Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
If both the p-type and the n-type regions are of the same semiconductor
material, the junction is called a homojunction. If the junction layers are made of
different semiconductor materials, it is a heterojunction.
As a matter of convention, if the n-type doped semiconductor material has
larger energy gap than the p-type doped material, it is denoted a p-N
heterojunction.
The use of capital and lowercase Ietters connotes the relative size
the energy gap. Conversely, if the p-type doped material has a larger energy
gap than the n-type material, the junction is referred to as a P-n heterojunction.
EEE 6397
19
Heterojunctions -2
When semiconductors of different band gaps, work
functions, and electron affinities are brought
together to form a junction, we expect
discontinuities in the energy bands as the Fermi
levels line up at equilibrium . The discontinuities in
the conduction band EC and the valence band EV
accommodate the difference in band gap between
the two semiconductors Eg.
Eg Eg1 Eg 2
EC EV
In practice, the band discontinuities are found experimentally for particular semiconductor
pairs.
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
Semiconductor Device Theory
EEE 6397
20
Heterojunctions -4
To draw the band diagram, we need:
depend on semiconduc tor
and
depends on semiconduc tor
Work function
material AND doping
The true vacuum level (or global vacuum level), Evac, is the potential energy reference when
an electron is taken out of the semiconductor to infinity, where it sees no forces. Hence, the
true vacuum level is a constant
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
Semiconductor Device Theory
EEE 6397
21
Heterojunctions -5
However, since the electron affinity is a
material parameter and therefore constant
we need to introduce the new concept of
the local vacuum level, Evac(loc), which
varies along with and parallel to the
conduction band edge, thereby keeping the
electron affinity constant. The local vacuum
level tracks the potential energy of an
electron if it is moved just outside of the
semiconductor, but not far away.
P-side
n-side
The difference between the local and global vacuum levels is due to the electrical work done
against the fringing electric fields of the depletion region, and is equal to the potential energy
qV0 due to the built-in contact potential V0 in equilibrium. This potential energy can, of
course, be modified by an applied bias.
EEE 6397
22
Heterojunctions -6
To draw the band diagram for a heterojunction accurately, we must not only use the proper
values for the band discontinuities but also account for the band bending in the junction.
To do this, we must solve Poisson's equation across the heterojunction, taking into account
the details of doping and space charge, which generally requires a computer solution. We
can, however, sketch an approximate diagram without a detailed calculation. Given the
experimental band offsets EV and EC, we can proceed as follows:
EEE 6397
23
Heterojunctions -7
2. The metallurgical junction (x = 0) is located
near the more heavily
doped side. At x = 0 put EV and EC, separated
by the appropriate
band gaps.
Steps 2 and 3 of this procedure are where the exact band bending is important and must be
obtained by solving Poisson's equation. In step 2 we must use the band offset values EV and
EC for the specific pair of semiconductors in the heterojunction.
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
Semiconductor Device Theory
EEE 6397
24
Heterojunctions -8
Consider heavily n-type AlGaAs is grown
on lightly doped GaAs where the
discontinuity in the conduction band
allows electrons to spill over from the N+AlGaAs into the GaAs, where they become
trapped in the potential well.
As a result, electrons collect on the GaAs side of the heterojunction and move the Fermi
level above the conduction band in the GaAs near the interface. These electrons are
confined in a narrow potential well in the- GaAs conduction band. If we construct a device
in which conduction occurs parallel to the interface, the electrons in such a potential well
form a two-dimensional electron gas with very negligible impurity scattering in the GaAs
well, and very high mobility controlled almost entirely by lattice scattering (phonons).
EEE 6397
25
26
27
28
29
d
q
( p n Nd Na )
dx S
Let us define that x = 0 correspond to the junction boundary, with the p side in the
-x direction and the N side in the + x direction. Moreover, x = - Xpo is the boundary separating
the neutral and the depletion regions on the p side, and XN0 the boundary on the N side. The
subscript 0 emphasizes that we are considering the thermal equilibrium condition.
Considering that, in the p-side depletion region, the net charge concentration is the negative
acceptor density and in the N-side depletion region the net charge concentration
is the donor density (depletion approximation). Therefore, the last equation simplifies to
d
q
N a for -X p 0 x 0
dx
p
d
q
Nd
dx N
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
for 0 x X N 0
30
( x)
q
N a (x X p 0 ) for -X p 0 x 0
p
( x)
q
N d ( X N 0 - x)
N
for 0 x X N 0
q
x2
V ( x) ( x)dx
N a ( X p 0 x) C for -X p 0 x 0
p
2
Since it is the relative value or potentials rather than their absolute values that is of
importance, we arbitrarily define the zero potential at a convenient location, namely,
at x =-Xpo .With the boundary condition that V(- Xpo) = 0, V(x) is written as
2
X p0
q
x2
V ( x)
Na ( X p0 x
)
p
2
2
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
for -X p 0 x 0
31
p0
q
N a X 2p0
2 p
where p0 is a positive number. The band diagram, being an energy diagram for the
negatively charged electron, shows that the electron energy decreases with the associated
increase in V(x).
Similarly the potential profile on the N side can be obtained by integrating the appropriate
electric profile. Taking the boundary condition that V(0) = p0,
q
x2
V ( x)
N d X N 0 x - p0
N
2
for 0 x X N 0
N 0
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
N d X 2N0
2 N
32
bi N 0 p 0
q
q
N d X 2N0
N a X 2p0
2 N
2 p
Xp0 and XN0 can be determined by solving two linearly independent equations relating these
two variables. One of the required equations is obtained by enforcing the continuity of the
electric flux density D = in the absence of an interfacial charge density at the junction:
N d X N0 N a X p0
The equality ensures that charge neutrality exists in the overall p-N junction. The second
equation relating Xp0 and XN0 is found by taking the ratio of the built in potentials on the N
side to those on the p side:
N 0 p N d X N0
p 0 N N a X 2p0
2
33
N 0 p N a
p 0 N N d
N 0
p N a
p 0
bi 1
p 0 1
N N d
p0
Alternatively, from an examination
of the band diagram bi is equal to
bi
Egp Ec p N
q
34
p E f Ev | x
N Ec E f | x
Both p and N are calculated from the equilibrium statistics equations given in
n Nce
E f Ec
kT
p Nve
Ev E f
kT
35
n NC e
E f Ec
kT
Ev E f
kT
n
n E f Ec kT ln
Nd
p
ln
NV
p
A1
NV
p
A2
NV
3.72 1017
0.0259 ln
0.093eV
16
110
p
A3
NV
p
A4
NV
0.103eV
36
Ev ( x) 0.55x
0 x 0.45
1.247 0.55 x
Ec ( x)
2
0
.
476
(
0
.
125
0
.
55
)
x
0
.
143
x
x 0.45
E0. is 0.244 eV. Egp the energy gap of the narrower gap material (GaAs), is 1.424 eV.
Therefore, the built-in voltage is found
37
p N a
p N a
bi 1
p 0 p 0 bi /1
N N d
N N d
13.18(3 1019 )
4
1.678 / 1
5
.
13
10
V
16
12.09(110 )
N0 which is equal to bi - p0 is 1.678 - 5. 13 x 10-4 1.6775 V. It is clear from this calculation
that if one side is significantly more heavily doped than the other practically all of the built in potential drops across the depletion region of the lightly doped side. Once N0 and p0 are
determined, XN0 and Xp0 are calculated from
N 0
2 N
q
2(12.09)(8.85 1014 )
2
-5
N d X N0 X N0
N 0
1
.
677
4.74
10
cm
19
16
2 N
qN d
(1.6 10 )(110 )
p0
2 p
q
2(13.18)(8.85 1014 )
2
N a X p0 X p0
p0
5.13 104 1.58 10-8 cm
19
19
2 p
qN a
(1.6 10 )(3 10 )
38
X p0
q
x2
V ( x)
Na ( X p0 x
)
p
2
2
q
x2
V ( x)
N d X N 0 x - p0
N
2
39
Semiconductor Heterojunctions
Abrupt p-n heterojunction
N-type
p-type
To construct a band diagram for an abrupt p-n heterojunction, we proceed in the same
manner as for the p-n homojunction. We begin with two separate materials. Since the
materials have different bandgaps, there must exist a discontinuity in the conduction band
(Ec) and/or the valence band (Ev) at the interface . The difference in the bandgap between
the two materials is equal to the sum of the conduction band and valence band discontinuities
Eg Eg1 Eg 2 Ec Ev
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
40
In
DN L
E
n d p exp g
k T
I
D
N
L
p a n
B
p het
41
42
43
44
Quasi-electric fields
In a homogeneous semiconductor, the
separation between the conduction and
valence bands is everywhere equal to the
semiconductor bandgap. Any electric field
applied to the material therefore results in an
equal slope in the conduction and valence
bands, as indicated in the figure.
When a hole or electron is placed in this
structure, a force of magnitude eE will act on
the particle.
The magnitude of the force is equal to the
slope of the bands and is the same for both
electrons and holes. However, the direction of
the force is opposite for the two particles.
45
Quasi-electric fields -2
An interesting phenomenon arises in
semiconductors with graded bandgaps, such as
the bipolar transistor emitter-base structure
shown at the top figure .
In the graded region, the bandgap is not constant,
so the slopes in the conduction and valence bands
are no longer equal. Hence the forces acting on
electrons and holes in this region are no longer
equal in magnitude.
It is in general possible for a force to act on only
one type of carrier, as shown in the top figure, or
for forces to act in the same direction for both
electrons and holes, as in the bottom figure. Such
behavior cannot be achieved by pure electric
fields in homogeneous materials. These fields,
which were first described by Herbert Kroemer in
1957, are therefore referred to as quasi-electric
fields.
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
46
Quasi-electric fields -3
In a given material, the total field acting on a hole or an electron is always the sum of the
applied field and the quasi field, or
The applied field, which results from applying a voltage difference between the ends of the
material, will always be the same for both electrons and holes, but the quasi field could be
different for both. The band profiles in figures in the last slide can therefore be achieved in a
number of different ways. For example, the profile in top figure could be achieved in the
following two ways:
1. An undoped (intrinsic) material with a graded composition and zero applied electric field
typically results in the profile in the lower figure. If an electric field app = e,quasi is then
applied to this material, the resulting profile will be the one shown in the upper figure.
2. A uniformly doped n-type material with a graded composition and zero applied electric
field will also result in the profile in the upper figure. In this case, the doping ensures that
the separation between the conduction band and the Fermi level remains approximately
constant. Notice that the resulting quasi-electric field in this structure acts only on minority
carriers.
Nezih Pala npala@fiu.edu
47
Quasi-electric fields -4
Quasi-electric fields provide engineers with additional tools that can be
exploited in device design. They have proven to be very useful in decreasing
transit times in devices that rely on minority carrier transport.
For example, in bipolar technology, a highly doped graded base layer is often
used to speed up the transport of minority carriers from the emitter to the
collector. For a base with uniform bandgap, minority carriers injected from the
emitter must diffuse across the base, a process that is generally slow. By using a
highly doped graded base to generate a quasi-electric field, such as was
described in the second example above, minority carriers can be swept across
much more quickly, thus reducing the base transit time and improving the
device RF performance.
48