACs via aeradio stations staffed by communicators who have no
executive ATC authority and messages are relayed from the ground station to the relevant OAC for
action. Aeradio stations and OACs are not necessarily co-located.
53.
Aircraft with only VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the
Shanwick OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations.
Chapter 5 Page 21

54.
Aeradio stations are also responsible for the operation of general purpose (GP) VHF outlets.
These stations are valuable in the vicinity of Iceland, Faeroes and Greenland since VHF is not as
susceptible to sunspot activity as HF. As with HF communications contact on VHF is also with an
aeradio station radio operator and not directly with ATC but, direct controller/pilot communications
(DCPC) can be arranged on some frequencies.
SELCAL Operation
55.
The requirement for maintaining a continuous listening watch on assigned HF frequency is
not mandatory if a SELCAL watch is maintained and correct operation is ensured. Correct SELCAL
operation is ensured by:
(a)
the inclusion of the SELCAL code in the flight plan;
(b)
the issue of a correction to the SELCAL code if subsequently altered due to change of
aircraft or equipment; and,
(c)
an operational check of the SELCAL equipment with the appropriate radio station at
or before initial entry into oceanic airspace. This SELCAL check must be completed
before commencing SELCAL watch.
(Note. ICAO Doc. 7030 recommends that SELCAL watch on the assigned radio frequency should be
maintained, even in areas of the region where VHF coverage is available and used for air/ground
communications.)
Chapter 5 Page 22

VHF Guard
56.
Pilots operating in the NAT Region are required to monitor continuously the VHF emergency
frequency 121.5MHz except when communicating on other frequencies or when airborne equipment
or cockpit duties do not permit the simultaneous guarding of two channels.
Air-to-Air Communications
57.
Should air-to-air communication be necessary, for example to arrange for the relaying of a
position report after failure of HF communications, it is recommended that initial contact is made on
121.5MHz before exchanging messages on frequency 131.8MHz (Note, this frequency is reserved
for air-to-air communications and the MNPS Operations Manual recommends that aircraft monitor
this frequency also, when flying in NAT airspace).
Radio Failure Procedures

HF Communications Failure
58.
In the event of being unable to make position reports to ATC on any allocated HF
frequencies, pilots should make every effort to relay such reports via other aircraft, using the air-toair procedure described in the previous paragraph. If other ATC facilities are thought to be within
VHF range an attempt should be made to advise them of the failure and request relay to the ATC
facility with whom communications are intended.
59.
Radio failure procedures in MNPS Airspace described in Doc.7030 depend on whether the
failure occurs before entering or while operating within the NAT Region.
Chapter 5 Page 23

Communications Failure Prior to Entering NAT Region
60.
The MNPS Operations Manual recommends that pilots experiencing radio failure whilst
flying in domestic airspace should not enter the OCA but adopt the appropriate domestic
communications failure procedure and land at a suitable airport. However, if the pilot elects to
continue, then to allow ATC to provide adequate separation, one of the following procedures should
be followed:
(a)
if operating with a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance aircraft with radio
failure should enter oceanic airspace at the cleared level and speed at the cleared
oceanic entry point and proceed in accordance with the clearance.
(Any speed or level adjustments required to comply with the clearance must be completed within the
vicinity of the oceanic entry point).
(b)
If operating without a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, enter oceanic

airspace at the first oceanic entry point, level and speed as contained in the filed flight
plan and proceed in accordance with the flight plan to route to landfall. That first
oceanic level and speed must be maintained to landfall.
Communications Failure Prior to Exiting NAT Region

61.
Aircraft cleared by ATC on flight planned route. The aircraft must proceed in accordance
with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, including level and speed, to the last
specified oceanic route point, normally landfall. Then, continue on the filed flight plan route.
Maintain the last assigned oceanic level and speed to landfall and after passing the last specified
oceanic route point conform to relevant State procedures/regulations.
Chapter 5 Page 24

62.
Aircraft cleared by ATC on other than filed flight plan route. Aircraft must proceed in
accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, including level and speed, to
the last specified oceanic route point, normally landfall.
After passing this point conform to relevant State procedures/regulations and rejoin the filed flight
plan route, proceeding if possible via the published ATS route structure to the next significant route
point on the flight plan.
SSR Procedures
63.
Unless otherwise directed by ATC, pilots of aircraft equipped with SSR shall retain the last
assigned Mode A (identity) code for a period of 30 minutes after entry into NAT Airspace and
operate the SSR transponder on Mode A code 2000 after this time.
(Note. The requirement for the continuous operation of Mode C or the use of SSR special purpose
codes 7500, 7600, and 7700 are unaffected by this requirement).
Navigation System Failure Procedures

64.
Some aircraft are equipped with triplex (3) Long Range Navigation Systems (LRNS) and
failure of one system means that MNPS requirements are still met. The following procedures are
applicable to aircraft fitted with only two LRNS.
65.
Failure of one Long Range Navigation System (LRNS) before reaching (MNPS Airspace)/
OCA boundary. The pilot must consider:
(a)
Chapter 5 Page 25
landing at a suitable aerodrome before the boundary or returning to the aerodrome of

departure;

(b)
diverting to a special contingency route (these routes called Blue Spruce Routes are
published for use by aircraft suffering partial loss of navigation capability and follow
closer to land and short range navigation aids);
(c)
obtain a re-clearance below MNPS levels.
66.
Failure of one LRNS after the OCA boundary is crossed. Once the aircraft has entered
oceanic airspace, the pilot should normally continue to operate the aircraft in accordance with the
Oceanic Clearance already received however, the pilot should:
67.
Chapter 5 Page 26
(a)
assess the aircrafts remaining navigation performance and try to obtain ATC
clearance for an appropriate course of action such as, turn-back, flight above or below
MNPS Airspace, or use of a special route;
(b)
continue to monitor the performance of the remaining navigation system, for example
by comparison of compass systems (main and standby), position of other aircraft
(from contrails), and if doubt exists, by comparing wind and track details with aircraft
that should be following the same track.
Failure of remaining LRNS after entering MNPS Airspace. The pilot should:
(a)
notify ATC immediately;
(b)
make the best use of the comparison procedures in the preceding paragraph;
(c)
keep a look-out for possible conflicting aircraft, and make maximum use of external
lights;

(d)
if no instructions are received from ATC within a reasonable time consider climbing or
descending 500ft, broadcasting action taken on 121.5MHz and advising ATC as soon
as possible.
(Note. These procedures should also be followed if when the remaining system gives an indication of
degradation of performance, or neither system fails completely but, the system indications diverge
widely and the defective system cannot be determined.)
68.
Procedure recommended to minimise the effect of a total navigation computer system failure.
If the computer system fails and steering guidance is not available but the basic outputs of latitude
and longitude, drift, and groundspeed remain usable the pilot should consider plotting the navigation
parameters on a suitable chart. The type of actions to follow are:
Chapter 5 Page 27
(a)
draw the cleared route on a suitable chart, extracting mean true tracks between
waypoints;
(b)
use basic IRS/GPS outputs to adjust heading to maintain track and to calculate ETAs;
(c)
at intervals of not more than 15 minutes plot positions on the chart and adjust
heading to regain track.
The Organised Track System (OTS)

69.
As a result of passenger demands, time zone differences and airport noise restrictions, much
of the North Atlantic air traffic contributes to one of two flows; a westbound flow departing Europe
in the morning, and an eastbound flow departing North America in the evening. The effect of these
flows is to concentrate most of the traffic undirectionally, peak westbound traffic occurring between
1130UTC and 1800UTC, peak eastbound traffic between 0100UTC and 0800UTC, at 030W. (This
longitude is the common reference point for OTS/MNPS timing).
70.
Because of the constraints of large horizontal separation criteria and a limited economical
height band (FL 310 390) the airspace is very congested at peak hours. In order to provide the best
service to the bulk of the traffic, a system of organised tracks is constructed every 12 hours to
accommodate as many aircraft as possible on or close to their minimum time tracks.
71.
Airspace utilisation is improved by the use of RVSM procedures. The application of Mach
Number Technique permits further improvement of utilisation along tracks and help to facilitate en
route step-climbs.
72.
Because of the energetic nature of North Atlantic weather systems, including jet streams,
eastbound and westbound minimum time tracks are seldom identical. The creation of a different
organised track system is therefore necessary every 12 hours.
Chapter 5 Page 28
Construction of the Organised Track System

73.
After determination of basic minimum time tracks, with due consideration of airlines
preferred routes and taking into account airspace restrictions such as Danger Areas and military
airspace reservations, the organised track system is constructed by the appropriate Oceanic Area
Control Centre (OAC). The night-time OTS is constructed by Gander OAC and the day-time OTS,
by Shanwick OAC (Prestwick), each taking into account tracks which New York, Reykjavik, Bodo
and/or Santa Maria OACs may require in their Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). In each case OAC
planners consult each other and co-ordinate with adjacent OACs and domestic ATC agencies to
ensure that the proposed system is viable. They also take into account the anticipated requirements
of opposite direction traffic and ensure that sufficient track/flight level profiles are provided to satisfy
anticipated traffic demand. The impact on domestic route structures and the serviceability of
transition area radars and navaids are checked before the system is finalised.
74.
When the expected traffic level justifies it, tracks are established to cater for Europe Caribbean routing. Extra care is required when planning on these routes as they differ slightly form
the core tracks in that they may cross, and in some cases may not extend from coast out to coast in
(necessitating random routing to join or leave). Similarly, tracks may commence at 030W north of
61 N to cater for NAT traffic routing via Reykjavik OCA and northern Canada.
75.
The agreed organised track system is then promulgated as the NAT Track Message via the
Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN) to all interested addressees. A typical time
of publication of the daytime OTS is 0000UTC and of the night-time OTS is 1200UTC. Examples of
both systems showing track and flight level availability are given in Figure 5-3, Figure 5-4,
Figure 5-5 and Figure 5-6.
Chapter 5 Page 29
Planning and Selection of Route

76.
It should be appreciated that the use of OTS tracks is not mandatory. Aircraft may fly on
random routes which remain clear of the OTS, or may fly on any route that leaves or joins the outer
track of the OTS. (Outside OTS operating periods, a random route can also follow a standard OTS
route).
The NAT Track Message

77.
This message gives full details of the co-ordinates of the organised tracks as well as the flight
levels that are expected to be in use on each track. In most cases there are also details of domestic
entry and exit routings associated with individual tracks. In the day-time system the most northerly
track, at its point of origin, is designated Track A (Alpha) and the next most northerly Track B
(Bravo) etc. In the night-time system the most southerly track, at its point of origin, is designated
Track Z (Zulu) and the next most southerly Y etc. The hours of validity of the two Organised
Track System (OTS) are normally as follows:
Chapter 5 Page 30
Day-time OTS
Westbound
1130UTC 1800UTC at 030W
Night-time OTS
Eastbound
0100UTC 0800UTC at 030W

FIGURE 5-3
Example of DayTime Westbound
Organised Track
System (Valid 1130
to 1800UTC at
030W)
Chapter 5 Page 31

FIGURE 5-4
Example of
Westbound NAT
Track Message
Chapter 5 Page 32

FIGURE 5-5
Example of NightTime Eastbound
Organised Track
System (Valid 0100
to 0800 UTC at
030W).
Chapter 5 Page 33

FIGURE 5-6
Example of
Eastbound NAT
Track Message
Chapter 5 Page 34

78.
Interpreting the NAT Track Message. In Figure 5-4, the most northerly track, Alpha, is
routed westbound via 59N 010W, 61N 020W, 61N 030W, 61N 040W, 61N 050W, 60N 060W,
reporting point CIMAT. Westbound, levels available along this track are FL310, 320, 330, 340,
350, 360, 390. There are no eastbound levels. Additional details are added concerning link routes to
Europe or North America. Alpha/numeric details relate to North American Routes (NAR) available.
In the Remarks section, the originating OAC identified each NAT Track Message with a 3-digit
Track Message Identification (TMI) number equivalent to the Julian calender date on which that
OTS is effective. (The Julian calender date is a simple progressions of numbered days, without
reference to months, with numbering starting from the first day of the year, eg. February 1st is
identified by TMI32.
79.
Correct interpretation of the track message by airline dispatchers and aircrews is essential to
both economy of operation and in minimising the possibility of misunderstanding leading to the use
of incorrect track co-ordinates. Oceanic airspace outside the published OTS is available, subject to
separation criteria and NOTAM restrictions. If an operator wishes to file partly or wholly outside
the OTS, knowledge of separation criteria, the forecast upper wind situation and correct
interpretation of the NAT Track Message will assist in judging the feasibility of the planned route.
ATC System Loop Error

80.
An ATC system loop error is any error caused by a misunderstanding between the pilot and
the controller regarding the assigned flight level, Mach No, or route to be followed. Such errors can
arise from incorrect interpretation of the NAT Track Message by dispatcher, errors in co-ordination
between OACs or misinterpretation of Oceanic Clearances or re-clearances by pilots.
Chapter 5 Page 35
OTS Changeover Periods

81.
To ensure a smooth transition from night to day track systems and vice-versa, a period of
several hours is interposed between the termination of one system and the commencement of the
next. These periods are from 0801 to 1129 UTC and from 1801 to 0059 UTC, (ie, between the OTS
validity periods).
82.
Flights within this period are required to file random route flight plans.
Selection of Cruising Levels

83.
During the OTS periods (eastbound 0100 - 0800 UTC, westbound 1130 - 1800 UTC) aircraft
intending to follow an OTS track for its entire length may plan at any of the levels as published for
that track on the current daily OTS message (normally within the bound FL310 to FL390 inclusive at
1000ft intervals).
84.
Flights which are planned to remain clear of the OTS or which join or leave an OTS track (ie.
follow an OTS track for only part of its published length) and flights which are outside the OTS
periods, should normally plan flight level(s) appropriate to the direction of the flight.
85.
Under the implementation of RVSM within MNPS Airspace, the system known as the Flight
Level Allocation System (FLAS) allocates approximate direction levels as follows:
Chapter 5 Page 36
(a)
Appropriate Direction Eastbound Levels - FL270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 390, 410,
450 etc.
(b)
Appropriate Direction Westbound Levels - FL260, 280, 320, 340, 360, 380, 430, 470
etc.

Note. Current AIPs may specify some exceptions to these levels both inside and outside OTS
periods. Reference must therefore be made to current AIPs when planning such flights as level
restrictions may be imposed.
86.
Random route flights which cross 030W just prior to the start of the next OTS period and
which are opposite to that periods flow have only a limited allocation of levels. Specifically,
eastbound flights crossing at 1030 UTC or later have FLs 290, 350, 370, 410 allocated and
westbound flights crossing at 2200 UTC or later have FLs 280, 320, 340, 380, 410 allocated.
Preferred Route Message (PRM)

87.
As part of the daily planning of the OTS, oceanic planners take into consideration operators
preferred routes. Aircraft operators are therefore required to provide a Preferred Route Message
(PRM) indicating the number of turbo-jet flights and routes likely to be requested during each of the
main traffic periods. The westbound (daytime) PRM must be submitted no later than 1900 UTC and
the eastbound (night time) PRM no later than 1000 UTC.
The Polar Track Structure

88.
A Polar Track Structure (PTS), consisting of 10 fixed tracks in Reykjavik CTA and 5 fixed
tracks through Bodo OCA has been established. The PTS tracks through Bodo OCA constitute a
continuation of relevant PTS tracks in Reykjavik CTA (see Figure 5-7).
Chapter 5 Page 37

FIGURE 5-7
Polar Track
Structure
Chapter 5 Page 38

89.
Although not mandatory, flights planning to operate on the Europe-Alaska axis at FL 310390 inclusive are recommended to submit flight plans in accordance with one of the promulgated
PTS tracks.
Flight Plans
90.
If (and only if) the flight is planned to operate the whole length of one of the polar tracks, the
intended track should be defined in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation PTS plus the
track number. All other flights are considered to be random route flights and full track details must
be specified.
91.
The requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at the start of the PTS or at
the NAT Oceanic boundary. Each point at which a Mach number or flight level change is planned
must be specified as latitude and longitude followed in each case by PTS and the track code.
Abbreviated Clearances
92.
An abbreviated clearance may be used when clearing an aircraft to follow one of the polar
tracks throughout its flight within the Reykjavik CTA and/or the Bodo OCA. When an abbreviated
clearance is issued it shall include:
the cleared track specified by the track code:
the cleared flight level(s); and
the cleared Mach Number. (if required).
93.
On receipt of an abbreviated clearance the pilot shall read back the contents of the clearance
message and in addition the full details of the track specified by the track code.
Chapter 5 Page 39
Abbreviated Position Reports

94.
When operating on the PTS within the Reykjavik CTA and/or Bodo OCA position reports
may be abbreviated by replacing the normal latitude co-ordinate with the word Polar followed by
the track code.
For example: Position Japanair 422 Polar Romeo 20W/1620, estimating Polar Romeo 40W/1718
Flight Level 330, next Polar Romeo 69W.
95.
Unless otherwise required by air traffic services a position report must be made at the
significant points listed in the appropriate AIP for the relevant PTS track.
Additional Information on the PTS

96.
Further information on PTS procedures, track co-ordinates etc, is contained in AIP Iceland/
Norway and/or Icelandic/Norwegian NOTAMs.
Chapter 5 Page 40
Polar Navigation
Specific Problems
Navigation-Contingency Procedures
Steering By Directional Gyro (DG)
Grid Navigation
Polar Navigation
Polar Navigation
Specific Problems
1.
Flight at high latitudes near to the North (or South) Pole requires careful planning because of
specific problems associated with polar navigation. Even with modern navigation systems difficulties
can arise and diligent monitoring of navigation systems is essential so that any errors can be
corrected quickly. Contingency procedures should be available to the flight crew to overcome the
special problems resulting from navigation systems failure in high latitudes.
2.
Chapter 6 Page 1
Types of problem associated with polar navigation:

(a)
Horizontal component of Earth magnetism weak. Proximity to the north magnetic

pole means that the horizontal (directional) component of the Earths magnetic field is
sufficiently weak to make magnetic compass systems unreliable or useless. (In
addition because the vertical component of the field is strong, the angle of dip on a
compass magnet or magnetic sensor is increased resulting in increased turning and
acceleration errors). In the absence of INS, steering by directional gyro becomes
necessary in these areas. Figure 6-1 illustrates the general area of compass
unreliability.
(b)
Variation changes. Large changes of magnetic variation are likely in Polar Regions
because of the proximity to the magnetic pole.
Polar Navigation
(c)
Longitude changes. Rapid changes of longitude occur when operating close to the
geographic north (and south) Poles and short distance errors can result in large
positional errors.
(d)
Convergence of meridians. Near to the Pole the convergence of meridians means that
an aircraft in flight will experience rapid changes in the direction of true north. This
effect causes the direction of great circle tracks to change rapidly and in the absence of
a modern INS the use of an alternative north reference and grid navigation is required.
Convergence of meridians also creates the problem of Transport Precession (also
called Transport Wander) when using a Directional Gyro for heading reference.
Chapter 6 Page 2
(e)
Gyro drift corrections. Operations close to the Pole using Directional Gyros result in
the need for high rates of gyro correction for the apparent drift due to the rotation of
the Earth (this is normally called Earth Rate but is also known as Astronomic
Precession).
(f)
General environment. The polar region is large and lacks suitable alternate
aerodromes, short-range navigation and communication (VHF) facilities, and
hospitable terrain. Thule airport, for example, in Greenland, is the nearest aerodrome
to the North Pole that is suitable for a large turbojet aeroplane but is approximately
810nm from the Pole and is inside the compass unreliability area.
Polar Navigation
Navigation-Contingency Procedures
3.
When operating with modern long-range navigation systems normal navigation in Polar
Regions should not present any undue problems. However, in an aircraft fitted with two LRNS, if
one system should fail, contingency procedures should be adopted in case the second system should
also fail. If this were to occur, the crew would then have to contend with some of the problems
summarised in paragraph 2.
Magnetic Compass Reliability

4.
The extent of the compass unreliable area is shown at Figure 6-1. Aircraft operating in this
area cannot rely on the accuracy of compass systems that either sense or seek, magnetic north.
Therefore, slaved gyro magnetic systems cease to be reliable, and direct reading standby compasses
are likely to be subject to large errors. Aircraft needing to revert to basic navigation or to use
contingency procedures are obliged therefore, to operate with a Directional Gyro heading reference.
Chapter 6 Page 3
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-1
Compass
Unreliable Area
Chapter 6 Page 4
Polar Navigation
5.
Reversionary procedures in the event of a failure of the aircrafts primary navigation systems
are likely to include steering the aircraft by Directional Gyro and the adoption of Grid Navigation
techniques.
Steering By Directional Gyro (DG)

6.
Should it become necessary to steer by reference DG, two main factors must be taken into
account:
(a)
Earth Rate (Astronomic) precession;
(b)
Transport precession (Transport Wander);
Earth Rate Precession

7.
The main property of a gyroscope, on which steering by gyro reference relies, is rigidity in
space. A directional gyro is a freely mounted gyroscope whose spin axis is maintained in the
horizontal plane (of the Earth). The property of rigidity means that the spin axis of the gyro defines a
fixed direction with respect to space (as opposed to the Earth). Therefore, since the Earth is rotating
on its own axis in space, the spin axis of a gyro will appear to change direction proportional to the
rate of Earth rotation (Earth Rate). At the Poles this apparent drift rate is 15.04 deg/hr but at any
other latitude it is 15.04 x sine latitude deg/hr. This problem is present whether a directional gyro is
on the ground or in an aircraft in flight.
Chapter 6 Page 5
Polar Navigation
8.
A directional gyro aligned initially with the local meridian (true north) will appear therefore
to drift from this direction, due to Earth Rate, at 15.04 x sine latitude deg/hr. The sense of this
apparent drift is described as negative in the Northern Hemisphere because it causes the gyro to
underread the correct true heading. The effect is the opposite and therefore positive in the Southern
Hemisphere. The effect of Earth Rate is illustrated in Figure 6-2.
FIGURE 6-2
Effect of Earth
Rate
9.
At the Equator Earth Rate has no effect, (sine 0 = 0) because meridians at the Equator are
parallel to the spin axis of the Earth.
Chapter 6 Page 6
Polar Navigation
Effect of ER - Aircraft Stationary on Ground
10.
The effect, of Earth Rate, on the DG of an aircraft that is stationary on the ground and
pointing in a fixed direction, with respect to local true north, is to cause the heading output to reduce
(in the Northern Hemisphere) at the rate of 15.04 x sine lat deg/hr. In the Southern Hemisphere the
DG reading would increase due to ER.
Effect of ER - Aircraft in Flight

11.
The effect of Earth Rate on the DG of an aircraft in flight that is maintaining a constant DG
indicated heading is to cause the gyro indicated heading to under read the correct true heading in the
Northern Hemisphere and to overread the true heading in the Southern Hemisphere. The flight path
of an aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere would therefore turn continually to the right at the
appropriate rate and in the Southern Hemisphere the turn would be to the left.
The effect of ER on an aircraft in flight maintaining a constant DG indicated heading is illustrated in
Figure 6-3(a) and Figure 6-3(b).
Chapter 6 Page 7
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-3
(a) Effect of Earth
Rate on DG Northern
Hemisphere
(b) Effect of Earth
Rate on DG Southern
Hemisphere
Chapter 6 Page 8
Polar Navigation
Correcting for Earth Rate

12.
The correction for ER can be applied either as an induced precession in the opposite sense to
ER (known as a latitude correction) or, by adjusting the aircraft heading to allow for the progressive
error in the actual true heading of the aircraft.
Chapter 6 Page 9
Polar Navigation
13.
Automatic correction for Earth Rate. In the Northern Hemisphere the effect of ER is to cause
a Directional Gyro to under read the true heading and therefore a precession correction in the
positive sense is required. When such an hourly rate corrector is fitted, the flight crew are required to
set it to the correct latitude and to reset as necessary (in high latitudes this could mean resetting the
corrector at least every 20 minutes). The output of the corrector results in real precession of the spin
axis of the DG so as to cancel out the effect of ER.
14.
When set to a southerly latitude the correction device produces a negative precession to
counteract the positive ER in the Southern Hemisphere.
15.
An alternative method of correcting for ER is to turn the aircraft at the appropriate opposite
rate. When operating near to the Pole (i.e. in latitudes 70deg and above) the value of ER can be
assumed for practical purposes to be 15 deg/hr. Since the effect of ER on an aircraft steering a
constant DG reading in the Northern Hemisphere is to increase true heading by 15 deg/hr, the
correction would involve turning the aircraft left by the same amount. Such a correction could be
achieved by turning left 5 deg every 20 minutes.
Transport Precession
16.
Transport Precession (also called Transport Wander) is the apparent drift of a DG caused by
being transported across meridians. The effect of Transport Precession varies with both the
hemisphere and heading direction and is illustrated in principle in Figure 6-4(a) to (d).
Chapter 6 Page 10
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-4
Chapter 6 Page 11
Polar Navigation
17.
Figure 6-4(a) shows that when the aircraft is travelling in a direction with an easterly
component in the Northern Hemisphere, the DG will under read the correct true heading. An aircraft
maintaining a constant DG heading will therefore turn progressively to the right as the actual true
heading increases.
18.
Figure 6-4 (b) shows the effect of an aircraft maintaining a DG heading with a westerly
component in the Northern Hemisphere. In this case the DG overreads the correct true heading and
the aircraft will turn progressively towards the left of its intended track.
19.
Figure 6-4 (c) and (d) illustrate the effect of Transport Precession in the Southern Hemisphere.
It can be seen that the sense of the effect is opposite to that of the Northern Hemisphere, in that the
DG overreads true heading when being transported eastwards and under reads true heading when
being transported westwards.
20.
Calculation of Transport Precession. The magnitude of Transport Precession in terms of
degrees per hour is a function of the aircrafts rate of crossing meridians (change of longitude in
degrees per hour) and therefore depends on its ground speed and track direction as well as the
latitude. (It should be apparent therefore that for a given speed and direction, meridians will be
crossed more rapidly at high latitudes, and the effect of this error is therefore greater).
The value of Transport Precession can be calculated from the formula;
G S Comp ( East West ) ( kt ) tan lat
Transport Precession (deg/hr) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
Chapter 6 Page 12
Polar Navigation
21.
The combined effect of Earth Rate (Astronomic Precession) and Transport Precession can
therefore be calculated and a suitable correction applied to a Directional Gyro so that it remains
aligned with local true north and indicates true heading. If only an Earth Rate correction is applied to
a DG it will remain in alignment with the meridian to which it was aligned originally. This property
is suitable for use with grid navigation
Grid Navigation
22.
Convergence of meridians near to the Poles means that conventional navigation without the
aid of modern automatic systems is limited by the rapid changes in the direction of true north as an
aircraft crosses successive meridians. (To illustrate the magnitude of the problem, an aircraft flying in
an east-west direction at 80N at a speed of 200kt will experience a 5 degree change in the direction
of true north every 15 minutes.) An alternative to the true north reference system is required.
23.
Grid navigation involves the use of a conventional chart based on the Polar Stereographic or
Lamberts Conformal Conic projections which is overprinted with a grid. The grid is normally
printed with parallel lines at 60nm or 100nm intervals. Grid north is therefore the same direction all
over the chart. In North Polar areas grid charts normally are arranged with Grid North parallel to
true north at the Greenwich Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian is therefore described as the Grid
Datum Meridian. The appearance of a Lamberts Chart overprinted with grid lines is illustrated at
Figure 6-5 and that of a Polar Stereographic Chart at Figure 6-6.
Chapter 6 Page 13
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-5
Example of
Gridded Lamberts
Chart
Chapter 6 Page 14
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-6
Gridded Polar
Stereographic
Chart
Chapter 6 Page 15
Polar Navigation
24.
Tracks (and radio bearings) plotted on the grid chart as straight lines can be considered to be
great circles because the base chart is either a Polar Stereographic or a Lamberts projection on which
a straight line will represent a great circle, without significant error.
Grid Convergence
25.
The angular difference between true north and grid north is called grid convergence. It can be
seen that this difference is equivalent on a Polar Stereographic chart to the difference of longitude
between the Grid Datum meridian and the local meridian.
On a Lamberts chart the convergence value must be calculated from the difference of longitude
multiplied by the chart convergence factor. The equation may be written as:
Lamberts chart convergence = dlong (deg) x convergence factor
(Note. Convergence factor is the sine of the parallel of origin of the projection and can be expressed
as convergence factor or, constant of the cone or, n.)
26.
The sense (east or west) of grid convergence determines whether it must be added or
subtracted from true direction to convert to grid direction. Convergence is described as east when
true north is to the east of grid north and west when true north is west of grid north. This
arrangement is illustrated in Figure 6-7 and Figure 6-8.
Chapter 6 Page 16
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-7
Convergence East
Chapter 6 Page 17
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-8
Convergence
West
27.
Grid direction can be calculated from true using the following equation:
Grid direction = True direction + Convergence East

- Convergence West
28.
For operations in the North Polar Region where the grid datum is the Greenwich Meridian a
simple rule of thumb method of determining grid track from true track direction is:
Grid track = True track + Longitude West
- Longitude East
Chapter 6 Page 18
Polar Navigation
Heading references
Directional Gyro
29.
In Polar areas where magnetic compass systems are unreliable and INS is not available,
steering by Directional Gyro (DG) is necessary. Providing the DG is corrected for Earth Rate
(Astronomic Precession) its output will remain referenced to the initial alignment direction. In grid
navigation this alignment will be to grid north.
A correction for Transport precession is not required in grid navigation because the grid lines on the
chart do not converge.
Magnetic Reference
30.
Further away from the Poles, magnetic compass systems can be used for reference when using
a grid navigation technique, providing the output of a gyro-magnetic compass system is corrected to
give grid headings.
31.
In this case, the conversion from magnetic north to grid north is a combination of magnetic
variation and grid convergence. The sum of the two corrections is called Grivation and is
annotated as east or west as appropriate, based on the two components The following equation
illustrates the relationship between grid and magnetic directions:
Grid direction = Magnetic direction + Variation E +Convergence E
- Variation W - Convergence W
Chapter 6 Page 19
Polar Navigation
32.
Lines of equal grivation (isogrivs) are plotted on gridded charts, in the same way as isogonals.
When operating a compass based on magnetic north, the value of grivation can therefore be inserted
at the variation setting control to give a grid heading output.
33.
Two examples showing the relationship between magnetic, true and grid north are illustrated
inFigure 6-9 and Figure 6-10.
FIGURE 6-9
Effect of Variation,
Convergence and
Grivation
Chapter 6 Page 20
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-10
Effect of Variation,
Convergence and
Grivation
34.
Some examples of problems including conversions to grid from magnetic and true are given
below:
Chapter 6 Page 21
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft in position 75N 075W obtains a bearing of 290(M) from a VOR. Grid navigation is
being used, based on a Polar Stereographic chart on which the Greenwich meridian is the grid
datum. The variation at the VOR is 35 W. Convert the VOR bearing to a bearing to plot from
grid north.
SOLUTION
See Figure 6-11.
Step 1. Convert magnetic bearing to true.
290(M) - 35W = 255(T)
Step 2. Determine value of convergence.
Difference of longitude 75
TN east of GN
Step 3. Apply convergence to true bearing.
Chapter 6 Page 22
255(T) + 75E = 330(G).
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-11
Alternative solution using grivation is:

Grid convergence is 75E, variation is 35W, and therefore grivation is 40E.
Grid bearing from the VOR = 290(M) + 40E
= 330 (G)
Chapter 6 Page 23
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-2
EXAMPLE
At aerodrome X the runway QDM is 310 deg; local variation is 2W; the position is 61N 150W;
assuming the Grid datum is based on the Greenwich meridian, calculate the runway direction in
Grid.
SOLUTION
Grid convergence is 150E, variation is 2W, therefore grivation is 148E.
Runway direction (G) = 310(M) + 148E
= 458(G)
= 458 360
= 098(G)
[Rule of Thumb solution Runway grid direction = 308(T) + Longitude west.
= 308 + 150
= 458 - (360)
= 098(G)]
Chapter 6 Page 24
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-3
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is at position 80N 150W and is making good a track of 330 (T). Express this track
in degrees grid assuming that a polar stereographic chart is being used and that the chart is overlaid
with a grid which is aligned with the Greenwich meridian.
SOLUTION
See Figure 6-12.
Convergence is equal to the change of longitude between the datum meridian and the meridian in
question (150) and by inspection is easterly. The true track direction is therefore less than the grid
track direction by 150, and the grid track is in this case (330 + 150) = 120 (G).
Chapter 6 Page 25
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-12
[Rule of Thumb solution Grid track = True track + Longitude west

= 330 + 150
= 480 (-360)
= 120(G)]
Chapter 6 Page 26
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-4
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is in position 60N 037W heading 260(T). Grid navigation technique is being used on a
Lamberts chart with a grid datum based on the Greenwich Meridian. The convergence factor of
the chart is .788. Calculate the grid heading of the aircraft.
SOLUTION
Grid convergence is the value of chart convergence between
000E/W and 037W.
Using the equation:

chart convergence = dlong x convergence factor
Grid convergence = 37 x .788
= 29
and, by inspection, true north is east of grid north at the aircraft position, therefore the
convergence is east.
Chapter 6 Page 27
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-13
Therefore,
Grid heading = 260(T) + 29E
= 289 (G)
Chapter 6 Page 28
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-5
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is in position 70S 140W heading 045(T). Navigation is on a Polar Stereographic chart
which is overprinted with a grid based on the 180E/W meridian. Calculate the grid heading of the
aircraft.
Grid convergence is 40 (dlong between 180E/W and 140W)
True north is east of grid north, therefore the convergence is east.
Grid heading = 045(T) + 40E
= 085(G)
The diagram at Figure 6-14 illustrates the geometry of the situation.
Chapter 6 Page 29
Polar Navigation
FIGURE 6-14
[Alternative Rule of Thumb solution for Southern Hemisphere Grid heading = True heading + (180 - Longitude West
+ Longitude East
= 045 + 40
= 085(G)]
Chapter 6 Page 30
Polar Navigation
EXAMPLE 6-6
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is in position 70N 020E navigating on a Polar Stereographic chart, the grid datum is
000E/W. If the current grid heading is 310, calculate the true heading.
SOLUTION
FIGURE 6-15
Chapter 6 Page 31
Polar Navigation
Grid heading = True heading + Convergence E
- Convergence W
Convergence is 20
TN is west of GN so convergence is west, therefore
310(G) = True heading - 20W
True heading = 310 + 20
= 330(T)
[Rule of Thumb solution Grid heading = True heading - Longitude East
310 = True - 20, therefore
True Heading = 310 + 20
= 330(T)]
Chapter 6 Page 32
Polar Navigation
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
State which ICAO document contains details of transoceanic procedures.
QUESTION 2.
What do the letters MNPSA stand for.
QUESTION 3.
Define the following abbreviations: OCA, OTS, MASPS, RVSM, WATRS.
QUESTION 4.
State the lateral limits of Class A airspace in the North Atlantic region.
QUESTION 5.
State the vertical limits of Class A airspace in the North Atlantic region.
QUESTION 6.
State the lateral limits of MNPS airspace.
QUESTION 7.
State the vertical limits of MNPS airspace
Chapter 6 Page 33
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 8.
State the certification requirements for an aeroplane to operate in MNPS airspace.
QUESTION 9.
State the minimum vertical separation in RVSM airspace.
QUESTION 10.
Describe the method of defining significant points on the ATS flight plan for flights in a
predominantly east/west direction.
south of latitude 70N
north of latitude 70N
QUESTION 11.
Describe the method of defining significant points on the ATS flight plan for flights predominantly in
a north/south direction.
QUESTION 12.
State the maximum flight time between significant points.
QUESTION 13.
Describe the type of track that should be planned between significant points.
Chapter 6 Page 34
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 14.
State the method of indicating on the ATS flight plan that the flight is certified for MNPS ops.
QUESTION 15.
State how the cruising speed for a turbo-jet aeroplane must be entered in the ATS flight plan for flight
in the OCAs of NAT airspace.
QUESTION 16.
Describe the procedure for entering the route, on the ATS flight plan, when it is wholly within the
OTS.
QUESTION 17.
State the latest time of submission of flight plans for flights intending to enter the NAT region.
QUESTION 18.
State the general minimum navigation performance requirements for unrestricted MNPS operation in
terms of track error expressed in nautical miles and as an equivalent RNP value.
QUESTION 19.
State the MNPS navigation systems specification.
QUESTION 20.
Describe what systems constitute long range navigation systems.
Chapter 6 Page 35
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 21.
State what action should be planned by aeroplanes which do not have MNPS approval or which are
unable to meet MNPS requirements.
QUESTION 22.
Define GNE.
QUESTION 23.
State in which areas VORs are referenced to true north.
QUESTION 24.
Describe from general knowledge some possible indications of navigation system degradation.
QUESTION 25.
Describe what action may be taken when a discrepancy exists between two independent navigation
systems.
QUESTION 26.
Describe the meaning of the term composite separation.
QUESTION 27.
State the minimum lateral separation in the NAT region as defined in DOC 7030 for flights which
meet MNPS requirements in, above or below MNPS airspace.
Chapter 6 Page 36
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 28.
State the minimum lateral separation in the NAT region between non-MNPS certificated aeroplanes.
QUESTION 29.
Describe the technique used to maintain longitudinal separation between subsonic turbo-jet
aeroplanes in MNPS airspace.
QUESTION 30.
State the minimum time separation between aeroplanes on the same track with the same Mach
number.
QUESTION 31.
Describe how separation may be reduced using Mach number technique.
QUESTION 32.
State the minimum longitudinal separation between aircraft where Mach number technique is not
used.
QUESTION 33.
State when an abbreviated clearance may be used.
QUESTION 34.
Describe the basic content of an abbreviated clearance.
Chapter 6 Page 37
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 35.
State what minimum change in ETA for the Oceanic entry point (or any other ETA) must be reported
to ATC.
QUESTION 36.
State where position reports should be made and how position is described in MNPS airspace.
when flying routes not defined by designated points
east-west flights
north-south flights
QUESTION 37.
State when position reports should be copied to adjacent OCAs
QUESTION 38.
Describe the procedure to be followed if a flight is unable to continue in accordance with its current
ATC clearance and prior clearance for a deviation cannot be obtained by RT.
QUESTION 39.
Describe the actions required if following a deviation, the aircraft is unable to obtain a revised ATC
clearance.
Chapter 6 Page 38
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 40.
Describe the actions required when diverting from an assigned track in MNPS airspace when:
the aircraft can maintain assigned level
the aircraft is unable to maintain assigned level
QUESTION 41.
State the primary means of air/ground communications when in NAT airspace.
QUESTION 42.
State how messages are received by ATC controllers.
QUESTION 43.
List the items which comprise the correct operation of SELCAL.
QUESTION 44.
State the frequency reserved only for air to air communications in MNPS airspace and which other
frequency must be guarded.
QUESTION 45.
Describe the procedure to be used for communicating with ATC when HF fails when out of range of
VHF station.
Chapter 6 Page 39
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 46.
Describe the procedure to be adopted when radio failure occurs.
prior to entering the NAT region.
prior to leaving the NAT region.
QUESTION 47.
State the SSR procedures applicable to entry and operation within NAT airspace.
QUESTION 48.
Describe the procedures to be adopted when.
one LRNS fails before reaching the MNPS airspace (OCA) boundary
one LRNS fails after entering MNPS airspace
remaining LRNS fails after entering MNPS airspace.
QUESTION 49.
In the OTS, state the reference longitude for all timing.
QUESTION 50.
State the hours of validity of westbound and eastbound tracks.
QUESTION 51.
State how step climbs may be facilitated.
Chapter 6 Page 40
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 52.
Describe the OTS track lettering system.
QUESTION 53.
State how routes which do not follow the OTS are described.
QUESTION 54.
State what routes must be planned outside OTS periods.
QUESTION 55.
State in general the system of levels used for flights which only use part of the OTS or which operate
outside OTS periods.
QUESTION 56.
Describe an ATC system loop error.
QUESTION 57.
State the latest time for submission of a PRM.
QUESTION 58.
Describe in general the PTS.
QUESTION 59.
State whether adherence to the PTS at FL310 390 is mandatory.
Chapter 6 Page 41
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 60.
Describe how a PTS track should be entered in the ATC flight plan.
QUESTION 61.
State how cruising speed should be entered in the ATC flight plan.
QUESTION 62.
Explain why magnetic compasses become unreliable in polar zones.
QUESTION 63.
Describe the general problems associated with polar navigation.
QUESTION 64.
Describe the main reversionary procedure used in polar areas when the primary navigation systems
fail.
QUESTION 65.
State the drift rate of a directional gyro due to earth rate (astronomical precession).
QUESTION 66.
Describe the effect of earth rate on a DG output when the aircraft is stationary on the ground.
Chapter 6 Page 42
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 67.
Describe the effect of earth rate drift on an aircraft maintaining a constant heading using an
uncorrected gyro.
QUESTION 68.
State the formula for calculating the apparent drift due to transport precession and describe its effect.
QUESTION 69.
State why an alternative to a true north reference is required in polar areas.
QUESTION 70.
State the formula for calculating chart convergence on:
Lamberts Conformal
Polar Stereographic
QUESTION 71.
Show the relationship between grid and true direction.
QUESTION 72.
Show how a compass heading can be converted to grid.
Chapter 6 Page 43
Polar Navigation
QUESTION 73.
Solve the following problem:
An aircraft in position 75N 075W obtains a bearing of 290(M) from a VOR. Grid navigation is
being used, based on a Polar Stereographic chart with the Greenwich Meridian as the grid datum.
Variation at the VOR is 35W. Convert the VOR bearing to a bearing to plot from true north.
QUESTION 74.
Calculate the grid direction of the runway at airport X where the runway QDM is 310, variation is
2W, and the position is 61N 150W. The grid on a Polar Stereographic chart is based on the
Greenwich Meridian.
QUESTION 75.
Calculate the grid heading of an aircraft in position 70S 140W heading 045(T). Navigation is on a
Polar Stereographic chart with a grid datum of 180E/W.
Chapter 6 Page 44
Polar Navigation
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-1 Para 1
ANSWER 2.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-3 Para 5
ANSWER 3.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-3/5 Para 8-11
ANSWER 4.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-2 Para 4
ANSWER 5.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-2 Para 4
Chapter 6 Page 45
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 6.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-3 Para 8
ANSWER 7.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-3 Para 7
ANSWER 8.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-3 Para 6
ANSWER 9.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-5 Para 10
ANSWER 10.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-5/6 Para 13/14
Chapter 6 Page 46
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 11.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-5/6 Para 16
ANSWER 12.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-5/5 Para 15
ANSWER 13.
0171 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-5 Para 12
ANSWER 14.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-6 Para 17
ANSWER 15.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-6 Para 18
Chapter 6 Page 47
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 16.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-6 Para 19
ANSWER 17.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-7 Para 20
ANSWER 18.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-7 Para 21
ANSWER 19.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-7 Para 22
ANSWER 20.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-7 Para 22
Chapter 6 Page 48
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 21.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-7 Para 22
ANSWER 22.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-8 Para 23
ANSWER 23.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-8 Para 25
ANSWER 24.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-8 Para 24/25
(system computed wind velocity value changes significantly, sudden change in ETA, steering demand
(heading required) significantly different from navigation flight plan).
ANSWER 25.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-8 Para 25
Chapter 6 Page 49
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 26.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-9 Para 27
(Note: Annex 11 describes composite separation as a combination of vertical and either lateral or
longitudinal separation using minima which may be lower, but not less than half of those which
apply normally to each type alone. This type of separation is only applied on the basis of regional air
navigation agreement).
ANSWER 27.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-9 Para 28
ANSWER 28.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-9 Para 28
ANSWER 29.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-9 Para 29
Chapter 6 Page 50
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 30.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-9 Para 30
ANSWER 31.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-10 Para 30
ANSWER 32.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-10 Para 30
ANSWER 33.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-11 Para 32
ANSWER 34.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-11 Para 32
Chapter 6 Page 51
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 35.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-11 Para 35
ANSWER 36.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-11 Para 36-41
ANSWER 37.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-12 Para 42
ANSWER 38.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-12 Para 47
ANSWER 39.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-12 Para 48
Chapter 6 Page 52
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 40.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-14/15 Para 49-51
ANSWER 41.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-15 Para 52
ANSWER 42.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-16 Para 52
ANSWER 43.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-16 Para 55
ANSWER 44.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-17 Para 57
Chapter 6 Page 53
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 45.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-17 Para 58
ANSWER 46.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-17/18 Para 60/61
ANSWER 47.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-18 Para 63
ANSWER 48.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-18/19 Para 65-67
ANSWER 49.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-20 Para 69
Chapter 6 Page 54
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 50.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-15 Para 69
ANSWER 51.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-15 Para 71 & 5-10 Para 31
ANSWER 52.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-25 Para 77
ANSWER 53.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-25 Para 76
ANSWER 54.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-26 Para 81
Chapter 6 Page 55
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 55.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-27 Para 84/85
ANSWER 56.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-26 Para 80
ANSWER 57.
071 01 03 03
Chap 5 5-27 Para 87
ANSWER 58.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-28 Para 88
ANSWER 59.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-30 Para 89
Chapter 6 Page 56
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 60.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-30 Para 90
ANSWER 61.
071 01 03 02
Chap 5 5-30 Para 91
ANSWER 62.
071 01 03 02
Chap 6 6-1 paragraph 2
ANSWER 63.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 64.
071 01 03 02
Chapter 6 Page 57
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 65.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 66.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 67.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 68.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 69.
071 01 03 02
Chapter 6 Page 58
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 70.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 71.
071 01 03 02
ANSWER 72.
071 01 03 02
Chap 6 6-12 Para paragraph 31-33
ANSWER 73.
071 01 03 02
Chap 6 6-13 Example 6-1
ANSWER 74.
071 01 03 02
Chapter 6 Page 59
Polar Navigation
ANSWER 75.
071 01 03 02
Chapter 6 Page 60

Minimum Equipment List
Aeroplane Flight Manual
Aeroplane De-Icing and Anti-Icing
Bird Strike Risk and Avoidance
Noise Abatement Procedures
Fire and Smoke Procedures
Decompression of the Pressurised Cabin
Minimum Equipment List

1.
The operator is required to establish for each aeroplane a minimum equipment list (MEL).
The MEL must be approved by the State of the operator.
2.
The MEL must be based on the master minimum equipment list (MMEL) produced by the
organisation responsible for the type design of the aeroplane and approved by the State of design.
3.
The operator is required to include the MEL in the operations manual.
4.
The primary function of the MEL is to enable the pilot-in-command to determine whether a
flight may be commenced or, continued from any intermediate stop, should any instrument,
equipment or systems become inoperative.
5.
The operator is not permitted to operate an aeroplane other than in accordance with the MEL
unless permitted by the Authority.
Aeroplane Flight Manual

6.
ICAO Annex 8 (Airworthiness Standards) requires that aeroplanes of over 5700kg maximum
certificated take-off weight have an aeroplane flight manual (AFM). The AFM must identify clearly
the specific aeroplane or series of aeroplanes with which it is related.
7.
Chapter 7 Page 1
The items which must be included in the AFM are:
Chapter 7 Page 2
(a)
operating limitations;
(b)
loading limitations;
(c)
airspeed limitations;
(d)
powerplant limitations;
(e)
limitations on equipment and systems;
(f)
other specified limitations concerning safety;
(g)
flight crew limitations;
(h)
flying time limitations after system or power unit failure in the case of ETOPS
aeroplanes;
(i)
operating information and procedures including:
loading - empty mass, condition of the aeroplane at the time of weighing, the
corresponding C of G position and the reference point(s)/datum lines to which
the C of G limits are related.
operating procedures - normal and emergency
handing information - including any significant or unusual features and stalling speeds
performance information and guidance
requirements for markings and placards.
Aeroplane De-Icing and Anti-Icing

Ice and Snow on the Ground
8.
Any deposits of ice, snow or frost on the external surfaces of an aircraft can have a drastic
effect on performance and must be removed before flight.
Hoar Frost
9.
Hoar frost forms when air is cooled and water vapour deposits directly on to surfaces which
are at or below the frost point of the air. The process is given the name sublimation although the
more accurate term is deposition. Hoar frost is a white crystalline coating and can form on all
surfaces. The atmospheric conditions required for Hoar frost are dry air (so that the Dew point is
below 0C) and conditions which allow maximum cooling (night, clear skies, light/calm wind, land
surface). Such conditions are most likely in anticyclonic or col weather systems in winter.
Clear Ice
10.
Clear ice can form on an aircraft on the ground in a number of ways. However, all processes
have in common the requirement for water droplets which are either supercooled (ie. liquid but
below 0C) or are cooled to below 0C in contact with the aircraft.
11.
Small droplets such as those formed in fog which has cooled to below zero (freezing fog) or
when the airframe is just below zero tend to produce rime. This type of ice on the ground forms
when small droplets freeze quickly, trapping air and becomes a white crystalline build up,
particularly on the windward side of surfaces.
Chapter 7 Page 3

12.
Larger droplets tend to spread over the airframe before solidifying resulting in a clear and
sometimes thick, dense deposit of ice. Freezing rain or rain falling on to surfaces below 0C can
induce such ice formation. The passage of a cold front or cold occlusion when cold conditions are
likely to allow the ice to persist.
Snow and Slush

13.
Snow is typically associated with frontal cloud, nimbostratus, cumulus and stratocumulus. It
can reach the ground when the surface temperature is below about +4C. Large snowflakes form
when the temperature is just below 0C becoming powdery at lower temperatures. Snow which is
starting to melt to give slush is easily removed but when sprayed up from the wheels can coat the
under surface of an aeroplane subsequently freezing to structures on further cooling (in-flight for
example).
Effects of Ice and Snow

On the Ground
14.
Hoar frost can obscure visibility on windscreens, coat aerials and interfere with radio
reception and restrict control movement. Furthermore, the roughness of the frosted surface can
reduce aerodynamic performance and delay the attainment of flying speed on take-off, in addition it
will provide a good basis for further ice formation in flight.
15.
Clear ice is dense, heavy and is more difficult to remove. Similar problems to those caused by
hoar frost are encountered with increased severity. In particular, the locking of moveable surfaces
and the blocking of vents, and intakes can cause serious problems. The deposit of ice is likely to
increase the mass of the aircraft significantly.
Chapter 7 Page 4

16.
Snow and slush is more easily removed, but if a partial thaw has taken place a coating of
snow may disguise an underlying clear ice problem. Undercarriage and control surface operations
can become restricted by slush which subsequently freezes.
In-Flight Effects
17.
Similar problems to those already described can occur in flight however, the opportunities for
ice formation are greatly increased by flight through cloud and in precipitation when temperatures
are below 0C.
Chapter 7 Page 5

18.
Chapter 7 Page 6
Some more specific effects of icing are:

(a)
Aerodynamic - ice deposits can change the airflow around an aerofoil. Drag will be
increased and lift decreased. Stalling speed will increase. Wings with a thin crosssection attract ice more readily than thicker wings and may be more susceptible to the
effect of the ice. Ice forms primarily on leading edges but can spread back to control
surfaces.
(b)
Control surfaces - ice deposits on control surfaces can restrict their movements.
(c)
Balance - ice deposits can add mass to various parts of an aircraft and alter
significantly the C of G position.
(d)
Engines - ice can restrict the flow into jet engine intakes and cause damage when it
breaks off. The uneven distribution on propellers can cause vibration and associated
wear. The blocking of intakes and filters by impact icing can have an adverse effect
on engine operation. Carburettor icing in piston engines can be a serious problem in
conditions of high humidity and low throttle settings even in clear air. (More
information on engine icing is contained in Meteorology, Chapter 9)
(e)
Flight Instruments. Pitot-static systems in particular are vulnerable to blockage by ice

and will result in incorrect outputs from pressure instruments. A blocked Air Speed
Indicator (ASI) pitot probe for example will underread the correct airspeed on takeoff.

(f)
Engine Monitoring Instruments. The blocking or partial blocking of engine

monitoring instruments such as the Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) probe can have
dangerous consequences during take-off. EPR is used as a measure of the thrust being
produced by a turbine engine. The pressure in the engine intake area is measured by a
probe which projects into the airflow much like a pitot probe. A blocked EPR probe
will result in an EPR indication which overreads the true value and therefore indicates
a higher value of thrust than is actually being produced.
De-icing and Anti-icing

19.
De-icing - the procedure whereby frost, ice, slush or snow is removed from an aircraft in
order to provide clean surfaces.
20.
De-icing systems are designed to remove ice from the external surfaces of an aircraft once it
has formed. On the ground, hot air or fluid systems involving water or de-icing compounds may be
used. Systems used in-flight include expandable rubber boots on leading edges and hot air
(thermal) systems.
21.
De-icing in flight should only be carried out after the ice has formed so that it is of a
significant size to be broken and carried away by the airflow. If the expansions/changes of shape
created by de-icing boots, for example are applied too soon, the initial layer of ice lifts and more ice
forms on top leaving a gap within which the boot movements are ineffective.
22.
Anti-icing - the precautionary procedure which provides protection against the formation of
frost or ice and the accumulation of snow or slush on treated surfaces of the aircraft for a limited
period of time (the holdover time).
Chapter 7 Page 7

23.
Anti-icing systems are designed to prevent or limit the build up of ice. On the ground, this
usually involves the use of anti-icing fluids. Aircraft anti-icing systems use fluids or hot air systems
supplied from the compressor stage of gas turbine engines.
Removal of Ice and Other Contaminants

Operators Responsibility
24.
The Operator is required by JAR-OPS to establish procedures to be followed including
inspection procedures when ground de-icing and anti-icing may be necessary.
Commanders Responsibility
25.
According to JAR-OPS a commander may not commence take-off unless the external surfaces
are clear of any deposit which could adversely affect either performance or control of an aeroplane
except as permitted in the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM).
26.
A commander may not according to JAR-OPS commence a flight under known or expected
icing conditions unless the aeroplane is certificated and equipped to cope with such conditions.
27.
Information on de-icing and anti-icing on the ground is required to be included in the
Operations Manual.
Chapter 7 Page 8
Types of De-Icing and Anti-Icing

De-Icing/Anti-Icing Fluids
28.
There are two main types of de-icing/anti-icing fluids:

(a)
Type I fluids. These types of fluid have a high glycol content and low viscosity, they
are administered in a fluid water mix.
(b)
Type II/III/IV fluids. These types of fluid contain a pseudoplastic thickening agent
which enables the fluid to persist for longer on the aircraft surfaces.
Methods of De-Icing/Anti-Icing
29.
De-icing/anti-icing fluid is administered in either a one-step or a two-step process. The
selection of one step or two steps depends on weather conditions, available equipment, available
fluids, and the holdover time to be achieved.
30.
One step de-icing/anti-icing is carried out using either cold or heated anti-icing fluid
depending on conditions. When heated fluid is used it is applied close to the aircraft skin to
minimise heat loss. The de-icing fluid will prevent re-freezing for a period of time depending on
aircraft skin temperature, ambient temperature, the fluid used, the mixture strength and the weather.
31.
Two-step de-icing/anti-icing. In the two step process, the first step is de-icing with an
appropriate fluid for the conditions. The second step follows the first (typically within 3 minutes)
before the step one fluid has time to freeze. The fluid should be administered using a spray technique
which flushes away the first-step fluid and covers the surface with an adequate depth of anti-icing
film.
Chapter 7 Page 9

Note: Neither types of fluid provide the protection during flight.
Holdover Times
32.
The holdover time is achieved by the anti-icing fluid remaining on the aircraft surfaces.
In the case of a one-step de-icing/anti-icing operation the holdover time begins at the start of the
operation. In a two-step operation the holdover time begins at the start of the final (anti-icing step).
33.
The length of the holdover time depends on the ambient temperature, the type of fluid used
and the weather conditions. Type I fluids form a thin liquid film which provides only a limited
holdover time in freezing precipitation. However, no additional time is gained by increasing the
concentration of the fluid in the fluid/water mix.
In the case of Type II fluids the thickening agent enables the liquid to form a thicker liquid wetting
film on the aircraft external surfaces. This type of fluid provides longer holder times and is more
effective (than Type I) in freezing precipitation. Furthermore, the holdover time can be increased by
increasing the concentration of the liquid.
34.
Figure 7-1 shows a table of typical holdover times for Type I fluids in different weather
conditions and ambient temperatures.
Chapter 7 Page 10

FIGURE 7-1
Holdover Times Type I Fluids
Outside Air
Temperature (OAT)
Approximate Holdover time (minimum - maximum) in minutes
Frost
Freezing
fog
Snow
Freezing
Drizzle
Light Freezing Rain on Cold

Rain
Soaked Wing
>0C
45
12-30
6-15
5-8
2-5
0 to -10
45
6-15
6-15
5-8
2-5
below -10
45
6-15
6-15
2-5
(Note, the lower time figure applies in the case of moderate precipitation and the higher figure in
light precipitation.)
35.
Chapter 7 Page 11
Figure 7-2 shows an example of a holdover time table for Type II fluids.

FIGURE 7-2
OAT
Approximate Holdover Time (minimum - maximum) in minutes
Fluid mix
Concentration
Fluid%/Water%
Frost
(hr)
Freezing
Fog
Snow
Freezing
Drizzle
Light Freezing Rain on Cold

Rain
Soaked Wing
>0
100/0
12hr
75-180
20-60
30-60
15-30
10-40
75/25
6hr
50-120
15-40
20-45
10-25
5-25
50/50
4hr
20-45
5-15
10-20
5-10
100/0
8hr
35-90
20-45
30-60
15-30
75/25
5hr
25-60
15-30
20-45
10-25
50/50
3hr
15-45
5-15
10-20
5-10
100/0
8hr
35-90
15-40
25-60
10-30
75/25
5hr
25-60
15-25
20-45
10-25
100/0
8hr
20-90
15-30
100/0
no figures provided
0 to -3
<-3 to -14
<-14 to -25
<-25
Note, the lower time figure applies in the case of moderate precipitation and the higher figure in light
precipitation.
36.
Chapter 7 Page 12
Factors which reduce holdover times: Holdover times are likely to be reduced by:
(a)
heavy precipitation or high moisture content (eg. wet snow);
(b)
high wind velocity or jet blast;

(c)
aircraft skin temperature below ambient outside air temperatures
Pre-Takeoff
37.
When holdover times have been exceeded or when freezing precipitation exists, aerodynamic
surfaces must be checked just prior to entering the active runway or initiating the take-off roll. If
deposits of frost, ice, snow or slush are present, the de-icing/anti-icing operation must be repeated.
Additional Precautions
38.
Type II fluids should be removed from flight deck windows prior to departure especially
where windows are fitted with windscreen wipers. Similarly, any forward area from which fluid
could flow back on to the windscreen should be cleared prior to departure.
39.
De-icing/anti-icing fluid must not be sprayed directly on to brakes, wheels, exhausts or thrust
reversers. Fluid must not be directed into pitot heads, static vents or angle of attack sensors. All
reasonable precautions should be taken to minimise the risk of fluid entering engines, intakes/outlets
and control surface cavities.
40.
Some fluids may, in low humidity conditions become thicker and adversely affect the
aerodynamic performance of the aircraft on take-off. If such gel residues are detected prior to
departure, the surface must be cleared and re-protected as necessary.
Bird Strike Risk and Avoidance

41.
Information relating to bird strike hazard can be found:

(a)
Chapter 7 Page 13
in the ICAO Bird Strike Information System (IBIS);

(b)
on Aeronautical documents (AIP), Charts and supplements;
(c)
in ATS messages, eg. NOTAM.
42.
IBIS is a reporting system designed to collect and disseminate information on bird strikes.
Data on bird studies which has been supplied by Contracting States and aircraft operators to ICAO
are stored on computer for ease of retrieval and analysis.
43.
The results of analysis of IBIS data are produced in four categories:

(a)
bird strike record for each State;
(b)
world bird strike statistics;
(c)
state bird strike statistics;
(d)
significant bird strikes list.
44.
State record. This print-out is produced annually. It lists in alphabetical order, bird strikes on
or near airports, followed by bird strikes occurring off airports. Each State is also provided with a
list of bird strikes on aircraft registered in the State that occur outside the territory of the State.
45.
World statistics. This print-out provides an analysis of world bird strikes for the year and
gives a general overview of the problem of bird strikes to aircraft. Among other data, the print-out
shows numbers of strikes by bird type, aircraft, time of day and phase of flight. For example, in
1999 the highest number of strikes occurred in August; daytime was by far the most frequent time of
occurrence; strikes on turbo fan aircraft (MTOM >27,000kg) accounted for two thirds of all strikes.
Chapter 7 Page 14

46.
High risk areas. The take-off run and the approach were the most common phases of flight
and the highest risk areas for bird strikes. Most strikes occurred below 100ft agl. Specific
environmental factors may increase the problem by attracting birds to the area. Garbage dumps
(particularly where waste products including food are dumped) and recently ploughed fields can
attract large flocks of birds. On an aerodrome it is considered that short grass is more attractive to
birds because it does not provide cover for ground based predators.
47.
State statistics. This print-out provides an analysis of bird strikes that have occurred in one
State. The information provided is similar to the world statistics. The print-out is distributed by
ICAO to the State concerned if more than ten bird strikes have occurred in the year.
48.
Significant bird strike list. This list is intended to bring public attention to specific bird strikes
which have caused significant damage to an aircraft or affected the flight in some way.
49.
Aeronautical charts. Bird sanctuaries and Spring and Autumn bird migration routes may be
shown on aeronautical briefing charts and in supplements.
50.
NOTAM warnings of extreme bird migration activity and of expected migration routes are
published where necessary by ATS Authorities.
Commanders Responsibility
51.
The ICAO Bird Strike Reporting form should normally be completed by the pilot-incommand following an aircraft collision with a bird. The bird strike report is made even if there was
no damage to the aircraft.
Chapter 7 Page 15
Noise Abatement Procedures

52.
Under JAR-OPS an operator must establish operating procedures for noise abatement during
instrument flight operations in compliance with ICAO PANS OPS Volume 1 (Doc 8168-OPS/611).
53.
The take-off climb procedures for noise abatement specified by an operator for any oneaeroplane type should be the same for all aerodromes.
ICAO Procedures (DOC 8168)

General
54.
The pilot-in-command is always free to act as required to ensure the safe operation of the
aeroplane.
55.
Noise abatement procedures are not be implemented except where a need for such procedures
has been determined.
56.
The procedures described in DOC. 8168 show the methods for noise abatement when a
problem is shown to exist. They have been designed for application to turbojet aeroplanes and they
can comprise any one or more of the following:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 16
use of noise preferential runways to direct the initial and final flight paths of
aeroplanes away from noise - sensitive areas;

(b)
use of noise preferential routes to assist aeroplanes in avoiding noise-sensitive areas on

departure and arrival, including the use of turns to direct aeroplanes away from noisesensitive areas located under or adjacent to the usual take-off and approach flight
paths; and
(c)
use of noise abatement take-off or approach procedures, designed to minimise the

over-all exposure to noise on the ground and at the same time maintain the required
levels of flight safety.
57.
For the purpose of these procedures the heights given in metres and feet and speeds given in
kilometres/hour and knots are considered to be operationally acceptable equivalents.
Noise Preferential Runways and Routes

58.
Preferred runway directions for take-off and landing, appropriate to the operation, are
nominated for noise abatement purposes, the objective being to utilise whenever possible those
runways that permit aeroplanes to avoid noise-sensitive areas during the initial departure and final
approach phases of flight.
59.
Runways should not normally be selected for preferential use for landing unless they are
equipped with suitable glide path guidance, eg. ILS, or visual guidance system for operations in visual
meteorological conditions.
60.
Noise abatement should not be the determining factor in runway nomination under the
following circumstances:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 17
if the runway is not clear and dry, i.e it is adversely affected by snow, slush, ice or
water, or by mud, rubber, oil or other substances;

(b)
for landing in conditions where the ceiling is lower than 150 m (500 ft) above
aerodrome elevation, or for take-off and landing when the horizontal visibility is less
than 1.9 km;
(c)
when the cross-wind component, including gust, exceeds 28 km/h (15 kt);
(d)
when the tail-wind component, including gusts, exceeds 9 km/h (5 kt); and
(e)
when wind shear has been reported or forecast or when thunderstorms are expected to
affect the approach or departure.
61.
Noise preferential routes are established to ensure that departing and arriving aeroplanes
avoid overflying noise-sensitive areas in the vicinity of the aerodrome as far as practicable.
In establishing noise preferential routes:
(a)
turns during take-off and climb should not be required unless:
(b)
the aeroplane has reached (and can maintain throughout the turn) a height of not less
than 150 m (500 ft) above terrain and the highest obstacles under the flight path;
Note. PANS-OPS, Volume II permits turns after take-off at 120 m (400 ft) and obstacle clearance of
at least 90 m (300 ft) during the aeroplanes turn. These are minimum requirements for noise
abatement purposes.
(c)
Chapter 7 Page 18
the bank angle for turns after take-off is limited to 15 except where adequate
provision is made for an acceleration phase permitting attainment of safe speeds for
bank angles greater than 15.

(d)
no turns should be required coincident with a reduction of power associated with a

noise abatement procedures; and
(e)
sufficient navigational guidance should be provided to permit aeroplanes to adhere to

the designated route.
62.
In establishing noise preferential routes, the safety criteria of standard departure and standard
arrival routes regarding obstacle clearance climb gradients and other factors should be taken into full
consideration.
63.
Where noise preferential routes are established, these routes and standard departure and
arrival routes should be compatible.
64.
Chapter 7 Page 19
An aeroplane should not be diverted from its assigned route unless:

(a)
in the case of a departing aeroplane it has attained the altitude or height which
represents the upper limit of noise abatement procedures; or
(b)
it is necessary for the safety of the aeroplane eg. for avoidance of severe weather or to
resolve a traffic conflict).
Aeroplane Operating Procedures

Take-Off Procedures
65.
These aeroplane operating procedures for the take-off climb have been developed so as to
ensure that the necessary safety of flight operations is maintained whilst minimising exposure to
noise on the ground. One of the two procedures contained in the following paragraphs should be
applied routinely for all take-offs. Data available indicates that Procedure A results in noise relief
during the latter part of the procedures whereas Procedure B provides relief during that part of the
procedure close to the airport. The procedure selected for use will depend on the noise distribution
required and the type of aeroplane involved. In unusual circumstances where neither of the two
take-off climb procedures (Procedures A and B) are appropriate, a special procedure meeting the
limitations may be developed.
66.
The following noise abatement take-off procedures are recommended as operationally
acceptable and effective in minimising noise.
Chapter 7 Page 20

FIGURE 7-3
Procedure A
Profile
Note. For purposes of these procedures the heights given in metres and feet, and speeds given in
kilometres/hour, are considered to be the operationally acceptable equivalents.
Procedure A (Figure 7-3)
67.
Take-off to 450 m (1 500 ft) above aerodrome elevation:
Chapter 7 Page 21
Take-off power
Take-off flap
Climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 +10 to 20 kt or as limited by body angle).
At 450 m (1 500 ft):
reduce thrust to not less than climb power/thrust.
450 m (1 500 ft) to 900 m (3 000 ft):
climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 + 10 to 20 kt).
At 900 m (3 000 ft):
Chapter 7 Page 22
accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed with flap retraction on schedule.

FIGURE 7-4
Procedure B
Profile
Procedure B (Figure 7-4)
Chapter 7 Page 23
Take-off to 300 m (1 000 ft) above aerodrome elevation:
take off power/thrust
take-off flap
climb at V2 + 20 to 40 km/h (V2 + 10 to 20 kt).
At 300 m (1 000 ft):
maintaining a positive rate of climb, accelerate to zero flap minimum safe

manoeuvring speed (VZF) retracting flap on schedule;
thereafter:
reduce thrust consistent with the following:
(a)
for high bypass ratio engines reduce to normal climb power/thrust;
(b)
for low bypass ratio engines, reduce power/thrust to below normal climb thrust but
not less than that necessary to maintain the final take-off engine-out climb gradient;
and
(c)
for aeroplanes with slow flap retracting reduce power/thrust at an intermediate flap
setting:
thereafter:
From 300 m (1 000 ft) to 900 m (3 000 ft):
continue climb at not greater than VZF + 20 km/h (VZF + 10 kt).
At 900 m (3 000 ft):
Chapter 7 Page 24
accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed.

68.
Any special procedure developed must be shown to be necessary and meet certain limitations.
Its safety must be shown to be equivalent to that of Procedures A and B. Before a special procedure
is introduced its specific characteristics and its effect on standardisation of crew procedures and
cockpit workload should be considered.
Safety Limitations
69.
Chapter 7 Page 25
The following limitations shall be observed:

(a)
the minimum steady climb-out speed shall not be less than V2 + 20 km/h (V2 + 10 kt)
or less than that prescribed in the aeroplane flight manual, if that is greater;
(b)
observance of the minimum steady climb-out speed shall not be required if this causes
the maximum acceptable body angle to be exceeded; and
(c)
power reductions shall not be required unless:

(i)
the aeroplane has reached a height of at least 300 m (1000 ft) above
aerodrome elevation;
(ii)
a standard power setting is used which is sufficient for the aeroplane to

maintain, at the maximum certificated take-off mass, a steady gradient or
climb of not less than 4% at a speed obtained from a) and b) above; and
(iii)
the take-off flight path, both with all engines operating and after making due
allowance for the possibility of engine failure and for the period required to
obtain full power from the remaining engine(s), ensures clearance of all
obstacles under the flight path by an adequate margin.

NOTE:
It should be assumed that before reaching the noise-sensitive area the
aeroplane will climb at a maximum gradient consistent with the maintenance
of a speed not less than that obtained from application of a) or b) above.
Approach Procedures
In noise abatement approach procedures:
(a)
the aeroplane shall not be required to be in any configuration other than the final
landing configuration at any point after passing the outer marker or 5 NM from the
threshold of the runway of intended landing, whichever is earlier; and
(b)
excessive rates of descent shall not be required.
70.
When it is necessary to develop a noise abatement approach procedure based on currently
available systems and equipment, the following safety considerations shall be taken fully into
account:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 26
glide path or approach angles should not require an approach to be made:

(i)
above the ILS glide path angle:
(ii)
above the glide path angle of the visual approach slope indicator system;
(iii)
above the normal PAR final approach angle; and

(iv)
above an angle of 3 except where it has been necessary to establish, for

operational purposes, an ILS with a glide path angle greater than 3;
Note. The pilot can accurately maintain a prescribed angle of approach only when provided with
either continuous visual or radio navigational guidance.
(b)
the pilot should not be required to complete a turn on to a final approach at distances
less than will:
(i)
in the case of visual operations, permit an adequate period of stabilised flight

on final approach before crossing the runway threshold;
(ii)
in the case of instrument approaches, permit the aircraft to be established on

final approach prior to interception of the glide path.
or
71.
Within the constraints necessary at some locations to maintain efficient air traffic services,
noise abatement descent and approach procedures utilising continuous descent and reduced power/
reduced drag techniques (or a combination or both) have proved to be both effective and
operationally acceptable. The objective of such procedures is to achieve uninterrupted descents at
reduced power and with reduced drag, by delaying the extension of wing flaps and landing gear until
the final stages of approach. The speeds employed during the application of these techniques tend,
accordingly, to be higher than would be appropriate for descent and approach with the flaps and
gear extended throughout, and such procedures must therefore comply with the limitations in this
section.
72.
Compliance with published noise abatement approach procedures should not be required in
adverse operating conditions such as:
Chapter 7 Page 27

(a)
if the runway is not clear and dry, ie. it is adversely affected by snow, slush, ice or
water, or by mud, rubber, oil or other substances;
(b)
in conditions when the ceiling is lower than 150 m (500 ft) above aerodrome
elevation, or when the horizontal visibility is less than 1.9 km;
(c)
when the cross-wind component, including gusts, exceeds 28km/h(15kt);
(d)
when the tail-wind component, including gusts, exceeds 9 km/h (5 kt); and
(e)
when wind shear has been reported or forecast or when adverse weather conditions,
e.g. thunderstorms, are expected to affect the approach.
Landing Procedures
73.
Noise abatement procedures shall not contain a prohibition of use of reverse thrust during
landing.
74.
The practice of using a displaced runway threshold as a noise abatement measure shall not be
employed unless aircraft noise is significantly reduced by such use and the runway length remaining
is safe and sufficient for all operational requirements.
Fire and Smoke Procedures

Regulation and Guidance
75.
ICAO Annex 8 contains airworthiness standards concerning aircraft design with respect to
fire protection. The general requirements to meet these standards are:
Chapter 7 Page 28

(a)
cabin furnishing must be of a type which minimises the possibility of in-flight and
ground fires;
(b)
the material used in cabin furnishing must, in the event of fire, minimise the
production of smoke and toxic gases;
(c)
means must be provided to contain or detect and extinguish such fires, so that no
additional danger to the aeroplane is caused;
(d)
design precautions must be taken to protect the occupants against the presence of
smoke or other toxic gases in the cabin.
76.
Annex 8 also prescribes standards for fire protection in the region of powerplants. Because of
the increased fire risk in these areas, they must be isolated from other regions of the aeroplane by fire
resistant material. In addition, fuel and other flammable fluid system components must be located in
regions capable of containing the fluid when exposed to fire conditions. The crew must also have the
means of shutting off the flow of fuel/fluid in the event of a fire. Sufficient fire detectors must be
provided so as to ensure rapid detection of a fire in the area of a powerplant and extinguishing
systems must be provided where a fire cannot be safely contained.
77.
Specific requirements concerning fire and smoke detection and fire fighting equipment are
contained in JAR-OPS and appropriate Joint Airworthiness Regulations (JAR 25, 23 etc).
78.
The Operations Manual is required to contain details of abnormal and emergency procedures
as well as flight procedures concerned with cabin safety.
Chapter 7 Page 29
Fire Detection Systems

79.
On civil transport aircraft the engine compartments are usually divided into fire zones. Those
in which the likelihood of fire is greatest are protected by warning and extinguisher systems. Others,
such as jet pipe surrounds, may only be fitted with overheat warning systems.
80.
Equipment bays and baggage compartments are usually protected by smoke detection
equipment and areas adjacent to hot air ducts usually contain excess temperature detectors.
81.
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) have similar fire detection and extinguishing equipment to the
main engines, but usually incorporating automatic shut-down.
82.
Fire detector signals activate warning lamps and/or captions on the flight deck and often
audible warnings also. Fire warning lamps conventionally give a steady red indication. All detection
systems include functional test circuits and many are of a sophisticated type which monitor
temperature trends in engine bays. There is normally one warning lamp for each engine, but the
warning bell will be activated by any detection circuit.
83.
Detection equipment falls into two main categories, unit and continuous types.
84.
Unit type detectors usually employ either thermocouples or switches which are operated by
differential expansion of metals. Unit detectors are used to monitor specific points where excessive
temperatures might occur, continuous detectors are routed around a potential fire zone to provide
maximum coverage.
85.
Continuous wire detectors consist of a co-axial cable in which the central conducting core is
insulated from the outer, earthed, sheath by a temperature sensitive material. These detectors may be
of either the capacitive or resistive variety.
Chapter 7 Page 30

86.
Resistive continuous detectors make use of the decrease in resistance of the insulation with
increasing temperature, which will eventually allow current to flow from core to sheath and activate
a warning circuit. The disadvantage of these detectors is that a short-circuit between core and sheath
due to crushing or chafing will cause them to initiate a spurious fire warning.
87.
Capacitive continuous detectors use the increase of capacitance which occurs with increased
temperature. The increase of stored charge, and therefore discharge, with increased temperature
creates a back emf and current which eventually is sufficient to activate the warning circuit. If a
capacitive detector is short-circuited it may cease to act as a capacitor, but does not produce a
spurious fire warning.
Types of Fire Extinguishant

88.
Chapter 7 Page 31
There are five types of fire extinguishant in general use:

(a)
Water. Colour code RED. Water works by cooling the burning material and is
suitable for ordinary combustibles such as paper, wood, cloth etc. Water must not be
used on electrical equipment or fires in fuel or oil. (Water extinguishers can be used
after non-electrical fires have been extinguished to provide cooling and prevent reignition).
(b)
Carbon Dioxide. Colour code BLACK. Carbon dioxide gas works by smothering the
fire (denying it oxygen) and is suitable for fires in electric motors, or electrical
equipment.

(c)
Halon. Colour code GREEN. Halon 1211 is bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF).

Halon works by the vapourising liquid gas chemically inhibiting combustion
(effectively smothering the fire). It is suitable for use on electrical equipment fires and
is used extensively as an aircraft cabin extinguishant and as an engine fire
extinguishant. Halon is toxic and can be harmful to users in confined spaces.
(d)
Dry Powder. Colour code BLUE. Dry powder works by smothering the fire with a
blanket of powder and chemically inhibits combustion. It is used on electrical
equipment but is limited by its inability to penetrate inside equipment. Dry powder is
not used in aircraft.
(e)
Foam. Colour code CREAM. Foam extinguishant can be either fluoroprotein foam
(FP) or aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). The foam forms a blanket over the
surface of burning liquid and smothers the fire. Foam is used externally in fighting
aircraft fires and fuel fires but is not used inside aircraft where the foam may come
into contact with live electrical equipment.
Engine and Carburettor Fire

Carburettor Fire
89.
The region of the carburettor is the most likely location for a piston engine aeroplane to
experience an engine fire. Such a fire is possible during engine starting when a backfire can ignite
fuel accumulated in the inlet manifold and carburettor throat. The fire is likely to be evident when
flames are emitted from the air intake. The appropriate procedure is:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 32
shut off the fuel supply; and,

(b)
continue motoring the engine with the starter motor until the fire has been drawn into
the engine and extinguished in the manifold;
(c)
if the fire persists, a carbon dioxide ( CO ) or BCF extinguisher should be discharged,

by the ground crew, into the intake, while the engine is being turned by the starter
motor, until the fire is extinguished.
90.
The most likely cause of carburettor fire is excessive priming to start, leading to excess fuel in
the inlet manifold, and faulty valve timing leading to backfiring.
Engine Fire
91.
All gas turbine engines and their associated installation systems incorporate a fire protection
system for the detection and rapid extinguishing of fire. A detection system is provided on the engine
to sense an overheat condition or the occurrence of a fire and give warning on the flight deck. The
detector system can consist of either a number of detector units located in strategic positions, or a
continuous sensing element.
92.
The occurrence of a fire is indicated on the flight deck by a steady RED warning light and
alarm bell. The red light will usually indicate the location of the fire and the alarm bell can be
silenced by a cut-out switch, leaving the light remaining. Each engine is covered by its own warning
system and is provided with an extinguishing system, which is often doubled up, either by the use of
more than one fire bottle or the optional use of another engines fire bottle.
Actions Required
93.
Chapter 7 Page 33
In the event of engine fire, the typical actions required are:

(a)
move thrust lever to close;
(b)
move HP cock to cut-off;
(c)
pull engine fire switch;
(d)
if engine fire switch remains illuminated, discharge fire bottle;
(e)
after 30 seconds, if engine fire switch remains illuminated, discharge second fire
bottle.
94.
A discharge device, often called a squib, is fitted between the fire bottle and its discharge line.
The squib consists of a breakable disc and a small explosive charge which is electrically detonated to
break the disc and discharge the contents of the bottle.
Auxillary Power Unit (APU) Fire

95.
Power plants and APUs use fixed fire extinguishing installations consisting of pressurised
extinguishant containers, distribution piping and operating controls.
96.
A single fire extinguisher bottle is provided for the APU. Pulling the APU fire switch arms the
squib, which is fired by rotating the switch in either direction.
Engine Fire Extinguishants

97.
The types of extinguishant are usually toxic or semi-toxic Freon compounds such as methyl
bromide (MB), Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF)) and bromotriflouromethane
(BTM).
Chapter 7 Page 34
Types of Portable (Hand) Fire Extinguishers

98.
Portable (hand) extinguishers in aircraft use either CO2, water or Halon (or equivalent) as the
extinguishant. The type of extinguisher chosen for a particular location will contain an
extinguishant suitable for the type of fire to be expected in that compartment. Extinguishers should
be easily accessible and are therefore retained in brackets by quick-release fittings.
99.
CO2 extinguishers are particularly suitable for electrical fires. The released CO2 gas excludes
two of the three components required for combustion, namely heat and oxygen (the third being fuel).
Because of its rapid cooling effect, CO2 can cause damage if used on an engine fire.
100. Halon (BCF) extinguishers are suitable for all types of fires and are therefore widely used in
aircraft. The disadvantages of Halon are that, once heated by the fire that it is tackling, it gives off
noxious gases. Also, Halon does not cool the fire-affected area, and it is therefore necessary to
employ a a follow-up action to cool the area and prevent re-ignition of the fire, either with a water
extinguisher (or a convenient coffee pot!).
Cabin Fire Protection

101. A fire occurring within the cockpit or passenger compartment presents an immediate and
direct threat to the safety of the crew and occupants and must be tackled without delay. The
additional hazard from smoke or toxic fumes means that the flight crew and crew must have
protective breathing equipment (PBE) readily available. Sufficient fire extinguishers of the correct
type must be provided as well as other equipment (fire axe, fire blanket, gloves).
Chapter 7 Page 35

Number of Hand Held Fire Extinguishers
102. An operator is not permitted by JAR-OPS to operate an aeroplane unless hand fire
extinguishers are provided for use in crew, passenger, and as applicable, cargo compartments and
galleys in accordance with the following:
Chapter 7 Page 36
(a)
Type and quantity of extinguishing agent. The type and quantity of extinguishing
agent must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to occur and must minimise the
hazard of toxic gas concentration;
(b)
At least one Halon 1211 hand extinguisher or equivalent must be conveniently located
on the flight deck;
(c)
At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in,
each galley not located on the main passenger deck;
(d)
At least the following number of hand fire extinguishers must be conveniently located
in the passenger compartment(s):

Maximum Approved Passenger Seating
Number of Extinguishers
7 - 30
31 - 60
61 - 200
201 - 300
301 - 400
401 - 500
(Note. When two or more extinguishers are required, they must be evenly distributed).
(i)
Where the passenger seating is 31 - 60, at least one of the extinguishers must
contain Halon 1211 or equivalent as the extinguishing agent;
(ii)
Where the passenger seating is 61 or more, at least two of the fire

extinguishers must contain Halon 1211 or equivalent as the extinguishing
agent
Crash Axes and Crowbars

103. The operator of an aeroplane of MTOM >5700kg or having a maximum approved passenger
seating of >9 seats is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that it is equipped with:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 37
at least one crash axe or crowbar located on the flight deck; and

(b)
if the maximum approved passenger seating is >200, an additional crash axe or

crowbar must be located in or near the most rearward galley area.
104. Crash axes and crowbars located in the passenger compartment must not be visible to
passengers.
Types of Smoke Detectors

105. Freight holds, baggage compartments and equipment bays are fitted with smoke detectors
which sample the air in the compartment and activate an alarm if certain parameters are exceeded.
Smoke detectors are of four main types:
Chapter 7 Page 38
(a)
Photo-electric cells. These detect the diffusion of a abeam of light which occurs when
the beam is interrupted by smoke. The scattering of the light increases the
conductance of the cell and its output is amplified to operate a warning circuit.
(b)
Alpha particle detectors. These are ionisation chambers which measure alpha
radiation from radium. Alpha particles are absorbed by smoke, which reduces the
ionisation current of the device, to operate an alarm.
(c)
Visual smoke indicators. These are usually only fitted as alarm verification devices.
(d)
Carbon monoxide detectors. Found mainly in aircraft of American manufacture,

these devices detect concentration of CO and activate a warning system.

106. Smoke detectors fitted in the toilet compartments of passenger aircraft provide an aural
warning to alert the cabin crew, they are fully automatic and operate from the aircrafts 28vDC
power supply. The detector unit displays a green light to indicate that power is being supplied to it
and a large red display illuminates in conjunction with the aural warning when smoke is detected. A
reset switch enables cancellation of the warning, but the alarm will sound again if smoke is still
present.
Problems Associated with Smoke

107. Smoke may contain toxic gases including carbon monoxide which can quickly incapacitate
the flight crew. In addition, smoke can reduce visibility to the extent that it becomes impossible to
read flight instruments.
Protective Breathing Equipment

108. JAR-OPS requires all commercial aircraft of MTOM >5700kg or passenger seating of >19,
from 1 April 2000, to be equipped with protective breathing equipment (PBE) to provide smoke
detection for eyes, nose and mouth and to provide oxygen for at least 15 minutes. In the cockpit,
PBE must be located at each flight crew duty station and must be easily accessible for immediate use.
Smoke in the Cockpit - Actions

109. In the event of indications of electrical fire or smoke in the cockpit, the typical immediate
actions required are:
Chapter 7 Page 39
110.
(a)
crew don oxygen masks;
(b)
check supply to on and diluter lever to

100%
(c)
put on smoke goggles (if required);
(d)
confirm crew communications.
or put on PBE
Subsequent actions depend on the circumstances and appropriate safety drills.
Air Conditioning Smoke Actions

111. If smoke is detected in the output of the air conditioning system, the following represents a
typical list of immediate actions:
Chapter 7 Page 40
(a)
crew don oxygen masks;
(b)
check supply to on and diluter lever to

100%;
(c)
put on smoke goggles (if required);
(d)
confirm crew communications;
(e)
open all air conditioning pack valves;
(f)
select humidifier switches to off
(g)
switch off flight deck and recirculating fans

(if installed).
or put on
PBE

112.
Subsequent actions depend on circumstances and appropriate standard drills.
Smoke in the Passenger Cabin and Toilets

113. The additional problem presented by smoke in the passenger compartment, apart from the
distress caused to passengers themselves is the need for the cabin crew to be able to move around
either to supervise emergency drills or to fight a fire. To this end, JAR-OPS requires commercial
aircraft as described in paragraph 94, to be equipped with portable PBE, sufficient for all required
cabin crew. The PBE must be installed adjacent to each duty station.
114.
Additionally, a portable PBE must be located next to the fire extinguisher in each galley.
115. The toilet compartments present additional problems because the space is unsupervised and
also because of the need for waste (paper) containers. In addition to warning passengers not to
smoke in the toilet compartment, smoke detection and fire suppression devices are required. On
large commercial aeroplanes, JAR requires that each lavatory is equipped with a smoke detector
system which provides a warning light in the cockpit or provides a warning light or audible warning
which could be detected by a cabin attendant. In addition, each lavatory must be equipped with a
built in fire extinguisher which will discharge automatically into each waste receptacle in the event of
a fire.
116.
PBEs must permit communication by intercom, radio and by megaphone when required.
Cargo Compartments
117. The presence of smoke and fire in cargo or baggage compartments introduces additional
problems because of accessibility and location, the variation of materials carried and the risk of the
fire spreading.
Chapter 7 Page 41

118. JAR-OPS requires that a commercial aircraft is equipped with an easily accessible portable
PBE located outside but near to the entrance to a cargo compartment.
119. Cargo compartments are classified for fire detection and suppression purposes, in accordance
with the following requirements:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Class A. A Class A cargo or baggage compartment is one in which:

(i)
the presence of a fire would easily be discovered by a crew member at a duty

station; and
(ii)
each part of the compartment is easily accessible in flight.
Class B. A Class B cargo or baggage compartment is one in which:

(i)
there is sufficient access in flight to enable a crew member to reach any part of
the compartment with the contents of a hand held fire extinguisher; and,
(ii)
during access, no hazardous quantity of smoke, flames or extinguishing agent

will enter the cabin or flight crew compartments;
(iii)
there is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give warning to

the pilot or flight engineer station.
Class C. A Class C cargo or baggage compartment is one which does not meet the
requirements of A or B but in which:
(i)
Chapter 7 Page 42
there is remote indication at the pilot or flight engineer station of a fire

detected in the compartment; and,
(d)
(e)
Chapter 7 Page 43
(ii)
there is an approved built in fire extinguishing system, controllable by the pilot

or flight engineer and hazardous quantities of smoke, etc. are prevented from
entering the cabin;
(iii)
ventilation can be controlled to allow the fire extinguishant to have an effect.
Class D. A Class D cargo of baggage compartment is one in which:

(i)
a fire in it will be contained without endangering the safety of the aeroplane or

occupants;
(ii)
hazardous smoke etc. is excluded from the cabin;
(iii)
ventilation of the compartment can be controlled to prevent fire from

spreading;
(iv)
the heating of adjacent critical areas has been taken into consideration;
(v)
the volume of the compartment is 1000 cubic feet or less.
Class E. A Class E cargo compartment is one on aeroplanes used only for the carriage
of cargo and in which:
(i)
there is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give warning to

the pilot or flight engineer station;
(ii)
ventilating airflow in the cargo bay can be controlled from the crew
compartment;

(iii)
there are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke etc. from the flight
crew compartment; and,
(iv)
the required crew emergency exits are accessible under any cargo loading
condition.
Overheated Brakes after Landing or Abandoned Take-Off

120. Brakes on modern large aeroplanes are fitted with overheat warnings but not fire
extinguishers. The principal hazard which is present in fighting a brake fire on the ground is that of
an explosion brought about by sudden cooling caused by the fire extinguishant. For this reason
brake fires should be extinguished wherever possible using dry powder, or as a last resort, foam.
2
Water or CO extinguishers should never be used to fight brake fires.

121. If a wheel explodes, the majority of the blast is likely to be outwards from the hubs/axle area.
Personnel fighting brake fires should therefore approach the wheels in a fore/aft direction avoiding
the sides as far as possible.
122. The precise brake overheat drill depends on aircraft type but in general the handling pilot will
bring the aircraft to rest as soon as practicable. Emergency services should be alerted quickly and the
possibility of aircraft evacuation considered. The Operations Manual will contain more specific
guidance on the actions required
Chapter 7 Page 44
Decompression of the Pressurised Cabin

Requirement for Supplemental Oxygen
123. Pressurised commercial aeroplanes are required to be equipped with oxygen equipment such
that in the event of a decompression occurring the flight crew, cabin crew and passengers can be
supplied with supplemental oxygen for a specified minimum time.
124. The operator of aeroplanes which operate at pressure altitudes above 10,000ft is required, by
JAR-OPS, to ensure that such aeroplanes are equipped to provide the specified amount of
supplemental oxygen when needed.
125. The amount of supplemental oxygen that must be available is calculated on the basis of the
cabin pressure altitude, the flight duration, and the assumption that the decompression will occur at
the most critical altitude and time. It is assumed that after a pressurisation failure, the pilot will
descend the aeroplane, in accordance with emergency procedures specified in the aeroplane flight
manual (AFM) to a safe altitude from which the flight may continue safely to destination or
alternate. Supplemental oxygen must be available to provide adequately for this profile.
Flight Crew
126. The minimum amount of supplemental oxygen which is specified by JAR-OPS for flight crew
positions is sufficient for the entire flight time when the cabin altitude exceeds 13,000ft and the
entire flight time when it exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30 minutes at
higher altitudes but, in no case must it be less than:
(a)
Chapter 7 Page 45
30 minutes, for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes not exceeding 25,000ft; or,

(b)
2 hours, for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes greater than 25,000ft.
Cabin Crew
127. The minimum amount of supplemental oxygen which is specified by JAR-OPS for cabin crew
members is:
(a)
sufficient for the entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000ft
but, not less than 30 minutes; and,
(b)
sufficient for the entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude is greater than 10,
000ft but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30 minutes at higher altitudes.
Passengers
128. A supplemental oxygen supply is specified for certain proportions of the passengers
depending on the possible flight profile and cabin altitude, for example:
Chapter 7 Page 46
(a)
when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000ft, the supply must provide for 100%
of the passengers for the entire flight time, but not less than 10 minutes;
(b)
when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 14,000ft but does not exceed 15,000ft, the
supply must provide for 30% of the passengers for the entire flight time;
(c)
when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed 14,000ft after
the first 30 minutes at higher altitudes, the supply must provide for 10% of the
passengers for the entire flight time.
Types of Decompression
Slow Decompression
129. A slow decompression is gradual reduction of cabin pressure and loss of pressure differential
which is not immediately obvious to the crew. Cabin pressure altitude will increase and eventually
activate the cabin altitude warning device.
130. A slow decompression can be caused by a malfunction in the automatic cabin pressure
controller or an associated system (such as hydraulic leak which activates the undercarriage squat
switch and opens the outflow valves as if the aeroplane was on the ground).
131. The effects of a slow increase in pressure altitude to above 10,000ft is unlikely to very
obvious to the passengers however the gradual onset of hypoxia is certain. The most active crew
members are likely to be affected first. The initial symptoms are slight with minor behavioural
changes (affected persons frequently become euphoric), judgement and self criticism reduce, a
shortness of breath may become noticeable and at altitudes above about 12,000ft a severe headache
may develop after about 20 minutes. As the hypoxia continues, mental and physical co-ordination
degrade until ultimately the persons becomes unable to help themselves.
132. The time from the initial exposure to hypoxia that a person has available to assess and act on
the situation is known as the time of useful consciousness. This period of time reduces rapidly with
altitude and amount of activity required and is reduced markedly when the hypoxia results from a
rapid decompression.
133.
Approximate times of useful consciousness are:
about 30 minutes at 18,000ft,
Chapter 7 Page 47

2 3 minutes at 25,000ft,
30 60 seconds at 30,000ft,
15 30 seconds at 35,000ft.
But, note, these times are likely to be halved when the decompression is rapid.
Rapid Decompression
134. A rapid decompression is the complete and sudden loss of cabin pressure. (Some authorities
describe a rapid decompression as one in which cabin altitude reverts to an altitude above 20,000ft
within 1.5 minutes).
135. The effects of the sudden decompression depend initially on the cause and especially the size
of the rupture or hole in the pressure hull. A rapid decompression is likely to be accompanied by the
sound of rushing air combined with the dense misting of the cabin as the pressure drop causes
adiabatic cooling of the air and subsequent condensation. Persons on board are likely to suffer otic
barotrauma and/or sinus barotrauma as ears and sinuses are unable to cope with the sudden pressure
changes and depending on altitude, hypoxia will affect everyone not on oxygen. Cabin
pressurisation instruments should indicate the extent of the pressure loss and audible warning is
likely to be activated.
The cabin pressure may reduce below ambient pressure due to aerodynamic suction.
Chapter 7 Page 48

136. On large aeroplanes certificated to operate above 30,000ft, drop-down oxygen masks should
operate automatically when cabin pressure altitude reaches a pre-set level (typically before reaching
15,000ft), but it has been estimated that less than 50% of passengers will not be able or know how
to operate them (the mandatory pre-flight briefing notwithstanding). The crew must therefore have
portable oxygen sets at or near to their crew station so that they can be on oxygen rapidly and able
to assist passengers.
137. On aeroplanes operating at pressure altitudes above 25,000ft the flight crew oxygen masks
must be of the quick donning type, and must be within immediate reach of flight crew members
when at their duty stations.
138. The drill for the flight crew is to immediately don the oxygen mask at their position, check
that oxygen is flowing and then establish communication and deal with the emergency using the
approved check list as contained in the Operations Manual.
139. Subsequent actions depend on the circumstances but, in general, if the pressure loss cannot be
contained, the aeroplane will be descended to a safe but lower altitude and a diversion carried out to
the nearest suitable alternate aerodrome.
Note. Information on oxygen requirements for unpressurised aircraft is contained in Chapter 2,
Paragraph 45 (ICAO Annex 6).
Chapter 7 Page 49
Windshear
Windshear
Windshear
Background
1.
Windshear is caused by variations in the direction and/or speed of the local wind with
changes in height and/or horizontal distance, it is almost always present but normally does not cause
undue difficulty to the pilot. It is the abnormal windshear that is dangerous. Short-term fluctuations
in the wind (gusts) are common at low altitudes, and are unlikely to cause prolonged excursions from
the intended flight path and target air speed. If these gusts are large and prolonged their effect on an
aircraft may be similar to that caused by a windshear.
2.
Windshear tends to displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended flight profile such that
substantial control action is required.
Definition of Terms Used in Windshear

3.
Low altitude windshear. This type of windshear is experienced along the final approach path
or during the initial climb-out flight path.
4.
Types of windshear. The following definitions are used in order to differentiate between three
distinct types of windshear:
(a)
Chapter 8 Page 1
Vertical windshear. The change of horizontal wind vector with height (as might be
determined by two or more anemometers at different heights on a mast).
Windshear
(b)
Horizontal windshear. The change of horizontal wind vector with horizontal distance
(as might be determined by two or more anemometers mounted at the same height but
at different locations).
(c)
Updraught/downdraught shear. Changes in the vertical component of wind with

horizontal distance.
Meteorological Features Associated with Windshear

5.
The main defence against windshear is avoidance and therefore it is necessary to recognise the
meteorological features which cause, or are associated with it. These are:
Chapter 8 Page 2
(a)
Thunderstorms (especially at the mature stage) and large cumulonimbus;
(b)
The passage of warm, cold or occluded fronts;
(c)
A marked temperature inversion;
(d)
A low level wind maximum or turbulent boundary layer;
(e)
Strong turbulence at the surface, especially when reinforced by strong winds and
unfavourable topography or buildings.
Windshear
Thunderstorm
6.
Figure 8-1 illustrates the two aspects of a thunderstorm most relevant to windshear. The
downdraught or, in a severe storm the microburst, is an area where very potent downdraught
windshear can be experienced. The cold air flows outwards close to the surface as a gust front,
perhaps reaching 32 km from the storm, or further in the case of several storms forming a squall line.
The vertical extent of this outflow may be 6000 ft and flying through it or descending into it is likely
to result in vertical windshear.
Chapter 8 Page 3
Windshear
FIGURE 8-1
Air Flow Under
and Near a
Thunderstorm
Chapter 8 Page 4
Windshear
Passage of a Front
7.
Vertical windshear can be present whenever an aircraft climbs or descends through a weather
front. The more active the front the greater the risk of windshear. A front which is moving at 30 kt
or more and across which there is a temperature difference of 5C or more, or at which a sharp
change in wind direction occurs, is likely to produce serious windshear problems. A vigorous cold
front is likely to pose the greatest risk. The position of the aerodrome in relation to the surface
position of the front is important. When landing (or taking off) at an aerodrome up to 30 nm ahead
of a warm front or 20 nm or less behind a cold front the greatest risk of windshear exists, as shown
at Figure 8-2. Crossing a front in level flight can result in horizontal windshear, which could present
a problem at low level, for example during the early stages of a missed approach, where windshear
induced changes in airspeed and/or rates of climb may well be masked by the changing aircraft
configuration.
8.
A sea breeze front is unlikely to create significant windshear problems, however the presence
of such a front may well distort the outflow of air from a coastal thunderstorm and increase the
severity of the windshear.
Chapter 8 Page 5
Windshear
FIGURE 8-2
Areas of
Windshear
associated with an
Approach Path
through a warm
and cold front
Chapter 8 Page 6
Windshear
Inversions
9.
A low level inversion effectively prevents mixing and decouples the retarded surface flow
from the free stream air above the inversion. The shear boundary can be very low, especially on a
cold clear winter night. Climbing or descending through such an inversion can give significant
vertical windshear at a critical stage of flight, which is one reason why marked inversion warnings
are issued at major aerodromes.
Low Level Wind Maximum

10.
Low level wind maximums (sometimes referred to as low level jets) can occur near the top of
an inversion, possibly in association with a nearby ridge or higher ground. Windshear may be
encountered when passing through this wind maximum.
Turbulence
11.
Strong mean surface winds usually generate greater differences between the gusts and lulls
and may therefore result in windshear. In hotter climates intense surface heating can give rise to
updraught/downdraught windshear. Significant changes in wind direction can also result from air
flowing over or around obstacles as large as mountains or as small as hangars. Climbing or
descending in the lee of high ground when the wind is strong can be particularly hazardous.
Indications and Warnings

12.
It is possible that visual warnings of the likely presence of windshear may be seen, these
include:
(a)
Chapter 8 Page 7
The topography.
Windshear
(b)
Smoke rising and levelling off, indicating an inversion.
(c)
Mist, fog or frost, again indicating an inversion.
(d)
A marked haze layer, again indicating an inversion.
(e)
Cumulonimbus clouds or active thunderstorms.
(f)
Wind indicators at different locations on the aerodrome showing differing wind

velocities.
13.
Another valuable indication of the possible presence of windshear is a significant difference
between the aircraft computed wind velocity and the surface wind velocity given by ATC. In this
respect INS based systems are of value since INS gives an instantaneous wind velocity.
14.
Aerodrome Reports. Any pilots reports of windshear encounters are passed on to other
traffic by ATC. However, some aerodromes forecast windshear. Within the UK only two
aerodromes (Heathrow and Belfast Aldergrove) currently give windshear warnings in addition to
marked inversion warnings. However, all ATC units are likely to relay reports of windshear which
have been passed to them by pilots.
Measuring and Warning Systems for Low Level Windshear

Airborne Systems
15.
It is assessed that a pilot needs 10 to 40 seconds of warning to avoid windshear. Fewer than
10 seconds is not enough time to react, while more than 40 is too long, atmospheric conditions can
change in that time. Three advance warning systems are under development:
Chapter 8 Page 8
Windshear
(a)
Microwave radar. A Microwave radar signal is projected ahead of the aircraft to

detect raindrops and other moisture particles. The returning signal represents the
motion of those raindrops and moisture particles, and this is translated into wind
speed. Microwave radar works better than other systems in rain but less well in dry
conditions. Because it points toward the ground as the plane lands, it picks up
interfering ground returns, or clutter.
(b)
Doppler LIDAR. A laser system called Doppler LIDAR (light detecting and ranging)
reflects energy from aerosols (minute particles) instead of raindrops. This system can
avoid picking up ground clutter (moving cars, etc.) and thus has fewer interfering
signals. However, it does not work as well in heavy rain.
(c)
Infra-red. This system uses an infra-red detector to measure temperature changes

ahead of the aircraft. The system monitors the thermal signatures of carbon dioxide to
look for cool columns of air, which can be a characteristic of microbursts. This system
is less costly and not as complex as others, but does not directly measure wind speeds.
Windshear-Alert Systems Using Ground-Based Radar

16.
A Low-Level Wind-Shear Alert System (LLWAS) has been installed on the ground at more
than 100 U.S. airports. Wind speed and directional sensors report to a central computer, and
controllers can alert pilots in the event that windshear is detected. But such systems cannot forecast
windshear.
Chapter 8 Page 9
Windshear
ATC Radars
17.
Radars which are used for air traffic control purposes are designed to eliminate or reduce
returns from weather. However, some specialised radars are specifically designed to detect the
different air currents associated with thunderstorms in particular. This type of Doppler radar is
being used more now to detect potential windshear situations.
The Effects of Windshear

18.
The effects of a gradual change in headwind component on an aircrafts approach or climb
out gradient are well known. For example on the approach to land a decrease in headwind allows
the groundspeed to increase and the descent gradient is reduced. An increase in headwind increases
the descent gradient. Similarly for an aircraft climbing after take-off a gradual decrease in headwind
will reduce the climb gradient. An increase in headwind resulting in a steeper climb gradient.
However, when such changes occur suddenly, as is the case with windshear, the effects can be quite
different. The effect of the inertia of the aircraft as it encounters the change in wind component
manifests itself as an energy loss or energy gain, the effects of which are described in the following
paragraphs.
Chapter 8 Page 10
Windshear
Energy Loss
19.
An aircraft encountering windshear tends to maintain its speed over the ground due to its
own momentum (the larger the aircraft the more momentum it will have). If the windshear is due to
a reduction in headwind component (or increase in tailwind component) this reduction manifests
itself as an energy loss and a reduction in indicated airspeed (and TAS). Lift is therefore reduced and
the aircraft will, without correction, suffer a loss of height and an increase in rate of descent and
descent gradient. This situation is illustrated at Figure 8-3. In a climb situation the aircraft will
experience a decrease in rate of climb and climb gradient.
FIGURE 8-3
Effect of the Loss
of Wind Speed
during Descent
Energy Gain
20.
An increase in headwind component (or decrease in the tailwind component) results in an
energy gain and increase in indicated airspeed, as shown at Figure 8-4. For an aircraft in a climb, the
effects of the energy gain are to increase the rate of climb and the climb gradient. In the case of an
approach to landing the descent gradient would be decreased.
Chapter 8 Page 11
Windshear
FIGURE 8-4
Effect of the
Increase in
Windspeed during
the Climb
These events become critical when the aircraft is being flown close to the ground during the final
stages of an approach or shortly after take-off. In the energy loss case the engine reaction time when
additional power is applied can be critical.
21.
The energy gain/loss situations described above can occur as a result of either vertical
windshear or as horizontal windshear, in other words the aircraft can either climb/descend or fly
horizontally into air flowing at a different speed or from a different direction, in either event
changing the head/tail wind component. In simple terms a change in the head/tail wind component
will (in the short term) change the airspeed rather than the groundspeed of the aircraft.
Chapter 8 Page 12
Windshear
Downdraught
22.
Figure 8-5 shows an aircraft taking off in the vicinity of a thunderstorm. The situation
illustrated is the critical case where the headwind component decreases sharply and/or becomes a
tailwind component shortly after take-off (energy loss). In this case, because of inertia, the
groundspeed remains constant but the airspeed decreases sharply. The loss of lift associated with the
resulting low airspeed may cause the aircraft to strike the ground.
FIGURE 8-5
Take-off in
Downdraught
Conditions
Chapter 8 Page 13
Windshear
Approach Under Thunderstorm
23.
At Figure 8-6 an aircraft is approaching to land in the vicinity of a thunderstorm. Initially, at
position A, the aircraft is stabilised on a 3 glideslope and is maintaining target airspeed. As the
aircraft enters the gust front the previous slight tailwind component becomes a marked headwind
component but, because of inertia, the groundspeed will momentarily remain constant. As a result
the airspeed increases by an amount equal to the change in wind component. The amount of lift
generated increases with the increased airspeed, and the aircraft will initially make a rapid excursion
above the desired glidepath at point B in Figure 8-6. The natural reaction of the pilot in this situation
is to reduce power and steepen the approach. However, as the aircraft flies closer to the
thunderstorm (position C), the outflow which formed the gust front is likely to become a
downdraught. The situation is now one of energy loss and is made worse by the aircrafts reduced
power situation. Height loss is inevitable unless substantial power is applied and a go-around
initiated.
Chapter 8 Page 14
Windshear
FIGURE 8-6
Landing in
Downdraught
Conditions - Effect
of Windshear on
the Approach
Path
Actions Required to Counter the Effect of Windshear

Energy Loss Situation
24.
The energy loss situation in the circumstances described (loss of headwind component,
increase in tailwind component or strong downdraught windshear) result in sudden loss of airspeed.
Rapid action is required by the pilot to limit height loss and a further deterioration of the situation.
The immediate actions of the pilot which are considered to be vital are:
(a)
Chapter 8 Page 15
increase power (to full go-around power if required) briskly;
Windshear
(b)
raise the nose of the aircraft to check descent;
(c)
coordinate power and pitch;
(d)
be prepared to carry out a missed approach.
25.
The effects of an encounter with a microburst when making an approach are such that even
more stringent action is required. If anticipation and avoidance have not succeeded, the pilot is faced
with a very hazardous phenomenon. The actions recommended are:
Chapter 8 Page 16
(a)
accept an initial energy gain from the outflow (gust-front) of the microburst;
(b)
anticipate the next stage (severe energy loss) by increasing to go-around power (be
prepared to go to maximum power if necessary);
(c)
select a pitch angle consistent with a missed approach (typically about 15) and hold it
against turbulence and buffeting;
(d)
as the encounter with the downdraught proceeds, the true angle of attack may change.
If the stick-shaker (if fitted) activates, adjust the pitch angle to just below stick shaker
activation;
(e)
if further energy loss occurs where the downdraught is changing into a tailwind and a
risk of striking the ground increases, even with maximum power, it may be necessary
to increase the pitch angle further and hold a value which just produces stick-shaker
activation.
Windshear
Energy Gain Situation
26.
An energy gain situation might occur on departure when climbing into a sudden increase in
headwind. Once again, if the risk of windshear, particularly from a microburst, is anticipated and
can be avoided, perhaps by delaying the departure, this is the preferred course of action. However, if
a microburst is encountered, it is likely that the initial energy gain will be followed by an energy loss.
27.
The recommended course of action, in general, is to ignore noise abatement procedures,
maintain high pitch angles but be prepared to ease the pitch angle if the stick-shaker activates. The
recommended initial actions are:
(a)
select maximum power as soon as possible;
(b)
adopt a pitch angle of around 15 and try to hold that attitude; do not chase airspeed;
(c)
be guided by stick-shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude,

attempt to hold a pitch angle of just below stick-shaker activation.
Automatic Flight Control Systems

28.
Autopilots and autothrottles, in the main, should cope with holding attitude in moderate
windshear encounters but need to be monitored. The use of speed, height or rate of climb/descent
locks is not recommended.
29.
Autothrottles are unable to anticipate requirements in a changing situation, such that a rapid
rise in airspeed may lead to an undesirable low throttle setting leading to a slow power recovery
when it is needed most. In such circumstances it may be safer to revert to manual throttle control
combined with an increased level of crew cooperation and instrument monitoring.
Chapter 8 Page 17
Windshear
30.
off.
Flight directors, unless designed to provide guidance during windshear should be switched
General Guidance
31.
It should be apparent by now that low altitude windshear is a very serious hazard and
wherever possible must be avoided. Pilots must be able therefore to:
Chapter 8 Page 18
Recognise the situations where it occurs and the signs of its presence.
Avoid it by diverting or delaying the flight.
Anticipate the actions required at the onset of an encounter.
Apply the techniques recommended for the aircraft without hesitation.
Wake Turbulence
Wake Vortex Characteristics
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Vortex Characteristics

1.
Wake vortices, are present behind every aircraft, including helicopters when in forward flight,
but are particularly severe when generated by heavy aircraft. They are most hazardous to aircraft
with a small wing span during take-off, initial climb, final approach and landing phases of flight.
2.
The characteristics of the wake vortex system generated by an aircraft in flight are determined
by the aircrafts mass, wingspan, airspeed, configuration and attitude. Subsequently these
characteristics are altered by interactions between vortices and the ambient atmosphere and
eventually, after a time varying according to the circumstances from a few seconds to a few minutes
after the passage of an aircraft, the effects of the vortex become undetectable.
3.
For practical purposes, the vortex system in the wake of an aircraft may be regarded as being
made up of two counter-rotating cylindrical air masses trailing aft from the aircraft (Figure 9-1 and
Figure 9-2). The vortices from an aeroplane are created by air transferring from the undersurface
(high pressure) side of the wing to the overwing (low pressure) side, usually at the wingtips. The
direction of the airflow within each vortex is based on this principle and when viewed in relation to
the aeroplanes direction of travel is clockwise from the port wingtip and anticlockwise from the
starboard wingtip.
Chapter 9 Page 1
Wake Turbulence
4.
Typically the two vortices are separated by about three quarters of the aircrafts wingspan and
in still air they tend to drift slowly downwards and either level off, usually not more than 1000 ft
below the flight path of the aircraft, or, on approaching the ground, move sideways from the track of
the generating aircraft at a height approximately equal to half the aircrafts wingspan (see
Figure 9-3).
FIGURE 9-1
General View of
Aircraft Trailing
Vortex System
Chapter 9 Page 2
Wake Turbulence
FIGURE 9-2
Helicopter
Vortices
FIGURE 9-3
Vortex Near the
Ground in Still Air,
Viewed from
behind the
Generating
Aircraft
5.
The maximum tangential airspeed in the vortex system, which may be as much as 300 ft/sec
immediately behind a large aircraft, decays slowly with time after the passage of the aircraft and
eventually drop sharply as the vortex system disintegrates.
Chapter 9 Page 3
Wake Turbulence
6.
Wake vortex generation begins when the nosewheel lifts off the runway on take-off and
continues until the nosewheel touches down on landing.
FIGURE 9-4
Vortex
Generation on
Take-Off and
Landing
7.
Vortex strength increases with the weight of the generating aircraft. With the aircraft in a
given configuration, the vortex strength increases with decreasing aircraft speed; and for a given
mass and speed the vortex strength is greatest when the aircraft is in a clean configuration (hence,
heavy, clean and slow is the worst combination). There is some evidence that for given mass and
speed a helicopter produces a stronger vortex than a fixed-wing aircraft.
8.
In a stable airflow, the wake vortex system will drift with the wind. Figure 9-5 shows the
possible effect of a crosswind on the motion of a vortex pair close to the ground.
Chapter 9 Page 4
Wake Turbulence
FIGURE 9-5
Vortex Movement
Near the Ground
in a Light
Crosswind,
Viewed from
Behind the
Generating
Aircraft
9.
Wind shear causes the two vortices to descend at different rates and close to the ground, can
cause one of the vortices to rise. In still air, the interaction of the vortices with the surface will tend
to cause them to move outwards at about 5kt. On the other hand, turbulence and high winds close
to the ground hasten the decay and disintegration of vortices. Special attention must be given to
situations of light crosswind (5kt), when vortices may stay in the approach and touchdown areas of
airports or sink to the landing or take-off paths of succeeding aircraft as illustrated in Figure 9-5.
10.
In flight, the area up to 1000 ft below and behind a large aircraft should avoided, especially at
low altitude where even a momentary wake vortex encounter could be hazardous for a smaller
aircraft. When an aircraft is at cruise speed a vortex may persist at considerable distances behind.
However, the highest proportion of reported wake turbulence incidents occur in the approach and to
a lesser extent, the departure phases of flight.
Chapter 9 Page 5
Wake Turbulence
Classification of Aircraft (ICAO)

11.
The separation minima recommended by ICAO (in (PANS-RAC Doc.4444) are based on the
aircraft wake turbulence categories according to the maximum certificated take-off mass as follows:
(a)
Heavy (H) all aircraft types of 136,000kg or more;
(b)
Medium (M) aircraft types of less than 136,000kg but more than 7,000kg; and,
(c)
Light (L) aircraft types of 7,000kg or less.
Note 1. There is some evidence that helicopters, when in flight, produce vortices which, per kg of
aircraft mass, are more intense than those of aeroplanes.
Note 2. The letters shown in brackets are entered on the air traffic flight plan in item 9 to indicate the
aircrafts wake turbulence category.
Wake Turbulence Separation Minima

12.
The following minima apply when radar-separation is not being used.
Arriving aircraft
13.
Chapter 9 Page 6
When timed approaches are being used:

(a)
Light arriving after a Medium or Heavy separation 3 minutes;
(b)
Medium arriving after a Heavy separation 2 minutes.
Wake Turbulence
Departing Aircraft
14.
Separation for departing aircraft, when taking off from:
the same runway; or,
from parallel runways less than 760m apart; or,
crossing runways or, parallel runways less than 760m apart, if the projected flight path of the
second aircraft will cross that of the first at the same level or less than 1000ft below:
(a)
Light or Medium departing after a Heavy 2 minutes;
(b)
Light departing after a Medium 2 minutes.
Note. These times are increased to 3 minutes when the second aircraft is taking off from an
intermediate point on the same runway or a parallel runway separated by less than 760m
Displaced Landing Threshold

15.
Chapter 9 Page 7
When operating on a runway with a displaced landing threshold the separation timing is:
(a)
Light or Medium departing after a Heavy arrival 2 minutes;
(b)
Light departing after a Medium arrival 2 minutes; or,
(c)
Light or Medium arrival follows a Heavy departure 2 minutes;
(d)
Light arrival follows a Medium departure 2 minutes.
Wake Turbulence
Opposite Direction
16.
When aircraft are using opposite direction runways the required separation is:
(a)
Light or Medium taking off or landing after a Heavy has carried out a low missed
approach in the opposite direction 2 minutes; or,
(b)
Light taking off or landing after a Medium has carried out a low missed approach in
the opposite direction 2 minutes.
Note. The same separation applies if the second aircraft is landing on a parallel opposite direction
runway separated by less than 760m.
Wake Turbulence Radar Separation Minima
Chapter 9 Page 8
17.
for:
When radar separation is in operation the following wake turbulence separation is applicable
one aircraft operating directly behind another at the same altitude or within 1000ft below; or,
both aircraft using the same runway or parallel runways separated by less than 760m; or,
one aircraft is crossing behind another at the same level or less than 1000ft below:
(a)
Light after Heavy 6nm (11.1km);
(b)
Medium after Heavy 5nm (9.3km);
(c)
Heavy after Heavy 4nm (7.4km);
(d)
Light after Medium 5nm (9.3km).
Security
JAR-OPS Requirements - Unlawful Interference
ICAO (Annex 17) Requirements
Preventative Security Measures
Security
10
Security
JAR-OPS Requirements - Unlawful Interference

Operator Responsibilities
1.
The operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar
with and comply with, the relevant requirements of the national security programmes of the State of
the operator.
Training Programmes
2.
The operator is required to establish, maintain and conduct approved training programmes
which enable personnel to take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference such as
sabotage or unlawful seizure of aeroplanes and to minimise the consequences of such events, should
they occur.
Search Procedures
3.
The operator is required to ensure that all aeroplanes carry a checklist of the procedures to be
followed for that aeroplane type, when searching for concealed weapons, explosives or other
dangerous devices.
Chapter 10 Page 1
Security
Commanders Responsibilities Unlawful Interference

4.
Following an act of unlawful interference on board an aeroplane the commander or, in his
absence, the operator is required by JAR-OPS to submit, without delay, a report of such an act, to the
designated local authority and the Authority in the State of the Operator.
Flight Crew Compartment Security

5.
The flight crew compartment door, if installed, on aeroplanes operated for the transport of
passengers is required by JAR-OPS to be capable of being locked from within the compartment, in
order to prevent unauthorised access.
ICAO (Annex 17) Requirements

Responsibilities of the Contracting State in which Unlawful
Interference Occurs
6.
Each contracting State is required to take adequate measures for the safety of passengers and
crew of an aircraft that is being subjected to an act of unlawful interference until their journey can be
continued.
7.
Each Contracting State responsible for providing air traffic services for an aircraft which is
the subject of an act of unlawful interference is required to collect all relevant information on the
flight and communicate it to all other States responsible for ATS units concerned, including those at
the known or presumed destination airport, so that timely contingency action can be taken.
Chapter 10 Page 2
Security
8.
Each Contracting State is required to provide such assistance to an aircraft which is subjected
to unlawful seizure, including the provision of navigation aids, air traffic services and permission to
land as may be necessitated by the circumstances.
9.
A Contracting State in whose territory an aircraft which has been subjected to unlawful
seizure lands is required, as far as is practicable, to ensure that it is detained on the ground unless its
departure is necessitated by the overriding duty to protect human life. It must be recognised that
consultation between the State where the aircraft has landed and the State of the Operator of the
aircraft is an important consideration.
In Flight Procedures - Commanders Responsibilities

Notifying ATS Units
10.
The commander of an aircraft which is being subjected to unlawful interference is required to
try to notify the appropriate ATS unit of this fact, and of any significant circumstances associated
with it and whether any deviation from the current flight plan is required. (This action is required so
that ATS units can give priority to the aircraft and minimise conflict with other traffic).
Operation of SSR Transponder

11.
Should an aircraft in flight be subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot-in-command is
required, if able, to set the SSR transponder to Mode A 7500 (plus Mode C) to indicate this fact,
unless circumstances warrant the use of the emergency code 7700.
12.
If, after selecting Mode A 7500, ATC ask for confirmation of the code, the pilot is required,
if able, to confirm it or to not reply at all. In the absence of a reply ATC will assume the code setting
was intended.
Chapter 10 Page 3
Security
Deviation from Assigned Track or Route
13.
When an aircraft is subjected to unlawful interference unless considerations on board dictate
otherwise, the pilot-in-command should attempt to continue flying on the assigned track and at the
assigned cruising level at least until able to notify an ATS unit or until within radar cover.
14.
If circumstances dictate that the aircraft must depart from its assigned track or its assigned
cruising level without being able to make radio contact with ATS, the pilot should whenever possible:
(a)
attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency and other

appropriate frequencies, unless considerations on board dictate otherwise. Other
equipment such as on-board transponders, data links etc. should be used when
circumstances permit; and
(b)
proceed in accordance with any special procedures for in-flight contingencies, where
such procedures have been established and promulgated in Doc.7030 (Regional
Supplementary Procedures); or,
(c)
if no applicable regional procedures have been established, proceed at a level which

differs from the cruising levels normally used for IFR flight in the area by 300m
(1000ft) if above FL290 or, by 150m (500ft) if below FL290.
Preventative Security Measures

15.
Each Contracting State is required to establish measures to prevent weapons, explosives or
any other dangerous device which may be used for unlawful interference from being introduced by
any reasons on board an aircraft involved in international navigation.
Chapter 10 Page 4
Security
Carriage of Weapons
16.
Law enforcement officers and other authorised persons may be permitted to carry weapons
on board an aircraft, whilst acting in the performance of their duties. ICAO Annex 17 recommends
that Contracting States should ensure that the carriage of such weapons should be subject to special
authorisation in accordance with the laws of the States involved.
17.
Annex 17 also recommends that Contracting States should ensure that the carriage of
weapons by other persons is allowed only when a duly qualified person has determined that such
weapons are not loaded, and that they are stored in a place inacessable to any person during flight
time.
18.
Contracting States should ensure that the pilot-in-command is notified as to the number of
armed persons and their seat location.
Sabotage
19.
ICAO Annex 6 requires that an operator must establish a checklist of procedures to be
followed in searching an aircraft for a bomb in a case of suspected sabotage
20.
The checklist must be supported by guidance on the course of action to be followed should a
bomb or suspicious object be found, as well as information on the least risk bomb location specific to
the aeroplane.
Chapter 10 Page 5
Emergency and Precautionary

Landings
11
Definitions
1.
A precautionary landing is one that is planned in flight to overcome an unforeseen occurrence
which does not immediately endanger the safety of the aircraft. For example, the sudden serious
illness of a passenger or an unexpected shortage of fuel. Some such events, if not addressed at an
early stage could, with the passage of time, become worse and eventually endanger the occupants
and/or the aeroplane. The landing is therefore made as at an aerodrome which is suitable for the
aeroplane as a precaution to prevent the situation worsening.
2.
An emergency landing is one that is made as soon as possible to overcome an in-flightoccurrence that endangers the safety of the aeroplane. The landing, when possible, should be made
at the nearest aerodrome. However, if it is a dire emergency the landing should be made as soon as
possible either on land or water.
3.
Although such an emergency landing will enable the crew to prepare for the landing,
sometimes this is not possible because it occurs immediately after take-off or prior to landing.
4.
Examples of the first type of emergency are a double engine failure or structural failure and
those same incidents happening on take-off or landing would result in an immediate emergency
landing.
Chapter 11 Page 1

5.
An emergency landing other than at an aerodrome used to be referred to as a forced landing,
in other words, there is no choice, the circumstances compel an immediate landing. These can be
divided into unplanned and pre-planned landings. A landing whether planned or unplanned on to
water is known as a ditching.
Unplanned Emergency Landings

6.
This type of landing is the most critical case because it is planned without warning and there
is not sufficient time to execute a procedure. The successful outcome of such an event depends on
the competence and initiative of the crew. The captain will initiate the required action including the
evacuation of the aircraft. The only warning given will be by the pilot-in-command on the aircraft
public address (PA) system. The announcement will be This is the Captain, this is an emergency,
Brace, Brace.
After the aircraft has come to rest:
Chapter 11 Page 2
(a)
On land the flight crew will give as much guidance as possible in the time available for
the evacuation of the aeroplane. If the condition of the aeroplane is clearly
catastrophic then the cabin crew must initiate the evacuation.
(b)
On water the situation must always be treated as catastrophic and the cabin crew
must tell the passengers to put on life jackets and instruct them to inflate them only on
exit from the aircraft. The cabin crew are responsible for the immediate evacuation of
the aeroplane without instructions from the Flight Crew.
Pre-Planned Emergency Landings

7.
For this type of emergency landing there will be some time to plan a course of action and
prepare for the landing. The time available may be relatively short and may preclude the execution
of all the actions listed in the following procedures.
(a)
(b)
Chapter 11 Page 3
Actions before approach to land:

(i)
Carry out the emergency drills;
(ii)
Transmit a Mayday message;
(iii)
Ask the senior flight attendant to come to the flight deck;
(iv)
Brief the flight attendant on the nature of the emergency and the time available
to landing;
(v)
Brief the passengers on the PA and warn them on passing through each 10,000
feet during the descent;
(vi)
At 1000 feet the co-pilot calls cabin crew take your seats for landing.
Factors to be considered when selecting the area for an emergency landing are:
(c)
Chapter 11 Page 4
(i)
The area of ground should be relatively flat, free of trees and obstructions and
in a non-mountainous area. If possible the area should be close to habitation
and/or surface transport links. All of these requirements may not be possible
particularly over desert and arctic area. It is therefore important to continue
transmitting the aircrafts position to the controlling authority as long as
possible;
(ii)
If possible, land into wind to reduce the groundspeed on impact. The surface
wind may be determined from any smoke, drifting sand or blowing snow. If
this is not possible, use the INS or doppler wind at low altitude as a guide;
(iii)
Avoid landing into sun if it is at a low angle of elevation because the glare will
restrict the visibility on approach to land. At night attempt to land towards
the moon because it will illuminate the ground.
Actions on approach to land:

(i)
At 1000 feet the co-pilot calls Cabin Crew take your seats for landing. Then
at 200 feet, Brace, Brace is called on the PA by the co-pilot;
(ii)
The co-pilot should call speed and height continuously to the captain on finals;
(iii)
The decision whether to lower the undercarriage or not will depend on the
circumstances. It is the captains decision;
(iv)
Just prior to impact both pilot and co-pilot should brace themselves after
turning off the HP and LP cocks.

(d)
Evacuation of the aircraft:

(i)
After landing the Captain, or in his absence the next most senior crew member,
will order an evacuation by PA calling This is an emergency, Evacuate,
Evacuate followed by the evacuation alarm;
(ii)
If hazardous conditions are known to exist near a particular exit additional

information may be passed over the PA;
(iii)
If the landing has clearly been catastrophic the cabin crew should commence
evacuation without waiting for an order.
Ditching
8.
The main differences between a pre-planned emergency landing and ditching are:
(a)
Chapter 11 Page 5
Factors to be considered when selecting an area to ditch the aircraft:

(i)
Proximity of land. If possible land as close as possible to land;
(ii)
Proximity of shipping. Land as close to shipping as possible and make radio

contact on an emergency frequency. This will facilitate rapid rescue;
(iii)
Estimate the swell and land along the line of the swell;
(iv)
Determine the wind direction from the spray and white caps. Approach into
wind to reduce the groundspeed before touch-down;

(v)
(b)
(c)
Chapter 11 Page 6
Inform passengers of the location of their life jackets and advise them to put
them on well before landing and not to inflate them before exiting the aircraft.
Evacuation of the aircraft:

(i)
All ditchings must be treated as catastrophic;
(ii)
Due account must be made for the aircraft altitude in the water when advising
the cabin crew which exits to utilise;
Actions after landing:

(i)
Ensure all survivors are well clear of the aircraft (in dinghies after a ditching);
(ii)
Crew to leave the aircraft last with any survival equipment;
(iii)
Determine what injuries have been sustained if any and nominate crew
members to treat them;
(iv)
Assemble ground location aids for immediate use.

communication by radio of possible;
(v)
Check emergency equipment including rations. Institute immediate rationing;
(vi)
Captain to delegate duties;
(vii)
Captain to decide a plan of action with the rest of the crew.
Establish two-way
Fuel Jettison
Requirements
Safety Procedures
Fuel Jettison
12
Fuel Jettison
Requirements
1.
JAR 25 specifies that a fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless it
has been shown that the aeroplane meets certain rate-of-climb requirements at a specified mass. (The
specified mass is based upon the maximum take-off mass less the actual or computed mass of fuel
necessary for a 15 minute flight comprising a take-off, go around and landing at the aerodrome of
departure with the aeroplane in the appropriate configuration).
2.
If a jettison system is installed it must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes
to reduce the aeroplane mass from the value indicated in paragraph 1 to a mass at which the
specified rate of climb can be achieved.
3.
A jettison system must be designed so as to prevent the jettisoning of fuel in the tanks used for
take-off and landing below a specified level. (This level is that which provides for a climb from sea
level to 10,000 ft and thereafter 45 minutes at a cruise speed for maximum range). This specified
fuel may, however, be jettisoned using a separate auxiliary system if one is fitted.
4.
Unless it has been shown that using flaps, slots and slats does not adversely affect fuel
jettisoning, there must be a placard adjacent to the jettison control warning to crew members not to
jettison fuel while such systems are in use.
Chapter 12 Page 1
Fuel Jettison
Safety Procedures
5.
States may specify minimum altitudes over land below which, jettisoning of fuel is not
permitted except in emergency. Furthermore, Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) requires that nothing be
dropped or sprayed from an aircraft in flight except under conditions prescribed by the appropriate
authority and as indicated by relevant information, advice and/or clearance from the appropriate air
traffic services unit.
6.
Fuel jettison procedures are normally included in the aeroplane operations manual under
abnormal and emergency procedures. A typical checklist is likely to contain appropriate safety
checks, to be made before starting to jettison fuel. Such checks would include:
(a)
advise ATC before jettisoning fuel;
(b)
minimum attitude eg, not below 6000 ft except in emergency;
(c)
avoid areas of precipitation (which can cause a build up of static), static or lightning
discharge;
(d)
no transmissions on HF during jettisoning;
(e)
no smoking unless aircraft pressurised.
The checklist may, if appropriate, also advise against using flaps, slots or slats during jettisoning or of
following a flight path in which the aeroplane could pass through the area of jettisoned fuel vapour.
7.
The jettisoning procedure must be monitored closely to ensure that flow is even and fuel
balance is maintained. Fuel quantity indicators should be checked continuously to monitor jettison
pump operation.
Chapter 12 Page 2

Applicability of Regulations
Shippers Responsibilities
13
Definitions
1.
The following terms may be used in connection with the transport of dangerous goods:
Acceptance checklist. A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the external appearance
of packages of dangerous goods and their associated documents to determine that all appropriate
requirements are met.
Cargo aircraft.
Any aircraft, other than a passenger aircraft, which is carrying goods or
property.
Consignment.
One or more packages of dangerous goods accepted by an operator from one

shipper at one time and at one address, receipted for in one lot and moving to one consignee at one
destination address.
Dangerous Goods.
Articles or substances which are capable of posing significant risk to health,

safety or property when transported by air.
Dangerous Goods accident.
An occurrence associated with and related to the transport of

dangerous goods by air which results in fatal or serious injury to a person or major property damage.
Chapter 13 Page 1

Dangerous Goods incident.
An occurrence, other than a dangerous goods accident, associated
with and related to the transport of dangerous goods by air, not necessarily occurring on board an
aircraft, which results in injury to a person, property damage, fire, breakage, spillage, leakage of fluid
or radiation or other evidence that the integrity of the packaging has not been maintained. Any
occurrence relating to the transport of dangerous goods which seriously jeopardises the aircraft or its
occupants is also deemed to constitute a dangerous goods incident.
Dangerous goods transport document. A document which is specified by the Technical Instructions.
It is completed by the person who offers the dangerous goods for air transport (the shipper) and
contains information about those goods. The document bears a signed declaration indicating that
the dangerous goods are fully and accurately described and all appropriate procedures have been
followed.
Exception.
A provision in Annex 18 which excluded a specific item of dangerous goods from the
requirements normally applicable to that item.
Exemption.
An authorisation issued by an appropriate national authority providing relief from

the provisions of Annex 18.
Flammable.
Note the word flammable has the same meaning as inflammable in the English
language.
Flight crew member.
A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of

an aircraft during flight time.
Incompatible.
Describing dangerous goods which, if mixed, would be liable to cause a

dangerous evolution of heat or gas or produce a corrosive substance.
Chapter 13 Page 2

Overpack.
An enclosure used by a single shipper to contain one or more packages and to form
one handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage.
Package.
The complete product of the packing operation consisting of the packaging and its
contents prepared for transport.
Packaging.
Receptacles and any other components or materials necessary for the receptacle to
perform its containment function and to ensure compliance with the packing requirements of the
Annex.
Packing.
The art and operation by which articles or substances are enveloped in wrappings and/
or enclosed in packaging or otherwise secured.
Passenger aircraft.
An aircraft that carries any person other than a crew member, an operators
employee in an official capacity, an authorised representative of an appropriate national authority or
a person accompanying a consignment or other cargo.
Proper shipping name.
The name to be used to describe a particular article or substance in all

shipping documents and notifications and, where appropriate, on packaging.
Serious injury.
Chapter 13 Page 3
An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:
(a)
Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days from
the date the injury was received; or
(b)
Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or nose); or

(c)
Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon

damage; or
(d)
Involves injury to any internal organ; or
(e)
Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the
body surface; or
(f)
Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
State of Origin.
The State in the territory of which the cargo was first loaded on an aircraft.
State of the Operator.
The State in which the operator has his principal place of business or, it
he has no such place of business, his permanent residence.
Technical Instructions. The latest effective edition of the Technical Instructions for the Safe
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc. 9284) approved by the Council of ICAO.
UN number.
The four-digit number assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the
Transport of Dangerous Goods to identify a substance or a particular group of substances.
Unit local device.
Any type of freight container, aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or
aircraft pallet with a net over an igloo.
Chapter 13 Page 4
Applicability of Regulations
General
2.
The Standards and Recommended Practices of Annex 18 are applicable to all international
operations of civil aircraft. In cases of extreme urgency or when other forms of transport are
inappropriate or full compliance with the prescribed requirements is contrary to the public interest,
the States concerned may grant exemptions from these provisions provided that in such cases every
effort shall be made to achieve an over-all level of safety in transport which is equivalent to the level
of safety provided by these provisions.
Dangerous Goods Technical Instructions

3.
The regulations concerning the transport of dangerous goods on international flights is
contained in the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc
9284), approved, issued and amended in accordance with the procedure established by the ICAO
Council. Each Contracting State is required to take the necessary measures to achieve compliance
with the provisions contained in this document.
Domestic Civil Aircraft Operations

4.
In the interests of safety and of minimising interruptions to the international transport of
dangerous goods. Contracting States should also take the necessary measures to achieve compliance
with Annex 18 and the Technical Instructions for domestic civil aircraft operations.
Chapter 13 Page 5

Carriage Authorisation
5.
An operator shall not, according to JAR-OPS, transport dangerous goods unless approved to
do so by the Authority.
Exceptions to the Requirements

6.
Articles and substances which would otherwise be classed as dangerous goods but which are
required to be on board the aircraft in accordance with the pertinent airworthiness requirement and
operating regulations, or for those specialised purposes identified in the Technical Instructions, are
exempted except from the provisions of Annex 18.
7.
Where articles and substances intended as replacements for those described in paragraph 6
are carried on an aircraft, they are to transported in accordance with the provisions of Annex 18
except as permitted in the Technical Instructions.
8.
Articles and substances intended for the personal use of passengers and crew members shall
be exempted from the provisions of this Annex to the extent specified in the Technical Instructions.
Notification of Variations from the Technical Instructions

9.
Where a Contracting State adopts different provisions from those specified in the Technical
Instructions, it shall notify ICAO promptly of such State variations for publication in the Technical
Instructions.
Classification
10.
The classification of an article or substance shall be in accordance with the provisions of the
Technical Instructions.
Chapter 13 Page 6
Limitation on the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air

Dangerous Goods Permitted for Transport by Air
11.
The transport of dangerous goods by air shall be forbidden except as established in Annex 18
and the detailed specifications and procedures provided in the Technical Instructions.
Chapter 13 Page 7

Dangerous Goods Forbidden for Transport by Air Unless Exempted
12.
The dangerous goods described hereunder are forbidden on aircraft unless exempted by the
States concerned under the provisions of paragraph 9 or, unless the provisions of the Technical
Instructions indicate they may be transported under an approval issued by the State of Origin:
(a)
articles and substances that are identified in the Technical Instructions as being
forbidden for transport in normal circumstances; and
(b)
infected live animals.
Dangerous Goods Forbidden for Transport by Air Under Any

Circumstances
13.
Articles and substances that are specifically identified by name or by generic description in the
Technical Instructions as being forbidden for transport by air under any circumstances shall not be
carried on any aircraft.
Packaging of Dangerous Goods

General Requirements
14.
Dangerous goods must be packaged in accordance with the provisions of Annex 18 and as
provided for in the Technical Instructions.
Chapter 13 Page 8

Packagings
15.
Packagings used for the transport of dangerous goods by air must be of good quality and
constructed and securely closed so as to prevent leakage which might be caused in normal conditions
of transport, by changes in temperature, humidity or pressure, or by vibration.
16.
Packagings must be suitable for the contents. Packagings in direct contact with dangerous
goods shall be resistant to any chemical or other action of such goods.
17.
Packagings must meet the material and construction specifications in the Technical
Instructions.
18.
Packagings must be tested in accordance with the provisions of the Technical Instructions.
Labelling and Marking

Labels
19.
Unless otherwise provided for in the Technical Instructions, each package of dangerous goods
shall be labelled with the appropriate labels and in accordance with the provisions set forth in the
Instructions.
Markings
20.
Unless otherwise provided for in the Technical Instructions, each package of dangerous goods
shall be marked with the proper shipping name of its contents and, when assigned, the UN number
and such other markings as may be specified in those Instruction.
Chapter 13 Page 9

Languages to be used for Markings
21.
In addition to the languages required by the State of Origin and pending the development the
adoption of a more suitable form of expression for universal use, English should be used for the
markings related to dangerous goods.
Shippers Responsibilities
Dangerous Goods Transport Document
22.
Before a shipper offers any package or overpack of dangerous goods for transport by air, that
person shall ensure that the dangerous goods are not forbidden for transport by air and are properly
classified, packed, marked, labelled and accompanied by a properly executed dangerous goods
transport document, as specified in Annex 18 and the Technical Instructions.
Languages to be used
23.
In addition to the languages which may be required by the State of Origin and pending the
development and adoption of a more suitable form of expression for universal use, English should be
used for the dangerous goods transport document.
Acceptance for Transport
24.
Chapter 13 Page 10
An operator shall not accept dangerous goods for transport by air:

(a)
unless the dangerous goods are accompanied by a completed dangerous goods

transport document, except where the Technical Instructions indicate that such a
document is not required; and
(b)
until the package, overpack or freight container containing the dangerous goods has
been inspected in accordance with the acceptance procedures contained in the
Acceptance Checklist
25.
An operator shall develop and use an acceptance checklist as an aid to compliance with the
provisions of the previous paragraph.
Inspection for Damage or Leakage

26.
Packages and overpacks containing dangerous goods and freight containers containing
radioactive material shall be inspected for evidence of leakage or damage before loading on an
aircraft or into a unit load device. Leaking or damaged packages, overpacks or freight containers
shall not be loaded on an aircraft. If evidence of damage or leakage is found after loading on an
aircraft, the area where the dangerous goods or unit load device were stowed on the aircraft shall be
inspected for damage or contamination.
27.
Any hazardous contamination found on an aircraft as a result of leakage or damage to
dangerous goods shall be removed without delay.
28.
An aircraft which has been contaminated by radioactive materials shall immediately be taken
out of service and not returned to service until the radiation level at any accessible surface and the
non-fixed contamination are not more than the values specified in the Technical Instructions.
Chapter 13 Page 11
Location on the Aircraft

29.
Dangerous goods shall not be carried in an aircraft cabin occupied by passengers or on the
flight deck of an aircraft, except in circumstances permitted by the provisions of the Technical
Instructions.
30.
Packages containing dangerous goods which might react dangerously one with another shall
not be stowed on an aircraft next to each other or in a position that would allow interaction between
them in the event of a leakage.
31.
When dangerous goods subject to the provisions contained herein are loaded in an aircraft,
the operator shall protect the dangerous goods from being damaged, and shall secure such goods in
the aircraft in such a manner that will prevent any movement in flight which would change the
orientation of the packages.
Information to be Provided to Pilot-in-Command

32.
An operator is required to ensure that the commander is provided with written information
as specified in Technical Instructions.
Information to be Provided to Crew Members

33.
An operator must ensure that information is provided in the Operations Manual to enable
crew members to carry out their responsibilities in regard to dangerous goods including actions to be
taken in the event of emergencies arising which involve dangerous goods.
Chapter 13 Page 12
Approval to Transport Dangerous Goods

34.
Permanent approval for the transport of dangerous goods will be reflected on the Air
Operator Certificate. In other circumstances an approval may be issued separately.
35.
Before the issue of an approval for the transport of dangerous goods, the operator should
satisfy the Authority that adequate training has been given, that all relevant documents (eg. for
ground handling, aeroplane handling, training) contain information and instructions on dangerous
goods, and that there are procedures in place to ensure the safe handling of dangerous goods at all
stages of air transport.
Dangerous Goods Permitted to be Carried on an Aeroplane

36.
Dangerous goods required to be on board an aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs
or for operating reasons are those which are for:
(a)
the airworthiness of the aeroplane;
(b)
the safe operation of the aeroplane; or
(c)
the health of passengers or crew;
(d)
catering or cabin supplies;
(e)
for use in flight as a veterinary aid or as a humane killer for an animal.
Such dangerous goods include but are not limited to:

(a)
Chapter 13 Page 13
Batteries;

(b)
Fire extinguishers;
(c)
First-aid kits;
(d)
Insecticides/Air fresheners;
(e)
Lifesaving appliances; and
(f)
Portable oxygen supplies.
37.
Gas cylinders, drugs, medicines, other medical material (such as sterilising wipes) and wet cell
or lithium batteries are dangerous goods which are normally provided for use in flight as medical aid
for a patient. (Equipment containing wet cell batteries is kept, and when necessary secured, in an
upright position to prevent spillage of the electrolyte). However, what is carried may depend on the
needs of the patient. These dangerous goods are not those which are a part on the normal equipment
of the aeroplane.
Note. Proper provision must be made to stow and secure all the equipment during take-off and
landing and at all other times when deemed necessary by the pilot-in-command in the interests of
safety.
Dangerous Goods Carried by Passengers or Crew

38.
The Technical Instructions exclude some dangerous goods from the requirements normally
applicable to them when they are carried by passengers or crew members, subject to certain
conditions.
39.
Chapter 13 Page 14
The dangerous goods which each passenger or crew member can carry are:
Chapter 13 Page 15
(a)
Alcoholic beverages not exceeding 70% alcohol by volume, when packed in

receptacles of less than 5 litres:
(b)
Non-radioactive medicinal to toilet articles (including aerosols, hair sprays, perfumes,

medicines containing alcohol); and, in checked baggage only, aerosols which are nonflammable, non-toxic and without subsidiary risk, when for sporting or home use.
The net quantity of each single article should not exceed 0.5 litre or 0.5 kg and the
total net quantity of all articles should not exceed 2 litres or 2 kg;
(c)
Safety matches or a lighter for the persons own use and when carried by the person.
However, Strike anywhere matches, lighter containing unabsorbed liquid fuel (other
than liquified gas), lighter fuel and lighter refills are not permitted;
(d)
A hydrocarbon gas-powered hair curler, providing the safety cover is securely fitted
over the heating element. Gas refills are not permitted.
(e)
Small carbon dioxide gas cylinders worn for the operation of mechanical limbs and
spare cylinders of similar size if required to ensure an adequate supply for the duration
of the journey;
(f)
Radioisotopic cardiac pacemakers or other devices (including those powered by

lithium batteries) implanted in a person, or radio-pharmaceuticals contained within
the body of a person as a result of medical treatment;
(g)
A small medical or clinical thermometer containing mercury, for the persons own use,
when in its protective case;

Information to Passengers - Operators Responsibility
40.
Information to passengers must be promulgated in such manner that passengers are warned
as to the types of dangerous goods that must not be carried on board an aeroplane.
41.
As a minimum, this information should consist of:

(a)
Warning notices or placards sufficient in number and prominently displayed, at each

of the places at an airport where tickets are issued and passengers checked in, in
aeroplane boarding areas and at any other place where passengers are checked in; and
(b)
A warning with the passenger ticket. This may be printed on the ticket or on a ticket
wallet or on a leaflet.
(c)
The information to passengers may include reference to those dangerous goods which
may be carried.
Information to Other Persons

42.
Information to persons offering cargo for transport by air should be promulgated in such a
manner that those persons are warned as to the need to properly identify and declare dangerous
goods.
43.
As a minimum this information should consist of warning notices or placards sufficient in
number and prominently displayed at any location where cargo is accepted.
44.
Pictographs may be used as an alternative to providing written information or to supplement
such information.
Chapter 13 Page 16
Information in the Event of an Aeroplane Incident or

Accident
Information Provided to Aerodrome Authorities by the Pilot-inCommand
45.
If an in flight emergency occurs, the pilot-in-command should inform the appropriate air
traffic services unit, for the information of aerodrome authorities, of any dangerous goods on board,
including quantity and location on the aircraft.
Information Provided by the Operator

46.
The operator of an aircraft carrying dangerous goods which is involved in an aircraft
accident, shall, as soon as possible, inform the State in which the accident occurred of the dangerous
goods carried, together with appropriate specified information and the quantity and location on
board the aircraft of the dangerous goods.
Training
47.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to establish and maintain staff training programmes, as
required by the Technical Instructions, which must be approved by the Authority.
48.
However, where flight crew or other crew members, such as loadmasters, are responsible for
checking the dangerous goods to be loaded on an aeroplane, their training should also be to the
depth specified in JAR-OPS.
Chapter 13 Page 17

49.
Training in Emergency Procedures. The training in emergency procedures should include as a
minimum:
(a)
(b)
For flight crew members:

(i)
Actions in the event of emergencies in flight occurring in the passenger cabin or

in the cargo compartment; and
(ii)
The notification to Air Traffic Services should an in-flight emergency occur .
For crew members other than flight crew members:

(i)
Dealing with incidents arising from dangerous goods carried by passengers; or
(ii)
Dealing with damaged or leaking packages in flight.
Dangerous Goods Incident and Accident Reports

50.
Contracting States are required by ICAO to establish procedures for investigating and
recording accidents and incidents which occur in its territory, which involve dangerous goods
originating in or destined for, another State. Such reports are to be made in accordance with the
51.
Any type of dangerous goods incident or accident should be reported, irrespective of whether
the dangerous goods are contained in cargo, mail, passengers baggage or crew baggage.
52.
Initial reports may be made by any means, but in all cases a written report should be made as
soon as possible.
Chapter 13 Page 18

53.
The report should be as precise as possible and contain all data known at the time the report
is made, for example:
Chapter 13 Page 19
(a)
Date of the incident or accident;
(b)
Location of the incident or accident, the flight number and flight date, if applicable;
(c)
Description of the goods and the reference number of the air waybill, pouch, baggage
tag, ticket, etc;
(d)
Other information as specified.
Factors Affecting Braking
Definitions
Operational Aspects
Braking Action Assessment Methods
Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)
14
Factors Affecting Braking

1.
A number of factors directly affect the braking capability of an aeroplane during the landing
and in the event of an abandoned take-off.
Chapter 14 Page 1
(a)
Runway surfaces. The nature and conditions of the runway surface determines in
part, the amount of grip or friction achieved by a tyre. Smooth surfaces result in less
friction and when even shallow depths of contamination are present, can result in
significantly reduced braking capability. Increased depths of water, snow, slush or ice
degrade braking capability on any runway surface.
(b)
Tyre condition. The tread and condition of the tyre must be designed not only to keep
the maximum possible area in contact with the runway surface but also to permit the
dispersal of water and therefore to delay the onset of aquaplaning. Aquaplaning is
also likely to occur earlier than calculated when a tyre is under inflated.
(c)
External factors. Headwind assists braking; tailwind does not. Increase in altitude,
and ambient temperature reduce braking capability.
(d)
Runway slope. A downsloping runway where aeroplane momentum is assisted by

gravity results in reduced braking effectiveness.
(e)
Aircraft speed. Braking at higher speeds requires increased brake energy and increases
the potential for overheating the braking system whilst reducing its effectiveness.
2.
The operational aspects and considerations related to operating from contaminated runways
are described in the following paragraph.
Definitions
3.
A contaminated runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which more than 25% of the
runway surface area (whether in isolated areas or not) within the required length and width being
used is covered by any of the following:
(a)
Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 ins) deep, or by slush, or loose snow,
equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 ins) of water;
(b)
Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression
and will hold together or break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow) or;
(c)
Ice including wet ice.
Damp Runway
4.
A damp runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which the surface is not dry, but when the
moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance. For performance purposes, a damp runway, other
than grass runway, may be considered to be dry.
Dry Runway
5.
A dry runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and
includes those paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement
and maintained to retain effectively dry braking action when moisture is present.
Chapter 14 Page 2
Wet Runway
6.
A wet runway is defined in JAR-OPS as one on which the surface is covered with water, or
equivalent, less than 3 mm (0.125 ins) deep or when there is sufficient moisture on the surface to
cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.
Contaminants
7.
Dry Snow. Loose hard snow is usually in the form of dry pellets which can be blown, or if
compacted by hand, will fall apart again upon release. For this contaminant to be present the
temperature must be below -5C (and not risen since the snow fell). Its specific gravity is up to but
not including 0.35. The maximum permissible depth for take-off or landing is 60 m on any part of
the runway, measured by ruler.
8.
Wet Snow. Loose snow taking the form of large flakes which if compacted by hand will stick
together to form a snowball (if forms a white covering on all surfaces which when stamped upon
does not slush up). The temperature for this type of snow is between -5C and -1C, with a specific
gravity of 0.35 up to but not including 0.5. For take-off and landing the maximum permissible depth
is 15 mm. A rough guide to this depth is the same as the welt of a shoe.
9.
Compacted Snow. Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass and resists further
compression is compacted snow. It will hold together or break into lumps if picked up. This type of
covering is normally caused by the transit of vehicles over the surface when snow is falling. Its
specific gravity is 0.5 and over.
10.
Slush. A mixture of water and snow which is displaced with a splatter when a heel-and-toe
slapping motion is made on the ground. The temperature is at or around 0C. A maximum depth of
15 mm is permissible for take-off and landing. Specific gravity is 0.5 up to 0.8.
Chapter 14 Page 3
11.
Water. Visible puddles, usually of rain, standing on the surface causing paved surfaces to
glisten when the temperature is above 0C. On a natural surface it is assumed that more than 3 mm
of water exists if under a firm foot pressure and water rises to the surface.
12.
Mixtures. Mixtures of ice, snow and/or standing water may, especially when rain, sleet or
snow is falling, produce a substance having an SG above 0.8. This substance is transparent at higher
SGs, and is easily distinguished from slush which is cloudy.
13.
Ice. A frozen layer of surface moisture. The thickness of which varies and produces a poor
coefficient of friction according to the condition of the surface.
Operational Aspects
Effects of Contamination
14.
The effect that contaminated surfaces have on the performance of an aircraft is different for
each type because of weight, speed, tyre and undercarriage variations. If an aircraft is permitted to
operate on contaminated surfaces, the Flight Manual will contain a statement to this effect giving any
limitations and special handling techniques that may be necessary to ensure compliance with the
appropriate regulations.
15.
Most aerodrome authorities take action to minimise the effect of ice, snow and rain; but it is
still necessary to measure the braking action on the surface. The most reliable and uniform method
of providing this type of information is to measure that amount of friction on the surface. Not only
the runways require testing, other surfaces such as holding bays, taxiways and aprons should be
checked for satisfactory braking. A low friction value means that braking action is reduced and
directional control on the surface degraded.
Chapter 14 Page 4
Friction Measurements
16.
Various methods may be used to measure surface friction, which is considered to be the
maximum value of friction afforded when a wheel is braked but is still rolling. The most suitable
method of assessment is generally determined by operational considerations. The method used to
measure surface friction and then to report it is standardised to enable pilots to correctly interpret the
meaning of the value stated. The equipment used for this purpose provides continuous measurement
of the maximum friction along the entire runway and the value reported is called the braking
coefficient of friction.
Braking Coefficient of Friction

17.
Operationally, a pilot needs to know how the aeroplane will perform on a contaminated
surface compared with how it would perform on a dry hard surface. Braking action information
may be passed by R/T in descriptive terms or as a coefficient of friction which is defined as the
tangential force applied by a surface, expressed as a proportion of the normal dry surface force upon
a loaded, smooth-tyred aeroplane. The relationship between the braking coefficient of friction and
the aircrafts groundspeed for a reference wet hard surface is derived in accordance with the method
described in JAR 25.
Contaminated Surface Measurements

18.
Before the airport operating authority declares a surface fit for use by aircraft, the depth of
contaminant and the braking action have to be measured. The depth of snow or slush on the runway
is measured with a standard depth gauge every 300 metres along the runway between 5 and 10
metres either side of the centre-line and clear of any ruts. The average reading of depth for each third
of the runway is then promulgated. The depth of ice covering runways is not measured.
Chapter 14 Page 5
19.
A continuous runway friction measuring trailer (Mu-meter) and a brake testing decelerometer
(Tapley meter) carried in a light van or truck is used to measure the effect of ice, snow, slush and
water on braking action. This method employs a runway friction measuring trailer (Mu-meter)
towed by a vehicle at 40 mph. The equipment provides a continuous register of the mean coefficient
of friction values either on a paper trace or by means of a digital read-out that is used in conjunction
with a hand computer
Braking Action Assessment Methods

20.
Improvement of Braking Action. To increase the friction value of aircraft manoeuvring areas
affected by ice or snow, grit may have to be put on the surface if poor braking conditions persist.
The specification of grit used is the best compromise between improving friction and causing least
damage to aircraft. The risk to aircraft when using reverse thrust or pitch is high, and extreme
caution is necessary particularly after a sudden thaw.
Reporting Braking Action to the Pilot

21.
When the Mu-meter reading (friction reading) for any one third of the runway falls below
0.50 but not below 0.40, a single mean value for the whole runway will be passed by R/T to the
pilot. This is preceded by the corresponding qualitative term and by a descriptive term of the
conditions.
Example: Braking action medium 0.46. Heavy rain. Time of measurement 1030 .
22.
Should the value for any one-third fall below 0.40 then the values for each third will be given
in order starting with the one nearest the threshold, preceded by the qualitative term appropriate to
the whole runway and followed by a descriptive term of the conditions.
Chapter 14 Page 6
Example: Braking action poor 0.46 0.37 0.39. Standing water. Time of measurement 1530.
Interpretation of Braking Action Assessments

23.
For take-off, as for landing, the aerodrome authorities measure the runway surface coefficient
of friction and estimate the braking action. The reported braking action passed to the pilot is that of
a vehicle unaffected by any condition other than that of the surface. It is therefore the pilot who
must use his judgement of the other factors affecting the aircraft, such as crosswind and aeroplane
mass, to place the appropriate interpretation on the reported conditions. A broad guide of braking
action assessments (which should nevertheless be used with discretion) is as follows:
Chapter 14 Page 7
(a)
Good: Pilots can expect to take-off and/or land within the scheduled wet distances
without undue directional control or braking difficulties caused by the runway
conditions. Untreated ice does not come into this category but gritted ice could
produce the friction required.
(b)
Medium: Aircraft are likely to use all of the wet scheduled distance, including the
safety factor part of the distance. Directional control may be impaired. The
achievement of satisfactory landing performance depends on the precise execution of
the recommended flight technique.
(c)
Poor: The pilot must expect the aircraft to run at least the full very wet or
aquaplaning distance, where this too is scheduled. There may be a significant
deterioration in braking performance and in directional control. It is advisable to
ensure that the landing distance specified in the flight Operations Manual for very wet
conditions does not exceed the landing distance available.
SNOWTAM
24.
In winter, aerodromes participating in the SNOWTAM system are requested to make reports
of runway conditions following significant changes but in any event at least every 24 hr.
25.
The SNOWTAM report identifies for the aerodrome, inter alia, the runways affects, the
extent and type of contamination and the friction coefficient or assessed braking action as a code
number (the braking action code). An illustration of this assessment code is as follows:
Chapter 14 Page 8
Measured or Calculated Coefficient
Estimated Braking Action
Braking Action Code
0.40 and above
Good
0.39 to 0.36
Medium/Good
0.35 to 0.30
Medium
0.29 to 0.26
Medium/Poor
0.25 and below
Poor
Readings Unreliable
Note. In METAR this information will be included as part of an 8 digit code group in the
supplementary information. The last two digits representing either the friction reading (35 = 0.35
etc.) or the braking action code preceded by figure 9 (eg. 92 = braking action assessed as medium/
poor).
Reporting of Wet Runways

26.
The presence of water on a runway will be reported to the pilot using the following
description:
Chapter 14 Page 9
(a)
Damp the surface shows a change of colour due to moisture;
(b)
Wet the surface is soaked but no significant patches of standing water are visible;
(c)
Water Patches Significant patches of standing water are visible (ie. more than 25%
of the runway surface areas to be used covered by water >3mm deep, whether in
isolated areas or not);
(d)
Flooded extensive standing water is visible (ie. more than 50% of the assessed area
covered by water >3 mm deep).
(Note (c) and (d) are considered to be contaminated and automatically imply a risk of aquaplaning).
Effects of Runway Contamination

27.
Depths greater than 3 mm of water, slush or wet snow, or 10 mm of dry snow, are likely to
have a significant effect on the performance of aeroplanes. The main effects are:
(a)
additional drag retardation effects on the wheels and spray impingement drag;
(b)
possibility of power loss or system malfunction due to spray ingestion or

impingement;
(c)
reduced wheel-braking performance the problems of aquaplaning;
(d)
directional control problems;
(e)
possibility of structural damage.
28.
A water depth of less than 3 mm is normal during and after heavy rain and in such
conditions, no corrections to take-off performance are necessary other than the allowance, where
applicable, for the effect of a wet or slippery surface. However, on such a runway where the water
depth is less than 3 mm and where the performance effect is insignificant, isolated patches of
standing water or slush of depth in excess of 15 mm located in the latter part of the take-off run may
still lead to ingestion and temporary power fluctuations which could impair safety.
Chapter 14 Page 10
29.
A continuous depth of water greater than 3 mm is unlikely as a result of rain alone, but can
occur if torrential rain combines with lack of runway camber/crossfall or a crosswind to reduce the
rate of water drainage from the runway. In such conditions the water depth is unlikely to persist for
more than about 15 minutes after the rain has ceased and take-off should be delayed accordingly.
Limitations for Take-Off - Contaminated Runways

30.
When operations from contaminated runways are unavoidable the following procedures are
recommended:
(a)
Take-offs should not be attempted in depths of dry snow greater than 60 mm or

depths of water, slush or wet snow greater than 15 mm. If the snow is very dry, the
depth limit may be increased to 80 mm;
(b)
Ensure that all retardation and anti-skid devices are fully serviceable and check that
tyres are in good condition;
Limitations on Landing
31.
Attempts to land on heavily contaminated runways involve considerable risk and should be
avoided whenever possible. If the destination aerodrome is subject to such conditions, departure
should be delayed until conditions improve or an alternate used. It follows that advice in the
Aeroplane Flight Manual or Operations Manual concerning landing weights and techniques on very
slippery or heavily contaminated runways is only there to enable the Commander to make a decision,
when airborne, as to his best course of action.
Chapter 14 Page 11
32.
Depths of water or slush, exceeding approximately 3 mm, over a considerable proportion of
the length of the runway, can have an adverse effect on landing performance. Under such conditions
aquaplaning is likely to occur with its attendant problems of negligible wheel-braking and loss of
directional control. Moreover, once aquaplaning is established it may, in certain circumstances, be
maintained in much lower depths of water or slush. A landing should only be attempted in these
conditions if there is an adequate distance margin over and above the normal Landing Distance
Required and when the crosswind component is small. The effect of aquaplaning on the landing roll
is comparable with that of landing on an icy surface and guidance is contained in some Flight
Manuals on the effect on the basic landing distance of such very slippery conditions.
Contaminated Runway Calculations

33.
Most modern aeroplanes are certificated using dry runway performance data. However,
provision for operations on a contaminated or wet surface is provided for in JAR 25 AMJ 25X1591
and is required by JAR 25X1591. The method used by the manufactures to determine this data is
similar to that used to determine dry runway data except V1 (Decision Speed) cannot be scheduled
because of the indeterminate friction characteristics of the surface. Hence any information or data
provided in the flight manual is of an advisory nature only.
JAR-OPS Requirements - Landing

Wet Runway
34.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that when weather reports and/or forecasts
indicate that the runway at the aerodrome of intended landing at the estimated time of arrival may be
wet, the landing distance available is at least 115% of the required landing distance.
Chapter 14 Page 12
Contaminated Runway
35.
An operator is required by JAR-OPS to ensure that when weather reports and/or forecasts
indicate that the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be contaminated, the landing distance
available must be at least the value of the required wet minimum landing distance or 115% of the
landing distance required calculated for a contaminated runway.
Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)
36.
The tyre friction required by an aeroplane to maintain directional control and effective
braking is a finite quantity for each aircraft type. The amount of friction actually obtained can be
adversely affected by any surface contaminant. Water is particularly dangerous because it can cause
an almost total loss of tyre friction. This condition which is known as hydroplaning occurs when
water underneath a tyre builds up an increasing amount of resistance to being displaced (by the tyre)
and eventually forms a layer between the runway and the tyre. The result is negligible braking and
difficulty in maintaining directional control.
37.
The effects of aquaplaning on aircraft handling characteristics are similar to those
experienced on an icy or very slippery surface. Some Aeroplane Flight Manuals contain information
on handling characteristics and aircraft performance when such surface conditions exist. The
guidance given should be used at all times when the contaminant depth is significant. Some degree
of hydroplaning is possible at any time when the runway is contaminated by water or some other
foreign substance.
Chapter 14 Page 13
Types of Hydroplaning
38.
Two types of hydroplaning can occur, either individually or together, on wet or icy runways.
They are known as DYNAMIC and VISCOUS, and they differ in their initial cause and total
duration, but may occur together to give combined hydroplaning.
Dynamic Hydroplaning
39.
For this phenomenon to occur, two essential conditions must be present:

(a)
The surface must be flooded to a depth which exceeds the total depth of the runway
texture plus the tyre tread. This is the critical depth and is normally 3 mm.
(b)
The second condition is that the aircraft must be travelling at or above the critical
speed, which is the tyre speed at which the standing inertia of the water is such that
the water is unable to escape from under the tyre. If both conditions are present,
dynamic hydroplaning is likely to occur.
Viscous Hydroplaning
40.
The only essential condition for viscous hydroplaning to occur is a smooth surface covered by
a thin film of moisture. It happens at much lower groundspeeds than dynamic hydroplaning and is
usually of very short duration. On normal landings at the touchdown point the aircraft tyres slip and
skid momentarily until they spin up to their rotational speed. Usually the texture of the runway
surface is coarse enough to break up the liquid film, but any deposits of rubber or oil prevent this
dissipation taking place. The heat generated by the initial slippage of the tyre is enough to cause a
thin layer of rubber to melt and adhere to the runway.
Chapter 14 Page 14
Factors Affecting Hydroplaning

41.
It has been determined by research that the size of the tyre footprint directly affects the
aircrafts hydroplaning characteristics. If the tyre is correctly inflated, its footprint is unaffected by
changes in AUW. But if the tyre is underinflated, the size of the footprint is increased irrespective of
the AUW. An underinflated tyre is more likely to hydroplane than one that is correctly inflated, and
it will do so at a lower groundspeed than that at which hydroplaning would normally occur. Aircraft
tyres must therefore be in good condition, have adequate tread and be inflated at the correct
pressure. If a choice of tyres exists, multi-rib tyres should be selected because they delay the onset of
aquaplaning.
42.
The airfield operating authorities, during the construction or repair of runways, can assist the
pilot by ensuring the runways are porous or grooved to give better tyre traction and that there is
adequate drainage to prevent build up of moisture. However, strong crosswinds can defeat good
drainage on the windward side of the runway. Aircraft design can also assist by the incorporation of
tandem wheel arrangements because they can travel through greater depths of contaminant with less
difficulty than others.
43.
Dynamic hydroplaning, after its onset, will continue whilst the two essential conditions are
maintained. If either the groundspeed falls below the critical speed or the water depth reduces below
the critical depth, this type of hydroplaning will not persist.
Calculation of Critical Speed

44.
The speed at which braking efficiency begins to deteriorate is difficult to calculate because it
is a gradual process, but the speed at which it becomes total can be determined. Tests carried out
with an aircraft fitted with bald tyres, on a smooth, wet surface revealed that the speed at which
aquaplaning occurred can be calculated from the following formula:
Chapter 14 Page 15
(a)
For a non-rotating tyre
V P ( spin up ) in knots = 7.7 --
(b)
For a rotating tyre
V ( spin down ) in knots = 9 --P
V P = hydroplaning speed in knots
= tyre pressure lb/in 2

==== specific gravity of the contaminant
(Note. Tyre pressures can also be measured in kg/cm
lb/in
or in bar where 1 bar is equal to 14.7
2
or 1.034 kg/cm .
In simple terms, sub paragraph (b) can be summarised as the critical (start of hydroplaning) speed in
knots equal to the square root of the tyre pressure multiplied by 9 .
The speed calculated is groundspeed and therefore only in ISA conditions at mean sea level will the
calculated speed equate to indicated airspeed (IAS). In any other conditions TAS will represent more
accurately the calculated aquaplaning groundspeed. At a higher level airfield for example, a given
value of TAS will be achieved at a lower IAS and therefore the calculated aquaplaning speed will be
reached at a lower IAS.
Chapter 14 Page 16
Note. The formula in sub paragraph (a) is applicable for a landing calculation whereas sub
paragraph (b) is applicable for a take-off calculation.
Example: Given a tyre pressure of 144lb/in 2 the critical hydroplaning speed is 108kt for take-off.
Precautions on Take-Off
45.
On take-off, as the tyre commences to roll on a wet surface at slower speeds, water is able to
escape to the sides of the tyre until the speed approaches the critical speed. At this point a wedge of
water builds up in front of the tyre and lifts it clear of the surface. Therefore, to avoid the risk of
hydroplaning, take-off should not be attempted unless the water depth is less than the critical value
for the entire length of the take-off run required.
Precautions on Landing
46.
For landing the non-rotating formula should be used to calculate the dynamic hydroplaning
speed. If the depth of contaminant exceeds the critical depth, the landing should be delayed until it
has drained below the critical depth. Caution is important in this situation.
47.
Finally, aeroplane approach speed is also a factor. Every 1% increase in touchdown speed
above that recommended for the aircraft mass increases the landing distance required by 2%.
Chapter 14 Page 17
Combined Hydroplaning
48.
The loss of tyre friction on wet or flooded runways is generally the result of combined effects
of dynamic and viscous hydroplaning. If dynamic hydroplaning is predominant the area of the tyre
under which the bulk of the water is trapped enlarges as the speed increases. If the contaminant is of
less than critical depth, however, and there is no bulk of water present, the major part of the
footprint is in contact with a thin film of moisture and viscous hydroplaning is the controlling
element.
Reverted Rubber Skids

49.
When a tyre is hydroplaning, although the friction available is insufficient to rotate the wheel
it does generate sufficient heat, on high pressure tyres, to melt the rubber at the contact point and
wear a flat spot on the tyre. The heat also converts water or ice on the runway in the path of the tyre
into steam. The tyre therefore rides on a layer of steam. This is particularly dangerous not only
because of the ineffectiveness of the brakes but also because of the loss of directional control when
the wheels are in a locked condition. Avoidance of reverted rubber skids, as they are called, depends
on the pilot using the anti-skid systems of the aircraft to their maximum advantage.
50.
All these types of hydroplaning can occur in the same landing run if conditions are
appropriate.
Chapter 14 Page 18

071 Operational Procedures (JAA ATPL Theory)

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