Chapter 70

Laplace Transforms

70.1 Definition
70.2 Use of Laplace Transforms
70.3 Partial Fractions

Laplace transformation is used extensively in control engineering. It is a powerful technique for

describing and solving sets of differential equations. When first encountered Laplace transforms
may appear daunting although,in practice,they are
fairly easy to use. It is best to learn how to use the
technique first without fully understanding how
it works. Having mastered the technique a deeper
understanding will follow. This process is analogous to learning to drive. You dont need to know
how an engine works to learn to drive, but being
able to drive does give an insight into how it works.
For a deeper understanding the reader is referred
to classical control texts such as those by Dutton
(1997) and Wilkie (2002).

70.1

Definition

The Laplace transform is defined by the following

equation:

f(s) = L{f(t)} =
f(t).est .dt
(70.1)
0

It is normal for the variable being transformed to

be an analogue signal that is some function f(t) of
time but it could, for example, be a function f(x)
of distance. If the function f(t) is known explicitly,
then its transform can be found by the integration defined in Equation 70.1. If the function f(t)
is not known explicitly then its transform cannot
be found. However, the variable may be considered

to have been transformed in which case it is denoted as such by putting (s) after it. Thus f(s) is the
Laplace transform of f(t).
The integration of Equation 70.1 involves the
Laplace operator s which is a complex variable
that is, by definition, independent of time. Because
the integration is carried out over the range 0 to
the resultant transform is an algebraic expression in s and is independent of time. This is best
illustrated by some examples:
Example 1. Consider a step change in flow of magnitude A at time t = 0 as depicted by Figure 70.1.
Substituting in Equation 70.1,assuming zero initial
flow, gives:
 st 

A
e
f(s) =
A.est .dt = A.
=
s 0
s
0
f(t)
A
t
0
Fig. 70.1 A step change of magnitude A

Example 2. Consider an exponential decay c =

eat in concentration as depicted by Figure 70.2.
Substituting in Equation 70.1, again assuming zero
initial conditions, gives:
 (s+a)t 

1
e
c(s) =
eat .est .dt =
=
(s + a) 0
s+a
0

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70 Laplace Transforms

r(t)

c(t)

slope m

t
0
Fig. 70.2 The unit exponential decay

t
0
Fig. 70.3 A ramp signal of slope m

Example 3. Consider a ramping signal as depicted

in Figure 70.3. Assume that the ramp has a slope of
m. Integrating by parts gives:

r(s) =
mt.est .dt
0
 st 
 st
m
e
e
dt = 2
m.
= m. t.
s 0
s
s
0

Fortunately, it is not normally necessary to have

to work out the transform of a function from first
principles. Extensive tables of Laplace transforms
exist.Table 70.1 lists the more commonly used ones
in process control. Table 70.2 lists the more important properties of Laplace transforms. These
properties, which are all proved in texts such as
Coughanowr (1991) and Ogata (1990),will be made
use of in subsequent chapters.

Table 70.1 Table of common Laplace transforms

f(t)t0

f(s)

Table 70.2 Important properties of Laplace transforms

f(t)t0

(f(t)t<0 = 0)

f(s)

(f(t)t<0 = 0)
A
t
tn
eat
et/T
1 et/T
t.et/T
sin(!t)
cos(!t)
at

at

. sin(!t)
. cos(!t)

A
s
1
s2
n!
sn+1
1
s+a
T
Ts + 1
1
s.(Ts + 1)
T2
(Ts + 1)2
!
s2 + ! 2
s
s2 + ! 2
!
(s + a)2 + !2
s+a
(s + a)2 + !2

f1 (t) + f2 (t)

f1 (s) + f2 (s)

k.f(t)

k.f(s)

d
f(t)
dt
d2
f(t)
dt 2
t
f(t)dt

s.f(s) f(0)

s2 .f(s) s.f(0)
f(s)
s

f(t L)

eLs .f(s)

0 (t)

L (t)

1 eLs
Ls

f()

Lim s.f(s)

f(0)

s0

Lim s.f(s)


d
f(t)
dt
t=0

70.2 Use of Laplace Transforms

Note that in the above examples, and for all the
transforms given in Tables 70.1 and 70.2, the time
t = 0 is both the instant from which the function exists and from which integration commences.
Also, the functions prior values are specified as being zero. This is consistent with the practice of using deviation variables, as discussed in Chapter 22,
and assuming that the variable was at its normal
value prior to the period of interest.

70.2

Use of Laplace Transforms

Laplace transforms are used for solving ordinary

linear differential (ODE) equations with constant
coefficients of the general form:
dn f(t)
dn1 f(t)
an
+ an1
+ ...
n
dt
dtn1
df(t)
+ a1
+ a0 f(t) = u(t) (70.2)
dt
Thus Laplace transforms cannot normally be used
for solving the following equations on the grounds
that they are not ordinary, linear or with constant
coefficients respectively:
a

f(t, x)
+ f(t, x) = u(t)
x
df(t)
a
+ [f(t)]2 = u(t)
dt
df(t)
a(t)
+ f(t) = u(t)
dt

There is essentially a four-step procedure to solving ODEs using Laplace transforms:

1. Transform both sides of the ODE using the
transforms of Table 70.1. The first two properties listed in Table 70.2 are important here.
First, the transform of the sum of two or more
variables is the sum of the transforms of the individual variables. Thus the terms of the ODE
may be transformed one at a time. And second,
the transform of the product of a coefficient
and a variable is the product of the coefficient

577

and the transform of the variable. Thus the coefficient of any term in an ODE has no effect on
the transformation process.
2. Solve the algebraic equation resulting from Step
1 for the transformed variable f(s).
3. Reduce the function f(s) resulting from Step 2
into partial fractions that occur on the right
hand side of Table 70.1. For simple functions
this step is trivial but for complex ones it can
be very tedious.
4. Find the inverse transform of the equation resulting from Step 3 by using Table 70.1. Again,
make use of the first two properties of Table 70.2 which enable the inverse transforms to
be found one term at a time and independently
of their coefficients.
Example 4. To illustrate this procedure reconsider
the sensor used for monitoring the temperature of
a process stream, as discussed in Chapter 69 and
depicted in Figure 69.4. The sensor is a first order
system and its dynamics are described by the first
order ODE:
d0
T
+ 0 = 1
(70.3)
dt
where T = Mcp /UA as defined in Equation 69.5.
Suppose there is a step change of magnitude A
in the process stream temperature. Thus, defining
t = 0 to be the instant when the step change occurs,
and assuming 0 to be in deviation form:
T

d0
+ 0 = A
dt

Step 1. Transform both sides of the equation:

T(s0 (s) 0 (0)) + 0 (s) =

A
s

Since 0 is in deviation form, 0 (0) is presumed to

be zero:
A
Ts0 (s) + 0 (s) =
s
Step 2. Solve for 0 (s):
0 (s) =

A
s(Ts + 1)

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70 Laplace Transforms

Step 3. There is no need to split this into partial

fractions because 0 (s) is on the right hand side of
Table 70.1.
Step 4. Inverse transform:
0 (t) = A(1 et/T )

(69.2)

Note that the denominator of 0 (s) has three roots,

s2 , s and (Ts + 1), the s root being obscured by the
s2 root. Any such hidden roots must be allowed
for in the expansion. If, in the above example, the
hidden s root did not exist then its coefficient b
would be found to be zero.

This step response is as depicted in Figure 69.2.

Approach 1.
Example 5. Suppose that the process stream temperature is ramping upwards with a slope m.Define
t = 0 to be the instant when the ramp starts and,
again, assume 0 to be in deviation form:
T

d0
+ 0 = mt
dt

Step 1. Transform both sides of the equation:

T(s0 (s) 0 (0)) + 0 (s) =

Step 2. Solve for 0 (s):

0 (s) =

m
+ 1)

Step 3. Split into partial fractions:

Step 4. Inverse transform:

s2
s1
s0

0 = bT + c
0 = aT + b
m=a

These three equations may be solved for the three

unknowns,yielding: a = m,b = mT and c = mT2 .
Hence:

(69.3)

This ramp response is as depicted in Figure 69.3.

Partial Fractions

There are two approaches to this. In both cases all

possible partial fractions must be identified by inspection. Consider the function 0 (s) in Example 5
which may be expanded as follows:
a b
c
m
=
+ +
s2 (Ts + 1) s2 s (Ts + 1)

The coefficients of the left and right hand numerators may be equated:

The equating coefficients approach is realistic for

simple functions when the number of simultaneous equations to be solved is small. However, for
more complex functions the method of residues is
more appropriate.

mT2
m mT
+
0 (s) = 2
s
s
(Ts + 1)

70.3

m
(bT + c)s2 + (aT + b)s + a
=
s2 (Ts + 1)
s2 (Ts + 1)

m mT
mT2
m
=
+

s2 (Ts + 1) s2
s
(Ts + 1)

s2 (Ts

0 (t) = mt mT + mTet/T

Putting the right-hand-side of Equation 4 over a

common denominator gives:

m
s2

As before, 0 is in deviation form so 0 (0) is zero:

m
Ts0 (s) + 0 (s) = 2
s

Equating coefficients.

(70.4)

Approach 2.

The method of residues.

This method involves isolating the coefficients in

turn by multiplying throughout by the roots as appropriate. The value of the coefficient is the residual when a value for s is substituted such that all
the other numerator terms become zero. This is
best illustrated by means of the same example.
Multiplying Equation 70.4 throughout by s2
gives:
cs2
m
= a + bs +
(Ts + 1)
(Ts + 1)

(70.5)

70.3 Partial Fractions

Since this equation is true for all values of s, it must
be true for any particular value. Choose s = 0 and
substitute gives a = m.
Now multiply Equation 70.4 throughout by
(Ts + 1):
m a(Ts + 1) b(Ts + 1)
+c
=
+
s2
s2
s
Choose s = 1/T and substitute gives c = mT2 .
The value for b cannot be found in the same
way. Multiplying Equation 70.4 throughout by s
does not enable b to be isolated because of the
s2 in the denominator. In such circumstances there
are two options.
Option 1. Substitute the values found for a and c
into Equation 70.4 as follows:
m b
mT2
m
=
+
+
s2 (Ts + 1) s2 s (Ts + 1)
Again this equation is true for all values of s so it
must be true for any particular value. Choose s = 1
say and substitute gives b = mT whence:

579

m mT
mT2
m
= 2
+
+ 1) s
s
(Ts + 1)

s2 (Ts

Option 2. Since s is a variable and all the other

parameters are constants, Equation 70.5 may be
differentiated with respect to s:
mT
cTs2
2cs

=
b
+
(Ts + 1)2
(Ts + 1) (Ts + 1)2
This has now isolated b which can be found by
substituting any convenient value for s, say s = 0,
which gives b = mT.
It is important to understand the processes involved and to be able to handle them manually for
simple functions.However,for more complex functions, any modern maths or control systems design
package will have routines for finding the roots and
partial fractions of polynomial functions, which
obviously simplifies the process of solving ODEs.