Cherry Jia

Mr. Mathieu
Period 2 Biology
28 January 2015
Midyear Review
Ecology (Chps. 34, 35 & 36)
1) Distinguish between a food chain and a food web.
A food chain simply shows the transfer of food from one trophic level to another whereas a food
web shows the pattern of feeding in an ecosystem consisting of interconnected and branching
food chains.
2) Explain the concept of how light energy is changed to chemical energy.
Chemical energy is generated using light energy from the sun during photosynthesis in plants.
Animals obtain this chemical energy by eating plants or animals that eat plants. Thus, chemical
energy in plants is transferred to the consumer.
3) Contrast between producers and consumers in regard to how energy is transformed.
Producers produce their own energy, while consumers consume to get energy.
4) Describe ways in which energy decreases as it flows between trophic levels in an
ecosystem.
The 10% rule of energy flow states that only 10% of the available energy at a trophic level is
converted to biomass in the next higher trophic level. The rest of the energy (90%) is lost as heat
or used for the organisms own life processes.
5) List several of the most abundant chemical elements found in living things.
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur
6) Distinguish between the flow of energy and the cycling of matter in an ecosystem (hint:
conservation of matter and energy).
Energy flow is linear, while matter cycles. Energy dissipates into heat lost in the environment as
it drifts off into space. Energy is not recaptured, whereas carbon atoms are recycled by
producers. Neither energy nor matter is destroyed.
7) Distinguish between the individual, population, community and the ecosystem.
An individual is the smallest unit of ecological study. One organism. A population is a group of
individual organisms of the same species living in a particular area at a particular time. A
community includes all of the organisms inhabiting a particular area. An ecosystem includes all
the abiotic and biotic factors in an area.
8) Describe at least three types of ecological relationships.
1. Interspecific competition is when two or more different species rely on the same limited
resource. Intraspecific competition is within the same species
2. Competitive exclusion is one species succeeding over another when the growth of both
species is limited by the same resource.
3. Predation is an interaction in which one organism consumes another.
9) Describe three types of symbiosis.
1. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationships in which one organism benefits, while the
other organism is neither harmed nor helped.
2. Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which both organisms involved benefit.
3. Parasitism is a relationship in which a parasitic organism obtains its food at the expense
of a host organism.
10) Distinguish between a niche and a habitat.

A habitat is an organisms specific environment, with characteristic abiotic and biotic factors. A
niche is partly defined by its habitat and is therefore more inclusive. A niche is a unique living
arrangement of an organism defined by its habitat, food sources, time of day it is most active,
and other factors.
11) Explain the 10 percent rule of energy flow through ecosystems.
An average of only 10% of the available energy at a trophic level is converted to biomass in the
next higher trophic level and the reset of the energy is lost from the ecosystem as heat.
12) What factors increase ecological stability? How does co-evolution increase ecological
relationships over time? How can introduced species disrupt these relationships?
Factors such as biodiversity, climate, and location can help increase ecological stability. Also
understanding an organisms habitat or working towards sustainable development can help. Coevolution helps increase ecological relationships by having two organisms evolve in response to
another. This would cause an ecological relationship between the two organisms because they
need one another. The longer they evolve with one another, the harder it is for one to live without
the other. Introduced species may be able to overwhelm one or both of the organisms in these
relationships by outcompeting them for certain niches. Once it outcompetes one organism, it
affects all the organisms with relationships with the organism it outcompeted.
13) Distinguish between biomagnification and the 10 percent rule.
Biological magnification is the process by which pollutants become more concentrated in
successive trophic levels of a food web: The pollutant is not lost as it goes up because a higher
organism eats lots of lower organisms with lower concentrations of the pollutant. But the more it
eats, the more pollutant it is accumulating. Thus, a tertiary consumer would be taking in a very
high concentration of pollutant. The 10% rule on the other hand relates to energy. Not all energy
is passed on from one trophic level to the next, whereas in biomagnification, all of the pollutant
is passed on.
Matter & Energy (Chps. 2.2 + 2.3 {sci. method}, 4 & 5)
1) Explain how to distinguish between a scientific and a pseudoscientific idea. Relate the
steps of the scientific process to your answer.
A scientific idea has evidence and follows the scientific method of making observations and
making a hypothesis. Then, an experiment is run based on the hypothesis and predictions are
made. Concepts and ideas may be changed over time. However, a pseudoscientific idea is does
not follow the scientific method and lacks plausibility. It is more like a claim with no concrete
evidence. Concepts and ideas cannot be tested by other scientists, failures are ignored, and
concepts/ ideas dont change.
2) Distinguish between atoms and molecules.
Atoms are the smallest building blocks of the elements. Molecules are two or more atoms held
together by covalent bonds.
3) Compare and contrast photosynthesis to cellular respiration; how are they similar and
different in terms of molecules used and produced? How do they transform energy in
different ways? How do the concepts of conservation of matter and energy relate to these
equations?
Photosynthesis uses sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce glucose, and oxygen. Cellular
respiration uses glucose, oxygen, and ATP to produce ATP, water, and carbon dioxide.
Photosynthesis transforms light energy into chemical energy (glucose), and cellular respiration
transforms chemical energy (glucose) into ATP. Concepts of conservation of matter and energy

relate because during both process neither matter nor energy is lost or gained. They are converted
into other forms.
4) Classify a given pH as basic, acidic or neutral.
<7: acidic, 7: neutral, >7 basic
10 fold scale
5) Describe the ADP/ATP cycle in organisms and how ATP is used by the cell.
When a phosphate is removed from ATP, potential energy is released from the covalent bond
and the cell can use this energy converting the ATP to ADP. Additionally, that ADP becomes
ATP when another phosphate is added. ATP is used by the cell to perform functions.
ATP+H2OADP+P
6) Name the building blocks of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids. Explain
how these macromolecules are used by organisms.
Carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Carbohydrates are used for energy and structure.
Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids. Proteins are use for structure, hormones,
defense, storage, contraction, enzyme transport, and receptors on cell membranes.
Fats (aka Lipids) are made up of Glycerol and fatty acids. Fats are used for biological
membranes, long term energy, waterproof coatings, and hormones.
Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides, which are composed of a phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar,
and a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids store, transmit, and decode genetic information.
7) List several characteristics and actions of enzymes.
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed in
the reaction themselves. Because enzymes are proteins, they can get denatured when exposed to
extreme temperatures and pH. Enzymes are substrate specific, meaning that they only catalyze a
specific reaction by identifying and binding to specific reactants while rejecting others. The
substrate is converted to products either through the enzyme contorting and weakening the
substrates bonds or by holding the reactants together in the most energy efficient configuration
enabling them to react more easily. Decomposition: enzyme takes a compound and break it down
into atoms or molecules. Synthesis: An enzyme combines atoms and molecules to make a new
compound
Cells + Mitosis (Chps.6 + 9)
1) Compare and contrast a prokaryotic cell to a eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotes

Same

Eukaryotes

No membrane-bound
organelles such as a
nucleus

Cell
Membrane

Contain distinct organelles surrounded by

membranes, such as nucleus and mitochondria

Contains a single, circular

chromosome

Cell wall
(some)

Chromosomes are linear; human body cells

contain 46 chromosomes in each nucleus

Can contain plasmids

Chloroplasts
(some)

Does not contain plasmids

Ribosomes are small

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are larger

Respiration can be either

Respiration is mostly aerobic

aerobic or anaerobic
Cytoskeletal elements,
such as microfilaments, are
absent

Cytoskeletal elements, such as microfilaments, are

present

Most are unicellular

Some, like euglena and paramecium, are single

celled; many are multicellular with specialized cell
types, such as muscle, blood, and skin cells

Very small: 1-10 um

Larger: 10-100 um

Most have tough external

cell walls

Most (except plant cells and protists) are

surrounded by only a cell membrane

2) Identify and explain the function of the organelles in a plant and animal cell.
Cell Part

Function

Cell membrane

Boundary between cell and environment

Cytoplasm

Watery cell fluid that contains cells organelles

Nucleus

Contains DNA -> Controls cell activity

Nucleolus

Produces ribosomes

Ribosomes

Creates proteins

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Site of protein synthesis and transport throughout cytoplasm

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

synthesizes steroid hormones and other lipids, connects

rough ER to Golgi complex, detoxifies the cell,
carbohydrate metabolism

Mitochondria

Involved in cellular respiration

Golgi Complex

Modify, store, and package substances produced in the

Rough ER. Secretes these substances to other parts of the
cell and to the cell surface for export to other cells.

Lysosomes

Destroy bad cell parts and digest undigested food, expose

nutrients for cell to use

Vacuoles

Store water, waste and food

Vesicle

Tiny vacuoles

Centrioles (Two centrioles at right Involved in cell division

angles to each other make up one
centrosome)
Chloroplasts (In plant cells only)

Involved in photosynthesis

Cell wall (In plant cells only)

Surrounds cell membrane, gives plant cell shape

Cilia (short)

Movement

Flagella (long)

Movement

3) Relate the endosymbiosis theory to chloroplasts and mitochondria.

The endosymbiosis theory says that eukaryotic cells arose from living communities formed by
prokaryotic organisms. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacteria-like DNA, similar to
bacteria in size and structure, produce asexually (binary fission), and have cell membranes.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are like ancient bacteria. Evidence indicates that they are
descendants of symbiotic bacteria that co-evolved inside a host over many millions of years.
4) Compare and contrast a plant and animal cell.
Animal Cell

Same

Plant Cell

Centrioles and centrosomes

Have a distinct
vacuole

No Centrioles and centrosomes

No chloroplasts and other

plastids

Plasma membrane

Chloroplasts and other plastids

Small vacuoles

Nucleus

Large central vacuoles

Plasma membrane only

Cytoplasm

Cell walls in addition to plasma

membrane

Lysosomes

Ribosomes

No Lysosomes

Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Golgi Apparatus
5) Distinguish between diffusion, osmosis, active, and passive transports.
Simple Diffusion: random movement of particles from a region of greater concentration to one of
lesser concentration. Rate of movement is determined by the size of the molecules being
transferred and the concentration gradient.

Facilitated Diffusion: required a concentration gradient and a protein to serve as a channel across
a membrane.
Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.
Active transport: Movement of molecules across a membrane requiring energy to be expended
by the cell. Used to move a compound against a concentration gradient. Requires a channel
protein and energy.
Passive transport: diffusion across a membrane requiring only the random motion of molecules
with no energy expended by the cell
6) Describe the cell cycle and the events of mitosis.
Interphase:
G1 (cell grows) -> S phase (genetic material duplicated) -> G2 phase (cell prepares to divide)
Mitotic Phase:
Prophase (nuclear envelope breaks up and spindle forms) -> Metaphase (chromosomes gather
and line up, spindle microtubules connect) -> Anaphase (chromatids separate) -> Telophase
(chromosomes uncoil, nuclear envelope forms)
Note: Cytokinesis is the pinching of the cytoplasm into two cells (only in animal cells). In plant
cells, a new cell wall forms and the cell divides into two.
7) Explain the function of mitosis to an organism. What problems can arise from mitosis?
Mitosis helps produce new cells to replace existing dead or dying cells. There can be out of
control cell reproduction which can create malignant tumors and cancer.
8) Contrast asexual and sexual reproduction. What are the advantages and disadvantages
of each?
Asexual

Sexual

enables animals living in isolation to

reproduce without a mate

needs two parents

creates numerous offspring quickly

Creates few offspring slowly

There is no expenditure of energy

maintaining elaborate reproductive
systems or hormonal cycles

Energy used towards maintaining elaborate

reproductive systems or hormonal cycles

Because offspring are clones of the

parent, asexual reproduction is
advantageous when the environment is
stable and favorable

Variation. Each offspring is the product of both

parents and may be better able to survive than
either parent, especially in an environment that is
rapidly changing.

Meiosis + Heredity (Chps. 9, 10 & 12)

1) What are the key steps of meiosis that are significant to sexual reproduction?
Crossing-over is the process in which homologous chromatids exchange genetic material.
Crossing-over is important because it ensures greater variety in the gametes.
2) Compare and contrast mitosis to meiosis. How are they similar? How are they
different? Construct diagrams of each to compare the position and movement of
chromosomes.

Mitosis and meiosis are similar because they both duplicate the DNA during interphase.
However, during meiosis one, there are tetrads instead of just sister chromatids in mitosis.
Additionally, meiosis only occurs in gametes, whereas mitosis occurs in almost all types of cells.
Meiosis also produces 4 haploid daughter cells whereas mitosis produces 2 daughter cells.

3) How does the segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis explain a 3:1
ratio of a monohybrid cross?
By separating the homologous chromosomes, both the recessive and dominant alleles of a
monohybrid may be able to be expressed.
4) How does the independent assortment of two pair of homologous chromosomes during
meiosis explain the 9:3:3:1 ratio of a dihybrid cross?
By Mendels principle of independent assortment, the alleles for the two different characteristics
can be paired with one another which allows the Punnett square to be used to predict results.

5) What is crossing over and how is it similar yet different from independent assortment?
Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. It is
similar because alleles of different characters can be paired with one another
6) Distinguish between: a) genes and alleles, b) phenotype and genotype, c) homozygous
and heterozygous.
a) Alleles are alternative forms of genes.
b) Phenotypes are the physical characteristics whereas genotypes represent the genetics.
c) Homozygous means having identical alleles for a gene whereas heterozygous means having
different alleles for a gene.
7) Relate Mendels principles (or laws) to the chromosome theory of heredity.
Mendels principle of segregation occurs when homologous chromosomes do not cross over,
during meiosis and his principle of independent assortment show how multiple alleles can be on
the same chromosome. The chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes are located on
chromosomes, and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization accounts for
inheritance patterns.
8) Explain the difference between incomplete dominance and codominance.
Incomplete dominance is when the heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate between
the phenotypes of the two homozygotes, whereas in codominance, the heterozygote expresses
both traits.
9) How is pleiotropy different from epistasis?
Epistasis is the expression of the gene depends upon a modifier gene, whereas pleiotropy is
when a gene can affect multiple traits.
10) How is polygenic inheritance different from single gene inheritance?
There are more factors and combinations in polygenic inheritance whereas in single gene
inheritance, there is usually only two possible outcomes with one gene controlling that one
phenotype or feature.
11) Who determines the sex of a child; the mother or the father? Relate the fertilization of
sex chromosomes to your answer.
The father determines the sex of a child because the mother is only able to give an X
chromosome, whereas as the father can give either a X or Y chromosome.
12) Construct a diagram illustrating the inheritance of an X-linked trait.
X

X XX XX
Y XY XY
13) Give two examples of sex-linked traits.
Red-green Color Blindness and hemophilia
14) Show, using a Punnett square, how the 9:3:3:1 ratio results from a Mendelian dihybrid
cross.
AB

Ab

aB

ab

AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

Ab AABb

AAbb

AaBb

Aabb

aB

AaBB

AaBb

aaBB

aaBb

ab

AaBb

Aabb

aaBb

aabb

Results:
Number showing traits A and B : 9
Number showing traits A and b : 3
Number showing traits a and B : 3
Number showing traits a and b : 1
15) What is nondisjunction and how is meiosis related to it?
Nondisjunction is when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during
meiosis.
16) How can a karyotype reveal the sex of a child or a child born with Down syndrome?
By looking at the sex chromosomes, the sex of a child can be determined and if the child has
three chromosome 21s.
Molecular Genetics (Chp. 11 + 13)
1) How does the structure of DNA lend itself to replication?
Since DNA is a double helix, it undergoes semi-conservative replication. Helicase splits it into
two strands and only two strands are created by using the opposite bases from the original
strands.
2) How does the structure of DNA lend itself to being a code of information (analogous to a
library of books)?
The sequence of nitrogenous bases is the code of information and the double helix helps provide
a structure for them.
3) Compare and contrast DNA to RNA. Why do you suppose life eventually evolved to use
DNA and not RNA?
DNA uses the base thymine whereas RNA uses the base uracil. Additionally, DNA is doublestranded while RNA is single stranded. Life evolved to use DNA because DNA is more efficient
due to its two strands versus the single strand of RNA.
4) Compare and contrast DNA replication to protein synthesis.
In DNA replication two strands of DNA are made and similarly in protein synthesis a portion of
the DNA strand is copied from the DNA strand. However in DNA, two strands are replicated
whereas in protein synthesis, only the portion necessary is replicated and also then it is translated
after it is copied into the language of RNA.
5) Describe the steps involved in transcribing and translating a gene into protein?
First, RNA polymerase attaches to DNA and creates a chain of messenger RNA. Then, the
noncoding regions (introns) are removed, and the exons are spliced together. Then the transfer
RNA molecules bind to the appropriate codons and amino acids.
6) How does a codon differ from an anticodon?
Codons are in the mRNA and anticodons are complementary to the codons. The anticodon is
attached to the tRNA.

7) Explain the difference between an intron and an exon.

Introns are non-coding regions and exons are coding regions in the mRNA.
8) How can DNA/chromosomes become altered? What effect can this have on forming a
protein?
They can become altered when errors are made during DNA replication or during chromosome
crossovers. This can lead to a bunch of wrong amino acids produced, only one wrong amino
acid, or no change at all, depending upon what kind of mutation or change it is.
9) What is the lac operon? How does this enable a bacterium to regulate its genes?
Lac operon is a stretch of genes that affect whether or not lactase is released into the human
system. Its structure lets it form an operon with a promoter and operator. When lactose is not
present, the lac operon is inactive because a repressor binds to the operator and blocks the
attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter which begins transcription. When lactose is
present, the repressor is inactivated and transcription of lactose-processing genes proceeds.
10) What is recombinant DNA technology? How is this different from cloning?
Recombinant DNA technology is when genes are combined from different sources into a single
DNA molecule. It is different from cloning because cloning creates a genetic copy whereas
recombinant DNA technology can help incorporated a characteristic into another organisms
DNA.
11) How does PCR use the principles of DNA replication?
It uses the principles by having the strands separated and then adding DNA polymerase to create
new strands complementary to the old ones.. That is the main idea and format of DNA
replication.
12) How does DNA fingerprinting work? Explain how gel electrophoresis can be used in
this process.
DNA fingerprinting works because everyone has a unique fingerprint. The fingerprint is
determined by the pattern produced by your restriction fragments, and in gel electrophoresis, the
DNA can be separated to reveal a persons unique DNA fingerprint.
Evolution + Classification (Chps. 14 + 15)
1) Explain how variation, inheritance, selection, time, and adaptation cause
evolution. Provide a specific example from your notes or textbook demonstrating this.
In the Galapagos Islands, the finches Darwin observed had undergone evolution because of the
selective pressure of the environment. Those pressures made it such that finches with certain
characteristics, inherited by variation, were more likely to survive and have offspring. Slowly,
over time the gene for this adaptation would become more abundant in the gene pool.
2) How is over reproduction, competition for limited resources, and inherited differences
among individuals lead to small, evolutionary changes in populations?
The selective pressures of the environment would cause certain individuals with certain
differences to be more likely to survive and reproduce successfully, causing a slow shift in the
gene pool over a period of time.
3) Compare and contrast natural, artificial, and sexual selection.
Natural selection is where individuals with favorable characteristics to survive reproduce,
whereas in artificial selection, individual with favorable characteristics for human purpose are
chosen to reproduce, and in sexual selection, individuals with favorable characteristics for
reproduction.
4) Explain what could cause directional selection in a population over time. What could
cause stabilizing selection?

A situation where some extreme such as tall height is favored would cause directional selection
in favor of tall individuals. A situation in which an intermediate characteristic would be favored
compared to the extremes would cause stabilizing selection.
5) Provide an example of behavioral, geographic, and temporal isolation.
Songbirds sing different mating songs and have different mating rituals. Harris antelope squirrel
and the white-tailed antelope squirrel are separated by the Grand Canyon. The eastern spotted
skunk and the western spotted skunk have different breeding seasons.
6) Why is reproductive isolation an important criteria for speciation?
Reproductive isolation is important because if they can reproduce, then their genes will mix with
the gene pool. If their genes mix, then they cant be considered separate species. Different
species cant reproduce successfully.
7) List the criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Practice a Hardy-Weinberg
problem and find the p2, 2pq, and q2 values.
1. no gene flow
2. no mutations
3. random mating
4. large population
5. no natural selection
8) How can scientists distinguish between analogy and homology when studying
organisms?
They can examine the genetics of the organisms and also examine the bone structures for
similarities.
9) Describe of fossils, embryology, anatomy, and molecular genetics provide clues of the
evolutionary history of a group of living organisms.
Fossils can show a common ancestor between living organisms. Embryology can show how
certain genes have been turned off to stop the development of certain characteristics in an
organism that was originally in it a long time ago. Anatomy can show homologous or analogous
structures by comparing the structures of two organisms. Molecular genetics can show how
closely related organisms are by their genetic sequencing.
10) How does convergent evolution explain analogous structures between unrelated
organisms?
Common environmental pressures shape unrelated species to have analogous forms.
11) What can both genetic drift and natural selection cause adaptive radiation in a group
of organisms over time?
Genetic drift can cause adaptive radiation by creating variation and diversity. Through chance, a
group with differing characteristics or genes will break off. After a period of time, the group
could survive and become a subspecies. Natural selection would help cause adaptive radiation if
the new characteristic was beneficial in a different environment.
12) Explain the advantages of using scientific names versus common names.
Scientific names can help distinguish between organisms with similar common names or
misleading common names. For example, the jellyfish is not actually a fish.
13) Analyze a cladogram and be able to identify derived traits among organisms.