BoundNotes

VCESpecialistMathematics,MAT1085
MaoYuanLiu

2008

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Writtenby

MaoYuanLiu

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MicrosoftWord2007

VCAAStudentNumber

86348260R

MonashStudentNumber

21513856

Lastupdate

Version1.43,29thSeptember2008

Page2


TableofContents

0.2

TableofContents

0.2.1

TableofContents
1

Algebra........................................................................................................................................................5
1.1

1.1.1

SystemsandMatrices...................................................................................................................6

1.1.2

Vectors.......................................................................................................................................18

1.2

CircularFunctions.......................................................................................................................28

1.2.2

HyperbolicFunctions..................................................................................................................34

1.2.3

FunctionsandtheirGraphs........................................................................................................36
ArgandDiagram..........................................................................................................................40

1.3.2

Operations..................................................................................................................................40

1.3.3

PolarForm..................................................................................................................................41

1.3.4

ComplexRoots............................................................................................................................45

1.3.5

RelationshipsintheComplexPlane...........................................................................................46

Calculus.....................................................................................................................................................49
2.1

SingleVariableCalculus.......................................................................................................................50

2.1.1

Limits..........................................................................................................................................50

2.1.2

MethodsofDifferentiation........................................................................................................54

2.1.3

ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus..........................................................................................57

2.1.4

MethodsofAntidifferentiation..................................................................................................63

2.1.5

ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus................................................................................................73

2.1.6

DifferentialEquations.................................................................................................................81

2.1.7

PhysicalApplications..................................................................................................................93

2.1.8

SequencesandSeries...............................................................................................................107

2.2

VectorCalculus..................................................................................................................................115

2.2.1

SpaceCurveandContinuity.....................................................................................................115

2.2.2

Derivative.................................................................................................................................115

2.2.3

VectorTangent.........................................................................................................................116

2.2.4

Curvature..................................................................................................................................116

2.2.5

NormalandBiNormal..............................................................................................................116

2.3

ComplexNumbers...............................................................................................................................39

1.3.1

AlgebraofFunctions...........................................................................................................................28

1.2.1

1.3

LinearAlgebra.......................................................................................................................................6

MultivariableCalculus.......................................................................................................................117

2.3.1

Continuity.................................................................................................................................117

2.3.2

PartialDerivatives.....................................................................................................................117

2.3.3

Tangentplanes.........................................................................................................................119

2.3.4

Chainrule.................................................................................................................................119

2.3.5

DirectionalDerivatives.............................................................................................................120

2.3.6

CriticalPointsofaSurface........................................................................................................121

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0.3

0.3.1

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Algebra

1.0
1.0.1

Algebra

Algebra
LinearAlgebra(SystemsandMatrices,Vectors),AlgebraofFunctions,
ComplexNumbers

Page5


LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1LinearAlgebra
1.1.1

SystemsandMatrices

A
matrixisarectangulararrayofmrowsandncolumns,denotedby
andjcolumnisdenotedas .Thematrixcanalsobeexpressedas

.Itsentriesatirow

Addition/subtractionareonlylegalwheretheorder(dimension)ofthematricesarethesame.

Twomatricesareconsideredequaliftheirorderandalltheirentriesarethesame.
Propertiesofaddition:

Commutative,(A+B)=(B+A)

Associative,A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

Additionofzeromatrixhasnoeffect,A+0=A

ThereexistanegativematrixDofA,whereeachandallitsentriesarenegativethatofA,
suchthat,D+A=A+D=0
Scalarmultipleofamatrixisobtainedbymultiplyingeachentrybythescalar.
Propertiesofscalarmultiplication:

Scalar1hasnoeffect,1A=A
Collective,kA+nA=(k+n)A
Distributive,k(A+B)=kA+kB
Associativeandcommutative,k(nA)=n(kA)=(nk)A
Zeroscalarnullsthematrix,0A=0

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.1

MatrixMultiplication

MatrixmultiplicationbetweenAandBisonlylegalifthenumberofcolumnsisthesameasthe
numberofrows.TheproductinheritthenumberofrowsofA,andthenumberofcolumnsofB

Forexample

Wherethematriceshavetherightdimensionstomultiplyeachother,theyaresaidtobe
conformable
Matrixdivisioninvolvesthematrixinverse,whichdoesntalwaysexist.Thiswillbeexploredlateron
inthenotes.
Propertiesofmultiplication:

Associative,A(BC)=(AB)C
Distributive,A(B+C)=AB+AC
NOTcommutative

1.1.1.2

Transpose

Atransposematrixisamatrixwithrowsandcolumnsswitched,orinvertedaboutitsprimaryaxis[a11,
a22,a33]

Forexample

Propertiesoftranspose:

Thetransposeofatransposeisitself,(AT)T=A

Transposeofasumisthesumoftransposes,(A+B)T=AT+BT

Transposeofascalarmultipleisthescalarmultipleofthetranspose,(kA)T=k(AT)

TransposeofamatrixproductistheproductofthetransposesintheREVERSEORDER,
(AB)T=BTAT

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.3

SpecialTypesofMatrices

1.1.1.3.1

Zero

Zeromatricesarematriceswhereallentriesare0:
0

1.1.1.3.2

Square

Squarematricesarematriceswhichhasthesamehorizontalandverticaldimension,suchas

Onlyasquarematrixcanhavedeterminants,inversesandpowers.

1.1.1.3.3

Symmetrical

Thetransposeofasymmetricalmatrixisequaltoitself.I.e.thematrixisequivalentoneithersideof
itsprimaryaxis.
issquare.

1.1.1.3.4

Diagonal

Adiagonalmatrixisasymmetricalmatrixwhereallentriesexceptthoseontheprimaryaxisarezero.
0
0
0

0
0 isadiagonalmatrix.

Thenonzeroentriesoftheinverseofthediagonalmatrixarethereciprocalofthenonzeroentries
/
0
0
/
0
ofthediagonalmatrix. 0
0
0
/

1.1.1.3.5

Identity

Anidentitymatrixisadiagonalmatrixwhereallthenonzeroentriesare1.
1

1
0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

Amatrixmultipliedbyaconformableidentitymatrixisitself.IA=AI=A.
Theinverseoftheidentitymatrixisitself.

1.1.1.3.6

Orthogonal

Orthogonalmatricesaresquarematriceswheretheirtransposeisequaltotheirinverse.

Oneofsuchcaseistherotationalmatrix,

cos
sin

sin
cos

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.4

LinearTransformation

Foranndimensionalspace,thepositionvectorcanbetransformedlinearlybyan
transformationmatrixT,suchthat:

1.1.1.4.1

HomogenousLinearTransformation

HomogenouslineartransformationaretransformationintheR2spacebya2x2matrix.

0:

Generally,wherex2=mx1+c(astraightline),giventhat

1.1.1.4.1.1

SpecialCases
0,

Where

,
Or

wherea22isnot0.Or

1.1.1.4.2

wherebotha12anda22are0.

Dilation

0
,wherehisthedilationfactorfromtheyaxis(paralleltox),andkisthedilationfactorfromx
0
axis(paralleltoy)

1.1.1.4.3
1
0
1
0
0
1

Reflection

0
reflectsabouttheyaxis.
1
0
reflectsaboutthexaxis.
1
1
reflectsaboutthey=xline,ortakestheinverseoftherelationship.
0

1.1.1.4.4
cos
sin

1.1.1.4.5

Rotation
sin
cos

rotatesby intheanticlockwisedirection.

Shearing

,wherehistheamountofsheerinthexdirection,andkistheamountofsheerinthey
1
direction.

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.5

RowOperations

Therearethreeelementaryrowoperations:

Rowswapswapanyrowwithanotherrow
Multiplybyascalar(nonzero)multiplyanyrowbyanumber(notzero)
Addamultipleofanotherrow

Byusingrowoperations,amatrixcanbemadeintoreforrref.

1.1.1.5.1

RowEchelonForm

Entriesbelowanyleadingentries(thefirstnonzeroentryinarow)arezero.Thisalsoimpliesthatall
entriestotheleftofanyleadingentriesarezero.Leadingentriesarepreferredtobe,butnot
necessarily,1.
1
0
0

1.1.1.5.2

0
0

1
0

ReducedRowEchelonForm

Entriesbelowandaboveanyleadingentries(thefirstnonzeroentryinarow)arezero.Thisalso
impliesthatallentriestotheleftofanyleadingentriesarezero.Allleadingentriesare1.
1
0
0

1.1.1.6

0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

Determinants

Thedeterminantisanumericalvaluedfunctionofasquarematrixthatdetermineswhetheritis
invertible.Thisallowsthecalculationofthematrixinverse,andhenceallowsdivision.
.

Determinantsaredenotedbydet

Itisgrantedthatdet

Fora2by2matrix,wecanexpressalinearsystemas

Bytheprocessofelimination,

Forx1tohaveauniquesolution,itscoefficientmustnotbe0.Thiscoefficientisthedeterminant.
det

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.6.1

Minor

Theminor(ij)ofmatrixAisthematrixwiththeithrowandjthcolumnstruckout:
,

1.1.1.6.2

Cofactor

Thecofactoristhedeterminantoftheminormultipliedby1tothepoweroftherowpluscolumn:
1

Fortheabovecase,

The1termwillmeanthatthecofactorsofdifferententrieswillhavedifferingsigns.Theyfollowthis
generalpattern:

1.1.1.6.3

CofactorExpansion

Cofactorexpansioncantakeanyrowandanycolumn.Thedeterminantisthesumoftheproductof
eachentryanditscofactorinaparticularroworcolumn.Formatrix

Bycolumn:
det

|,

where isaconstant

Byrow:
det

where isaconstant

Forexample:
1
1
3

0
2
2
det

1
3 ,tofinddetA,expandingbyfirstrow:
1
1

2 3
2 1
6
0

1
2

1
2

1
3

0
6

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3
1

1 2
3 2


LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.6.4

PropertiesofDeterminants

Somepropertiesofdeterminantsare:

Det(A)=Det(AT)
Ifthereisanyroworcolumnthatisentirelyconsistedofzeros,thedeterminantiszero
Ifanyroworcolumnsareidentical,thedeterminantiszero
Ifanyroworcolumnaremultiplesofanotherrow/column,thenthedeterminantiszero
Scalarmultipleofasingleroworcolumngivesthescalarmultipleofthedeterminant,

Decompositionofrows/columns,

Multiplesofanotherroworcolumn,

Rowswap,

Det(AB)=Det(A)Det(B)

1.1.1.7

Inverse

AmatrixinverseisonesuchthatA(A1)=(A1)A=I

1.1.1.7.1

ByCofactor

Thematrixinverseisthetransposeofthecofactormatrixdividedbyitsdeterminant.Henceamatrix
witha0determinanthasnoinverse.
1
det

Thetransposeofthecofactormatrixiscalledtheadjointmatrix,denotedbyadj(A).
adj

det
Forexample,

1
1
3

0
2
2

1
3 ,
1

4
1
8
8
2

0
2
2

4
2
2

4
2
2

8
2
2

4
2 , det
2

1 4
8
8
4

Page12

2
2
2

2
2
2

1
2
1
1
2

1
4
1
4
1
4

1
4
1

4
1
4


LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.7.2

ByRowOperations

Byaugmentingthesquarematrixwiththeidentityofequaldimensionontheright,usingelementary
rowoperationstomakethelefthandmatrixintoidentity,therighthandmatrixwillbetheinverse.

1
1
3

0
2
2

1
3
1

1
0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

1
2
1
1
2

1
4
1
4
1
4

1
4
1

4
1
4

Whereanentireroworcolumnofthelefthandsidebecomesentirely0,theidentitymatrixcan
neverbeobtained,i.e.nomatrixinverse.

1.1.1.7.3

o
o

PropertiesofInverse

Amatrixhasaninverseifandonlyifithasanonzerodeterminant.
Ifamatrixhasnoinverse,itissingular
Ifamatrixhasaninverse,itisnonsingularorinvertible
det(A)det(A1)=1
(AT)1=(A1)T
(AB)1=B1A1

1.1.1.8

ElementaryMatrices

Elementarymatricesaresquaretransformationmatricesthatperformasingleelementaryrow
operation.Thesematricesareinvertible.
An
matrixisconsideredanelementarymatrixifitdiffersfromtheidentitymatrixbyasingle
rowoperation.

1.1.1.8.1

TypesandProperties

TypeIInterchangetworows
0
1
0

1
0
0

0
0
1

0
2
0

0
0
1

TypeIIMultiplyarowbyanonzeronumber
1
0
0
TypeIIIaddamultipleofanotherrow
1
0
0

0
1
0

2
0
1

IfweletEbean
elementarymatrix,andAbean
sameasapplyingthatrowoperationtoA.

Page13

.ThematrixproductEAwouldbethe


LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.8.2

InverseElementaryMatrices

TypeIInterchangetworows
0 1
1 0
0 0

0
0
1

0
1
0

1
0
0

0
0
1

(Thistypeofelementarymatrixisitsselfinverse.)
TypeIIMultiplybythereciprocal
1
0
0

0
2
0

1
0
0

0
0
1

0
1/2
0

0
0
1

1 0
0 1
0 0

2
0
1

TypeIIISubtractmultipleofanotherrow
1
0
0

0
1
0

2
0
1

Elementarymatricesfundamentallycharacterisesmatrixinverses:
IfAistheproductofelementarymatricesEkE3E2E1,then:

Amatrixhasaninverseifandonlyifitistheproductofelementarymatrices.

1.1.1.9

SystemsofLinearEquations

Asystemoflinearequationcanbegeneralisedtobe:

Fornvariablenequationssystem,itcanbeexpressedasthematrixequation:

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.9.1

Solving

1.1.1.9.1.1

UsingInverses

InthecasethatAisanonsingularmatrix,

1.1.1.9.1.2

CramersRule

Cramersruleisconsideredtobeeasierthanusingmatrixinverses.
Since

,thesolutionofthesystemcanbeexpressedas:
1
det

1
det

Itisevidentthattherightmostmatrixentriesisacofactorexpansionofacolumn,wheretheentry
forthejthcolumn,andtherestoftheentriesareidenticaltothatofA.

A(j)isusedtodenotethematrixobtainedfromAbyreplacingthejthcolumnofAbythecolumn
vectorB.

Forexample,

Ingeneral,
1
det

det
det

det
Inparticular,

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.9.1.3

GaussianElimination

Gaussianeliminationuseselementaryrowoperationsoftheaugmentedmatrix[A|B],carryingitto
itsrowechelonorreducedrowechelonform.
Forexample:
1
1
3

0
2
2

1
3
1

1
1
3

0
2
2

1
1
1

Augmentedmatrix
1
3
1

1
1
1

Usingrowechelonforms
1
1
3
;

0 1
2 3
2 1

1
0
0

1
1
1

2/3
1
0

1/3 1/3
2
1/2
1
1/2

Usingreducedrowechelonforms
1 0
1 2
3 2

1
3
1

1
0
0

1
1
1
1
,
2

0
1
0

0
0
1

1
,
2

1/2
1/2
1/2
1

Gaussianeliminationcanbeusedtosolvenotonlynbynsystems,butanysystemoflinearequations.

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LinearAlgebra
SystemsandMatrices

1.1.1.9.2

Consistency

Inasystemoflinearequations,exactlyoneofthefollowingoccurs.

1.1.1.9.2.1

NoSolutions

Asystemoflinearequationsissaidtobeinconsistentiftherearenosolutions.
Whentherearenosolutions,thedeterminantofthecoefficientmatrixAiszero,andthematrix
inversedoesnotexist(Theconverseisnotnecessarilytrue).UsingmatrixinverseorCramersruleto
solveasystemwouldyieldanindeterminateresult(dividebyzero).
UsingGaussianeliminations,therearenosolutionswhentherearerowofthetype
0 0
0 |
,where*isanonzeronumber.

1.1.1.9.2.2

UniqueSolution

Forasystemwithasetofuniquesolutions,

Thenumberofequationsmustbeequalormorethanthenumberofvariables.
Thedeterminantofthecoefficientmatrixmustnotbe0
Thecoefficientmatrixmustbeinvertible
Thereducedrowechelonformofthecoefficientmatrixmustresembletheidentitymatrix.
Thereducedrowechelonformofthecoefficientmatrixmustnothaveacolumnentirely
consistedofzeros.
exists

uniquesolution

1.1.1.9.2.3

det

InfiniteSolutions

Asystemmayhaveinfinitesolutions,suchastwoplanesintersectingonalineortwoequations
coincide.Generally,iftherearemorevariablesthanequations,thereareinfinitesolutionstothe
system.
Ifthecoefficientmatrixofasystemwithinfinitesolutionsisasquarematrix,itsdeterminantwillbe
zero(theconverseisnotnecessarilytrue).UsingmatrixinverseandCramersrulewillyieldan
indeterminateresult(dividebyzero).
UsingGaussianelimination,inreforrref,thecolumnsofthecoefficientwhichdonotcontainany
leadingentriesareunbound,anditscorrespondingcoefficientbecomesaparameter.
1
Forexample, 2
1

3
6
3

1
3
0

1
4
1

1
Theaugmentedmatrixwillhencebe 2
1

3
6
3

1
3
0

1
1
4 ,anditsrrefis 0
1
0

Ignoringtherowofzeroentries,wecanseethat
Let

0
1
0

1
2
0

,andyisunbound.

.ThisdescribesalineinR3space.

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3
0
0


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2

Vectors

1.1.2.1

Definition

Avectorisaquantitywithbothmagnitudeanddirection.Itisalsopossibletodefinethesenseofa
vector,i.e.oneofthetwowaysthevectorcanbepointingtowards.
Avectorisrepresentedbyastraightlinesegmentwithanarrow.

1.1.2.1.1

EqualityofVectors

Twovectorsareequalifandonlyiftheyhavethesamemagnitude,samedirectionandsamesense.
Vectorsarefree,wherethestartingpointofavectorisirrelevant.Thesamelinesegments
pointinginthesamedirectionalwaysrepresentthesamevector,regardlessoftheirstartingpoint.
Displacementvectorsarefreevectorswithoutaboundstartingpoint.Positionvectorsarefree
vectorswiththestartingpointboundatorigin.

1.1.2.1.2

SpecialVectors

1.1.2.1.2.1

UnitVectors

Unitvectorshaveamagnitudeof1.

1.1.2.1.2.2

SpatialDimensions

Thedefineddimensionsareawaytocoordinatendimensionalspace.
Inparticular,thesedimensionalvectorsareunitvectors,andareperpendiculartoeachother.iisthe
firstdimension,jistheseconddimensionperpendiculartoi,andkisthethirddimension
perpendiculartobothiandj.
Avectorisoftenresolvedintocomponentsinthedirectionofspatialdimensions.

1.1.2.1.2.3

ZeroVectors

Zerovectorisa0dimensionalvector,withzeromagnitude,unspecifieddirectionandsense.Itisa
singlepoint.

1.1.2.1.3

Magnitude

ThemagnitudeofavectorcanbecalculatedbyPythagorastheoremwhenitisexpressedas
perpendicularcomponents.
| |

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LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.1.4

AnglewithAxis

Thecosineoftheangleavectormakeswithanaxisisitscomponentinthatdirectiondividedbyits
magnitude(ratioofcosine).
cos

If istheangleavectormakeswiththexaxis(idirection),then

| |

Foravectoru,whereistheanglebetweenitandthexaxis,totheyaxisandtothezaxis,
cos
And,since|

| |

, cos

, cos

| |

wouldbeaunitvector| |,itfollowsthat

cos

cos
Forexample,

| |

40

60

cos

49 ,findtheacuteanglethisvectormakeswiththehorizontal.

Let betheangle makeswiththezaxis.

cos

49
40

60
2.168

0.562

49
124.2

Hencetheacuteangleitmakeswiththehorizontalis124.2

Page19

90

34.2


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.1.5

Sums,DifferencesandScalarMultiples(ParallelVectors)

Sumofvectorsarecalculatedbyjoiningeachvectorheadtotail.Theresultantvectoristhevector
whichjoinsthetailofthefirstvectortotheheadofthelastvector.
Whenvectorsareexpressedintheircomponents,thesumofthevectorsinaparticulardirectionis
thesumofthecomponentsinthatdirection.Thecomponentsoftheresultantvectorarethesumof
thecomponents.
Vectorsubtractionareadditionofnegativevectors(i.e.reversedvector).
Scalarmultipleofavectorchangesthemagnitudebythefactorofthescalar,directionandsenseare
notchanged.
Vectorsadditionandscalarmultiplicationare

Commutative:u+v=v+u
Associative:u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
Additionofzerovectorhasnoeffect:u+0=0+u=u
Scalarmultiplicationisassociative:n(ku)=(nk)u
Collective:nu+ku=(n+k)u
Distributiveoveraddition:n(u+v)=nu+nv
Multiplicationby1:1u=u
Multiplicationby0:0u=0

Twovectorsareconsideredparalleliftheyarescalarmultiplesofeachother.

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LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.1.6

LinearDependence

Vectorsarelinearlydependantifthesumofmultiplesofvectorsisthezerovector.

Ifthisrelationshipistrueforasetofcoefficientsthatarenotallzero.
Thisimpliesthatanysetofvectorsareautomaticallylinearlydependantifoneofthemisazero
vector.
Linearindependencycanbedescribedaswhenaquantitycannotbedescribedintermsofmultiples
ofotherquantitiesinaset.Thisappliesnotonlytovectors,butalgebraicexpressionsalso.

1.1.2.2

ScalarDotProduct

1.1.2.2.1

DefinitionandInterpretation

Thescalardotproductisdefinedasfollowed:
| | | | cos
Where istheanglebetweenthevectors.
Theimplicationofthisisthatunitvectorswhichpointinthesamedirectionhaveadotproductof1,
andperpendicularvectorshaveadotproductof0.
Inthreedimensionalspace(intermsofi,j,andk),thedotproductoftwovectorsis

cos

| | | |

Anglebetweenvectorsisnevermorethan180o().
Propertiesofthedotproduct:

Commutative,a.b=b.a
Distributiveoveraddition,a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c
Distributiveoverscalarmultiplication,a.(kb)=k(a.b)=(ka).b
Thedotproductofanyvectorwithazerovectoris0.
Thedotproductofanyvectorwithitselfisitsmagnitudesquared,a.a=|a|2
Twononzerovectorsareorthogonalifandonlyiftheirdotproductiszero.

1.1.2.2.2

OrthogonalVectors

Orthogonalvectorsarevectorswhichpointinperpendiculardirections.
Fornonzeroorthogonalvectors,theirdotproductisalways0.

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LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.2.3

Resolute

Thevectorresoluteofavectorinthedirectionofanothervector:

Thescalarresoluteofavectorinthedirectionofanothervectoris
vectorresolute.
Theperpendicularresoluteis

1.1.2.3

VectorCrossProduct

1.1.2.3.1

DefinitionandInterpretation

Thevectorcrossproductisdefinedas

,simplythemagnitudeofthe

| | | | sin

Whereuisaunitvectorperpendiculartobothaandb.
Thecrossproductoftwovectorsinthethreedimensionalspacecanbecomputedbyadeterminant:

Themagnitudeofthevectorcrossproductcanbeinterpretedastheareaofparallelogramformed
bythetwovectors.
Propertiesofvectorproduct:

Distributiveoverscalarmultiples,ax(kb)=k(axb)=(ka)xb
NOTcommutative.Bythepropertyofdeterminants,reversingtheorderswapstworows,
makingthedeterminantnegativeofwhatitwas.bxa=(axb)
Distributiveoveraddition,ax(b+c)=axb+axc
Vectorproductwithitselfisthezerovector
Vectorproductwithazerovectoristhezerovector

1.1.2.3.2

ScalarTripleProductandCoPlanarity

Thescalartripleproduct,orboxproduct[a,b,c],isdefinedas

Bythepropertiesofdeterminants,
Arowswapmakesthedeterminantnegative,hence,[a,b,c]=[b,a,c]=[a,c,b]=[c,b,a]
Swappingtworowsmakesthedeterminantpositivehence,[a,b,c]=[c,a,b]=[b,c,a]
Aninterpretationofthevalueoftheboxproduct(scalartripleproduct)isthevolumeofthe
parallelepipedofthethreevectors.
Ifthescalartripleproductiszero,thevectorsarecoplanar(theyexistonthesameplane).

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LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.4

VectorGeometry

1.1.2.4.1

Line

1.1.2.4.2

Plane

Foraplanein3D,anormalvectornisperpendiculartotheplaneatallpoints.

1.1.2.4.2.1

EquationforaPlane
0

Wheren=<a,b,c>
,

, ,

1.1.2.4.2.2

PerpendicularDistanceFromOrigin

(x0,y0,z0)denotesthepointwheretheplaneisclosesttotheorigin,i.e.itsperpendiculardistance
fromorigin.
Atthatpoint,thepositionvector
Alsothat

isamultipleofthenormalvector,

| |
|

1.1.2.4.2.3

| |

| |

AnglesBetweenPlanes

Theanglebetweenplanesaresimplytheanglebetweenthenormalvectors.
cos

| |

Page23


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.4.3

ParameterisationandCartesianEquivalence

1.1.2.4.3.1 Ellipses
cos

sin

sin

cos

or

1
Ellipseswithgoingto+/ainthexdirectionand+/bintheydirection,centredat(h,k)

1.1.2.4.3.2 Hyperbola
Hyperbolaontheleftandright.
sec

tan

Hyperbolaonthetopandbottom.
tan

sec

Page24


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

1.1.2.4.4

VectorProofs

1.1.2.4.4.1

GeometryPrerequisites

Page25


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

Forexample
Provethecosineruleforanyangle.
Let

beatriangle

BC

2
2

QED
Provethemidpointofthehypotenuseofarightangledtriangleisequidistantfromallvertices.
Let

bearightangledtriangle

Let bethemidpointof
1
2

1
| |
2

| |

1
2
Since
1
| |
2

| |

Point isequidistantfrom , and

QED

Page26


LinearAlgebra
Vectors

ThreepointsP(1,2),Q(1,2)andM(4,0)lieonthecircumferenceofacircle,whichalsohas
anotherxinterceptD(d,0),wheredisnegative.Findd.

1
2

SinceMDisadiameterofthecircle,andPliesonthecircumference,
0
5

Page27

90


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

1.2AlgebraofFunctions
1.2.1

CircularFunctions

1.2.1.1

SymmetricalIdentities

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot

cos
sin
cot
cosec
sec
tan

1.2.1.2

cos
sin
cot
cosec
sec
tan

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot

sin
cos
tan
Sec
cosec
cot

cos
sin
cot
cosec
sec
tan

cos
sin
cot
cosec
sec
tan

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot

CartesianIdentities
sin

cos

1
sec
csc

1
tan
1 cot

1.2.1.3

CompoundAngleFormulae
sin
cos

sin cos
sin cos
cos cos
sin sin
tan
tan

1 tan tan

tan

sin 2
cos 2

2 sin cos
sin
cos
2 tan

1 tan

tan 2

2 cos

2 sin

tan

Forexample,
1

LHS

2 cos

2 sin

cos

tan

1
8

cos
sin
1

tan
cos

2 sin

sec

2 1

cos
sin

sin

cos

cos

2
2

4
tan

Page28

22

RHS

sin
cos
tan
sec
cosec
cot


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

sec

1.2.1.3.1

22

MultipleAngleFormulae
1
sin
2
1
cos
2
1
cos
2

sin cos
sin sin
cos cos

1.2.1.4

sin

cos

cos

SineandCosineRule

Inatrianglewithsidesa,bandcandtheangleoppositethemA,BandC,
sin

sin

sin
2

cos

Page29


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

1.2.1.5

ReciprocalFunctions

Secant
1

cos

sec

Verticalasymptoteseveryfrom/2.
Domain: :
Range: :

\
1

Cosecant
1

sin

csc

Verticalasymptoteseveryfrom0.
Domain: :
Range: :

\
1

Cotangent
1
tan

cot

cos

sin

Verticalasymptoteseveryfrom0.
Domain: :
Range: :

Graphingcombinationsofthesemusttakecarefulconsiderationintermsoftheasymptotic
behaviours.Thisisthecasewith

csc

cot

Whena>b,thenumeratorisalwayspositiveandthesinedeterminesthesignofthefunction,which
behavessimilarlytothecosecant.Whenb>a,thenumeratorvariessimilarlytocosine,andthe
functionbehavessimilarlytocotangent.
Whena=b,thefunctionisconvergentat

,whereyconvergesto0.Thefunctionis

equivalenttothecotangentdilatedbyafactorof2fromtheyaxis.

Page30

cot


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

1.2.1.6

RestrictedFunctionsandInverses
Sin isdefinedfor
Sin

isdefinedfor
Range:

1
2

Cos isdefinedfor0
Cos

isdefinedfor
Range:0

Tan isdefinedfor
Tan

isdefinedfor

Range:

Page31


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

1.2.1.6.1 FurtherIdentities
sec

cos

csc

sin

cot

tan

1
1

sin cos

sin tan

cos sin

cos tan

cos

sin

tan sin

tan cos

1
1

1
1

1.2.1.7

CircularArcsandChords

a) Ifwebisecttheangle,thebisectorraywouldperpendicularlybisectthestraightline,cutting
itinhalfto135m.
135

sin

135

sin

Also,thearclengthwouldbehalvedto150m
150

150
2

Equating,
135
150
9
10

sin
sin

Convertingtodegrees
9
10

180
sin

sin

200

Page32

, asrequired.


AlgebraofFunctions
CircularFunctions

a) Thenewlengthcanbebrokenintotwosections,arcAPandthelinesegmentPB.
|

|
2

|
|

|
tan

tan
|

10

10 tan

20
2,

asrequired

Page33


AlgebraofFunctions
HyperbolicFunctions

1.2.2

HyperbolicFunctions

1.2.2.1

DefinitionsandInterpretations

Thehyperbolicfunctionsareoddandevenpartsofthenaturalexponential.
2

2
cosh

sinh

sinh

Domain:

Range:

cosh

Domain:
Range:

tanh

sinh
cosh
Domain:

Range: 1

Page34


AlgebraofFunctions
HyperbolicFunctions

sinh

csch
Domain:

\0

Range:

\0
1

cosh

sech
Domain:

Range: 0

cosh
sinh

coth

tanh

Domain:
Range:

\0
1

Thehyperbolicfunctionsareverysimilartothe
circularfunctions.Wherethecircularfunctions
arefunctionsoftheareaofthesector,hyperbolic
functionsarefunctionsoftheareaenclosedby
theunithyperbolax2y2=1,astraightlinefromthe
origintothehyperbolaanditsverticalreflection.

1.2.2.2

Identities
sinh
cosh

sinh
cosh
sinh

cosh
1

tanh

sech

Compoundangleidentities:
sinh
sinh 2
cosh
cosh 2
tanh
tanh 2

sinh
cosh
sinh
cosh
2 sinh cosh
cosh
cosh
sinh
sinh
cosh
sinh
1 2 sinh
tanh
tanh

1 tanh
tanh
2 tanh

1 tanh

Page35

2 cosh


AlgebraofFunctions

1.2.2.3

InverseHyperbolicFunctions

sinh

ln

1 ,

sinh cosh

cosh

ln

1 ,

sinh tanh

tanh

1
1
ln
2
1

cosh sinh

, 1

sech

cosh

csch

sinh

coth

tanh

1
1

cosh tanh

tanh sinh

tanh cosh

1.2.3

RelationshipsandtheirGraphs

1.2.3.1

Ellipses

1
1
1

Followsthegeneralequation
1
Whichisanellipsecentredat(h,k)spanningaunitstotheleftandright,andbunitstothetopand
bottom.
Ellipsehavethedomain

andtherange

Anellipsecanalsobedescribedbytheequation

Page36


AlgebraofFunctions
RelationshipsandtheirGraphs

1.2.3.2

Hyperbolas

Ahyperbolacantaketwoforms:

1
Isaleftrighthyperbola,centredat(h,k).Thetwobranchesare
centredat(ha,k)and(h+a,k).
Thedomainis \

,andtherangeis .

Thistypeofhyperbolacanalsobedescribedbytheequation

1
Isanupdownhyperbola,centredat(h,k).Thetwobranches
arecentredat(h,kb)and(h,k+b).
Thedomainis ,andtherangeis \

Thistypeofhyperbolacanalsobedescribedbytheequation

Inbothcases,theequationsofthetangentscanbeobtainedasfollowed:
1,asxandygetlarge,the1canbeignored.

Page37


AlgebraofFunctions
RelationshipsandtheirGraphs

Forexample,considertherelationship
9
8
18
41

9
4
4 9
4
1

8
2

18
1

1
1

1
9

41
41
36
1

Thisisanupdownhyperbola,hencetherangeis

, 4

2,

Theequationoftheasymptotes
3
2

1
3
2

5
,
2

3
2

Page38


AlgebraofFunctions
Transformation

1.2.4

Transformation

Transformation
Dilation
Byafactorofafromtheyaxis(paralleltoxaxis)

Rule
1

Byafactorof1/afromtheyaxis(paralleltoxaxis)
Byafactorofaaboutx=h

Ingeneral,dilationinthehorizontaldirectionfrom canberepresentedbysubstituting with

1
Byafactorofafromthexaxis(paralleltoyaxis)

Byafactorof1/afromthexaxis(paralleltoyaxis)
Byafactorofaabouty=k

Ingeneral,dilationintheverticaldirectionfrom canberepresentedbysubstituting with

Reflection
Reflectionineitheraxiscanberepresentedbydilatingbyafactorof1fromtheaxis.

9
8
18
41,whataretheequationsofthe
Forexample,considertherelationship
asymptotesafteradilationbyafactoroffromtheyaxisthenatranslationof1unitsparallelto
thexaxis?
Beforetransformation,
3
2

5
,
2

3
2

5
,
2

Dilationbyfactoroffromy,

Translationof1unitsparalleltox,
3

1
,
2

Page39


ComplexNumbers
ArgandDiagram

1.3ComplexNumbers
Acomplexnumberhastwoparts:
Arealpart,consistingofanyrealnumber,
1.

Andanimaginarypart,consistingofanyrealmultiplesoftheimaginarynumberi,where
Somepropertiesoftheimaginarynumber:
1,

1.3.1

1,

ArgandDiagram

Thearganddiagramcanbeusedtographicallyrepresentcomplexnumbers.
Itsxaxisistherealpart,Re(z).Itsyaxisistheimaginarypart,Im(z).
TheCartesianform(rectangularcoordinates)ofacomplexnumberis

1.3.2

Operations

1.3.2.1

Addition

1.3.2.2

Multiplication

1.3.2.3

Conjugates

Theconjugateofacomplexnumberisdenotedbyabar,
If

, then

Characteristically,

1.3.2.4

Division

Evaluationofacomplexfractionisachievedwhenthefractionismultipliedbytheconjugateofthe
denominatorontopandbottom.

Morespecifically,thedenominatorofthefinalexpressionisthesquareofthemagnitudeofthe
complexnumber,orthesquareofitsmodulus.Also,thereciprocalofanimaginarynumber:
1
| |

Page40


ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

1.3.3

PolarForm

Acomplexnumbercanalsobeexpressedinpolarform,i.e.directionandmagnitude.

1.3.3.1

Modulus

Themodulusisthemagnitudeofacomplexnumber,i.e.itsdistancefromtheorigin.
UsingPythagorastheoremwiththerectangularcoordinates,
| |

1.3.3.2

Argument

TheArgumentistheanglethecomplexnumbermakeswiththepositiverealaxis.Thisgivesusthree
relationshipsusingtherectangularcoordinates,
sin

| |

cos

| |

tan
TheArgumentisrestrictedto
, .ItispossibletofindtheArgumentwithanyoftheabovethree
relationshipsinconjunctionwiththeknowledgeofquadrants.
Acomplexnumbercanhencebeexpressedas:

| |
| | cos
Thecos
knownasExp

sin

| |

| |

sin

componentisabbreviatedtocis

,butitismoreformally

| | cis

| |

| | Exp
cis

Notethatforcis,sinceitisthesumofcosandi*sin,cis
cis

Theonlysymmetricalpropertiesithasarecis
cos
, where
.
Moreconventionally,cisisusuallyexpressedas:
cis

Where istheargumentofz.

Page41

, cis

, and cos

cis
2


ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

Somespecialnumbers:

0+0icannotbeexpressedinthepolarform,itsargumentisundefined.
Allpositiverealnumbers,a+0i,haveanArgumentof0.
Allnegativerealnumbers,a+0i,haveanArgumentof.
Allpositiveimaginarynumbers,0+ai,haveanArgumentof/2.
Allnegativeimaginarynumbers,0ai,haveanArgumentof/2.

Acomplexnumbercanhaveitsargumentexpressedintermsofthearctangent:

1stquadrant,a+bi
o

tan

3rdquadrant,abi
o

2 quadrant,a+bi
o

tan

nd

tan

4thquadrant,abi
o

tan

Acomplexnumbersconjugatecanbederivedasfollowed:

| | cos
| | cos
| | cis

sin

sin

Page42


ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

3 | 3and arg
3

Forexample,solveforzsuchthat|

3
3

tan

9,

3
4

9
2

| |

9
2

32
2

1,

32
2

92

3 2

Sincezistheintersectionof[1]and[2],itisthepointofintersectionof
therayandthecircle.Itiseasytoconstructatriangletofindcosineof

cos

3
2 2
2
3
8

2
2

Hence,thepolarformofzis
5
6 cos cis
8
8

Page43


ComplexNumbers
PolarForm

1.3.3.3

MultiplicationandDivision

MultiplicationanddivisionusingpolarformsisaloteasierthanusingtheCartesianform.
| | cis

Fortwocomplexnumbers,

| | cis

and

| || | cis

| |
cis
| |

Thereciprocalcanalsobeworkedoutfairlyeasily:
|1|
cis 0
| |

1
| |

cis

| |

Withpolarcoordinates,theideaofrotationisintroduced.Whenacomplexnumberz1ismultiplied
byanothercomplexnumberz2suchthat|z2|=1,thenz1isrotatedanticlockwisebytheanglez2
makeswiththepositiverealaxis:
| || | cis

| | cis

Inparticular,multiplyingbythecomplexnumberirotatesthecomplexnumber90oanticlockwise.

1.3.3.4

DeMoivresTheorem
| | cis

Forexample,

,find

14

2
2

1
7

tan

2 tan
tan

1
7

2 tan

1
3

tan
1
3

Page44


ComplexNumbers
ComplexRoots

1.3.4

ComplexRoots

1.3.4.1

Polynomials

FundamentalTheoremofAlgebra
Anypolynomialsp(z)ofdegreenhasnrootsinthecomplexplane.
Anypolynomialsp(z)ofdegreencanbefactorisedintoncomplexlinearfactors(someofwhichmay
berepeated).

1.3.4.1.1

Algebra

Itisalsohelpfultorememberthat

1.3.4.1.2

Conjugatepairtheorem

Forapolynomial

1.3.4.2
If

withrealcoefficients,if isarootofp,then isalsoarootofp.

RootsofNumbers

,where

,then
| |

cis

, where

OnanArganddiagram,allrootsareevenlyspaced.

Page45

0,1,2, ,


ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

1.3.5

RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

AlocusinthecomplexplaneisasetofpointsontheArganddiagram.
Forexample, : | |

1.3.5.1

1,

Line
|

:|

|,

ThisdescribesastraightlineontheArganddiagram.Itistheperpendicularbisectorofthelinez1z2.
Particularcasesinclude:
:

2 , where isaconstant

2 , where isaconstant

Thisdescribesaverticalline,x=c
:

Thisdescribesahorizontalline,y=c
:

Thisdescribesthesetofpointsthatmakesanangleof90owiththeirreflectioninthehorizontalaxis,
i.e.theliney=x
: |1
|

Thisdescribesalinealso:|1

|
|

1|
|

Inequalitiesinvolvingalinecanbefoundusingasimplepointsubstitution,usuallytheorigin.

1.3.5.2

Ray
,

, where isaconstant

Thisdescribesarayfrom(butnotincluding)z0atanangleof fromthehorizontal.
Inequalitiescanbefoundusingasimplepointsubstitution.Itshouldalsobenotedthat

For :
:
For :
:
z0isnotincluded.

,
,
,
,

or :
,
,thehorizontaltotheleft
istheendoftheregion,andisincluded.
or :
,
,thehorizontaltotheleft
istheendoftheregion,andisnotincluded.

Page46


ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

1.3.5.3

Hyperbola

Bythegeometricdefinitionofhyperbola,
|

:|

Thisdescribesahyperbolaonthesideofz1.Thecentreisat

Thecentreofthebranchislocated unitsawayfromthecentreinthedirectionofz1.

1.3.5.4

Circles
|

:|

, where isaconstant

Thisdescribesacirclecentredatz0witharadiusofc.
Ifwelet

, then

, where isaconstant

Thisalsodescribesacirclecentredatz0witharadiusofc.

1.3.5.4.1

Ellipses

Bythegeometricdefinitionofanellipses,
:|

, where isaconstant

Thisdescribestheellipseswithitstwofociatz0andz1.
Axisalongthetwofoci:

Axisperpendiculartothefoci:
|
2

|
2

1
2

Page47


ComplexNumbers
RelationshipsintheComplexPlane

1.3.5.4.2

Arcs

Bythegeometrictheoremthatanglessubtendedbyachord/arcatallpointsonthecircumference
areequal:
arg

arg

Thisdescribesanarcsuchthattheanglemadebetweentwosegments, and isalways ,i.e.

thisexistsasanarc.Notethatthisisonlyonesideofthearc,theothersideofthearcisdescribedby
arg
.
arg
ItiseasiertoconvertthistoCartesianformtryingtodrawit.
arg

Forexample,arg

tan

tan
1

1
1

1
1,

Axisintercepts:

tan

0, 1

1,

tan

2,

1
1

For

2,

1
4

2,

0,

FALSE

0,

1,

FALSE

isinthesecondquadrant,anditsargumentliesin
,

.Hence,arg
arg

1.

0,
1,

maximum2 ,andtheminimum .Therefore,arg

0,

tan

thethirdquadrant,anditsargumentliesin

2+1

1
tan

Page48

arg

isin

hasthe

nottruefor

0, 1


Calculus

2.0
2.0.1

Calculus

Calculus
SingleVariableCalculus,VectorCalculus,MultivariableCalculus

Page49


SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

2.1SingleVariableCalculus
2.1.1

Limits

Alimitofafunctionataisthefunctionsvalueasthevariableapproachesa.

2.1.1.1

DefinitionandInterpretation

Thelimithastwoparts,thelefthandlimitlim
handnegativeside,andtherighthandlimitlim
righthandpositiveside.

,whichapproachesthevaluefromtheleft
,whichapproachesthevaluefromthe

Alimitexistsifandonlyif:

exists
exists

Thelefthandlimitlim
Therighthandlimitlim
lim
lim

Thefunctionmustbedefinedonsomeopenintervalthatcontains(withthepossibleexceptionof)a.
Underformaldefinition,
lim

0thereisanumber

ifforeverynumber
|

0suchthat

whenever0

0forlefthand

Thetwosidelimitscanbesimilarlydefinedwiththeboundsonx:
limits,and0
forrighthandlimits.

foreverypositivenumberM,thereis

Somelimitsmayevaluatetoinfinite.Thatis,lim
apositive suchthat
whenever0

foreverynegative

Similarly,forlimitsthatevaluatetothenegativeinfinity:lim
numberNnumber,thereisapositive suchthat
whenever0

Forlimitsattheinfinity,alimitcanbeeitherdivergent,divergenttoinfinity,orconvergent.
Alimitthatconvergestoanumberatthepositiveinfinity,underformaldefinition,
lim

ifforeverynumber
|

0thereisapositivenumber suchthat
|

whenever

Asimilardefinitionmaybeformedforconvergencyatthenegativeinfinity.Convergencyateither
infinityindicatesahorizontalasymptote.

Page50


SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

Alimitthatdivergestoinfinitygetsinfinitelylarge,(orsmall),underformaldefinition,
lim

ifforeverypositivenumber thereisapositivenumber suchthat

whenever

Asimilardefinitionmaybeformedfortheotherthreepossibilities(negativeinfinitytotheright,and
positive/negativeinfinitytotheleft).
Alimitcanalsodivergewithoutgettingtoinfinity.Thistypeoffunctionsusuallyoscillates.An
exampleisthesineratio.

2.1.1.2

LimitLaws

Evaluationofalimitcanbeassimpleassubstitutingthenumber.However,theseareoftennot
enough.
Somelimitlawsinclude:
lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

Page51

lim

lim

lim
lim

lim

lim


SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

2.1.1.3

LHospitalsRule
lim

lim

Thisisonlyapplicablewhereanindeterminateformisreached.

2.1.1.3.1

IndeterminateForm

or

2.1.1.3.2

IndeterminateProduct

Whenanindeterminateproduct0 isreached,thereisasimplemanipulationthatcanbedone:
0

or
0

1/

Similarrearrangementscansometimealsobeusedtoevaluatetheindeterminatedifference

2.1.1.3.3

IndeterminatePower

Anindeterminatepoweris0 , or1 .Ineachofthesecases,thelogarithmmaybetaken.

lim

lim

ln

ln

ln

lim ln
Exp lim

lim

2.1.1.4

lim

ln

SqueezeTheorem

Thesqueezetheoremcanbeusedforevaluationofoscillatingfunctions.
If,onanopenintervalincluding(withthepossibleexceptionof)a,

Then
lim

lim

lim

Henceif
lim
lim

lim

lim

lim

Page52


SingleVariableCalculus
Limits

2.1.1.5

Continuity

Afunctioniscontinuousataif
lim

Ifapointiscontinuous,then

lim
lim
lim

exists
exists
lim

Theleftorrighthandlimitcanbeusedtodefinecontinuityononeside,whereaistheendpointof
anopeninterval.

2.1.1.6

Differentiability

Afunctionisdifferentiableataif

exists
iscontinuousata
Thereisnoabruptchangeofdirectionata(i.e.thederivativeiscontinuousata)

Page53


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofDifferentiation

2.1.2

MethodsofDifferentiation

Firstprinciple
lim

2.1.2.1

DifferentiationRules

Additionrule:

Chainrule:

Productrule:

Andhence,theconstantrule:
, where isarealconstant
Quotientrule:

Someparticularcases:

2.1.2.2

ImplicitDifferentiation

Bythechainrule,ifyisafunctionofx:

Or,
,

Page54


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofDifferentiation

2.1.2.3

CircularFunctions
sin

cos

cos

sin

tan

2.1.2.4

sec

cos
tan

sin

csc

1
1
1

sec

2
1
2

csc

tan

cot

cos

sin

1
1

HyperbolicFunctions
sinh

cosh

csch

csch coth

cosh

sinh

sech

sech tanh

tanh

sech

coth

csch

InverseHyperbolicFunctions
sinh
cosh
tanh

sec tan

cot

tan

sec

cos

2.1.2.5.1

csc cot

InverseCircularFunctions
sin

2.1.2.5

csc

1
1
1

1
1

csch

sech

coth

Page55

| |1
1

1
1

2.1.2.6

ExponentialandLogarithms
ln

ln

ln
ln

2.1.2.7

LogarithmicDifferentiation
If
ln

ln

ln
1

ln

ln

ln

2.1.2.8

log

SecondDerivatives

2.1.2.8.1

Concavity

For

,if

at

is

Positive,theconcavityisupwards
o Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisalocalminimum
Negative,theconcavityisdownwards
o Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisalocalmaximum
Zero,
o Ifthethirdderivativeisalsozero,concavitytestisinconclusive
o Otherwiseitisapointofinflection
Ifthethirdderivativeispositive(signchangefromnegativetopositive),itis
theminimumgradient
Ifthethirdderivativeisnegative(signchangefrompositivetonegative),itis
themaximumgradient
Ifitisalsoastationarypoint,itisastationarypointofinflection


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

2.1.3

ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

2.1.3.1

Graphing

ADomain
BFindxandyintercepts
CLookforsymmetry:iff(x)=f(x),itisevenlysymmetrical;iff(x)=f(x),itisoddlysymmetrical
DAsymptotes,vertical,horizontal,slant
EIntervalswhichthegraphisincreasing/decreasing
FStationarypoints
GPointsofinflection

2.1.3.2

AdditionofOrdinates

Whengraphingahybridfunction,themethodofadditionofordinatesmaybeused.

Thenfor

at

Page57


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

2.1.3.2.1

SomeRationalFunctions

Verticalasymptoteatx=0
Slantasymptotey=ax

Page58


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Verticalasymptoteatx=0
Slantasymptotey=ax

Page59


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Verticalasymptoteatx=0
Parabolicasymptotey=ax2

Page60


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

Verticalasymptoteatx=0
Parabolicasymptotey=ax2

Page61


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofDifferentialCalculus

2.1.3.3

ReciprocalFunctions

Areciprocalfunctioncanbegraphedbytakingthereciprocalofthefunctionsvalue.
Whenthefunction

Crossesthexaxisfrompositivetonegative
o Thereciprocalfunctiongoestopositiveinfinityontheleft,andtonegativeinfinity
ontheright(asymmetricverticalasymptote)
Crossesthexaxisfromnegativetopositive
o Thereciprocalfunctiongoestonegativeinfinityontheleft,andtopositiveinfinity
ontheright(asymmetricverticalasymptote)
Touchesthexaxis
o Dependingonwhetherthefunctiontouchestheaxisonthepositivesideorthe
negativeside,thereciprocalfunctiongoestopositive/negativeinfinityonbothsides
(symmetricverticalasymptote)
Hasalocalminimum
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasalocalmaximum
Hasalocalmaximum
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasalocalminimum
Hasastationarypointofinflection(notwheny=0)
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasastationarypointofinflection
Hasapointofinflection(notwheny=0)
o Thereciprocalfunctionhasapointofinflection

1
1

Page62


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4

MethodsofAntidifferentiation

Indefiniteintegrals:
Somerulesoftheintegral:

, where isarealconstant
, whereCisarealconstant

Andfordefiniteintegrals:
Fundamentaltheoremofcalculus

Fundamentaltheoremofcalculus(II)
If

istheantiderivativeof

Somerules:

Themostobviousmethodofantidifferentiationisviarecognition.

ln | |

Page63


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.1

Substitution

Methodofsubstitutionisthereverseofthechainruleofdifferentiation:

Bymakingtheappropriateusubstitution,anintegralcanbesolved.
Usually,theintegralispresentas

However,thisneedsnottobethecase,

canberearrangedintermsofg,theintegralmaybeevaluated.

Inthiscase,if

Notethatfordefiniteintegrals,whenasubstitutionismade,theterminalsmustalsochange
correspondingly

2.1.4.1.1 LinearSubstitution
Wheretheintegralconsistsoflinearfactorsthatcannotbeexpanded(suchaslinearfactorsinthe
denominator,orsquarerootoflinearfactors)multipliedbyotherexpandablefactors,asimple
substitutionofthatlinearfactorcanbemade,andotherfactorscanbearrangedintermsofthis
linearfactor.

2.1.4.2

InverseCircularFunctions
1

sin

cos

1
1

sin

tan

tan

sin

Page64

sin
tan


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.3

IntegrationbyRecognition

Byfindingthedifferentiatingafunction,whichderivativecontainsallorpartoftheintegrand,can
allowintegrationbyrecognition.
Generally,ifg(x)hasanantiderivativeG(x),and

Then

Somealgebraandidentitiesmaybeusedinthisprocess.
Forexample,differentiate

sin

sin

sin

cos

cos

cos

Page65

sin
2

1
cos

cos

cos

sin

sin

cos

,henceantidifferentiate

cos


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.4

IntegrationbyParts

Reverseproductrule.

Or

Generally,f(x)ispreferredinthefollowingorder:

Logarithm
Inversetrig
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
sometimesmaynotbeapparent,butcanbeassimpleas1.

Forexample,
log

log

log

2
2

2
2

2
2

Page66

log


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.5

TrigonometricIntegration
sin

cos

cos

sin

sec

tan

cot

csc
sec tan

sec

csc cot

csc

Forothers,theconnectionmaynotbesoapparent.Theuseofthedoubleangleidentitiesandthe
Pythagoreanidentityandthesubstitutionmethodisextensive.
Ingeneral,

cos

For sin
o Ifnisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallcosinebutone.Thenmake
thesubstitutionu=sinx
sin

cos

sin

cos

sin

cos
sin

1
o

cos

sin

cos

cos

1
1

cos

Ifmisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallsinebutone,thenmake
thesubstitutionu=cosx
sin

Ifbothmandnareeven

sin

cos 2

cos

cos 2

sin cos

sin 2

Page67

sin

cos

sin


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

For tan
sec

o Ifniseven,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallsecantsbutonesquare,
thenmakethesubstitutionu=tanx
sec

tan

tan

sec

tan

sec
tan

1
o

sec

sec

tan

sec

sec

tan

sec

tan sec

Otherwise,thedistinctionisnotsoclearcut.Theintegraloftanandsecwouldbe
employed.

sin
cos

tan

, let

cos

ln|cos |

|
ln|

sin

cos
1 cos
cos
1

tan

sin

ln|cos |

, let

cos

sec
2

Alternatively
tan

tan

sec

tan sec
tan
2

Someselectedintegrals

Ifmisodd,usethePythagoreanidentitytofactoroutallbutonetan,andseparate
outonefactorofsecxtanx,thenmakethesubstitutionu=secx
tan

1
tan

ln|sec |

Page68


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

sec

sec

sec
tan
sec
tan

, let

sec

tan

ln|

Oralternatively,
cos

cos
cos
1 sin

sec

, let

sin

1
tanh
1
1
ln
1
2

, since
sin
sin

sin

sec
sec ,

Usingintegrationbyparts,

sec tan

sec tan

tan

sec tan

sec

sec tan

sec

sec

sec tan

ln|sec

sec

1
sec tan
2

sec

sec
sec

tan

1 sec

sec
tan |

tan |

ln|sec

Forintegralsinvolvingmultipleangles:
sin

cos

or sin

cos

sin

or cos

sin cos

1
sin
2

sin

sin sin

1
cos
2

cos

cos cos

1
cos
2

cos

Page69


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.6

TrigonometricSubstitution

Atypeofinversesubstitution,theindependentvariableissubstitutedwithaonetoonefunction.
Ingeneral,welet

,andsubstitute

Fortheradical

,let

sin ,

,let

tan ,

,let

sec , 0

or

Forexample,
9
Let

3 sin ,

3 cos

3 cos
3 sin

3 cos

cot

csc

cot

tan

sin
3

2.1.4.7

sin

HyperbolicSubstitution

Hyperbolicsubstitutionisalmostidenticaltotrigonometricsubstitution,andissometimespreferred
overusingthesubstitution
tan or
sec .
Fortheradical

,let

sinh ,

,let

cosh ,

0or

Page70


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.8

PartialFractions

Partialfractionscanbeusedtosimplifyarationalfunctionsothatitcanbeintegrated.
,whereallofthesefunctionsarepolynomials,andthe

Arationalfunction
degreeofRislessthanthedegreeofQ.
PartI
Thedenominator

istheproductofdistinctlinearfactors.

PartII
Thedenominator

isaproductoflinearfactors,someofwhicharerepeated

PartIII
Thedenominator

containsdistinctirreduciblequadraticfactors

PartIV
Thedenominator

containsirreduciblequadraticfactors,someofwhicharerepeated

2.1.4.8.1

Quartics

Forquarticsorhigherdegreepolynomialswithoutrealroots,itispossibletofactorisetheseusing
completethesquaretoirreduciblequadratics.
1

1
1

2
1

1
1

Page71

2
1

2
3


SingleVariableCalculus
MethodsofAntidifferentiation

2.1.4.9

ImproperIntegrals

Fordefiniteintegralsatinfinity,orwherethefunctionisdiscontinuousinthatinterval,theintegral
cannotbeevaluatedviathenormalmeansofsubstitution,andlimitsmustbeemployed.
lim

lim

Thecasefornegativeinfinityisverysimilar.
Fordiscontinuitywithintheinterval[a,b]atc
lim
lim

lim

lim

Thatis,ifthelimitexistsatc,thentheintegralbehavesnormally.
However,ifbothlimitsevaluatetoinfinity(ornegativeinfinity),therewillbea term,which
willbeundefined.Ifthelimitsevaluatetooppositeinfinities,thevalueisdivergent.
Particularcasesofintegralatdiscontinuitiesarewhenone(orboth)oftheendpointsis
discontinuous.
lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

Page72

lim


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5

ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.1

Area

2.1.5.1.1 Approximation
Areaapproximationworksusesvariousshapeswithdefinedareaformulaetoapproximatethearea
underagraph.

2.1.5.1.1.1 Methods
Leftandrightendpointrectangles
Left:

Right:

MidpointRectangles

Trapeziums

2.1.5.1.1.2 Bounds

Foranincreasingfunction
o Theleftrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
o Therightrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
Foradecreasingfunction
o Theleftrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
o Therightrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
Foraconcaveupfunction
o Themidpointrectanglesmethodgivesanunderestimation
o Thetrapeziummethodgivesanoverestimation
Foraconcavedownfunction
o Themidpointrectanglesmethodgivesanoverestimation
o Thetrapeziummethodgivesanunderestimation

Page73


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.1.1.3 Error
|

Forafunctionf(x)onaclosedinterval[a,b]:thereisanumberKsuchthat|
errorboundforthetrapezoidalandmidpointrulesare
|

12

24

,thenthe

Hence,themidpointruleisabouttwiceasaccurateasthetrapezoidalmethod.

2.1.5.1.1.4 TheIntegralasASum
Takingthemidpointmethod,asthenumberofrectanglesisincreased,theapproximationgets
moreandmoreaccurate.

lim
Asngoestoinfinity,

lim

2.1.5.1.2

SignedArea

Yvaluesunderthexaxisarenegative,hencetheareacalculatedbyanintegralwouldalsobe
negative.
Iffisnegativebetweenintheinterval(a,b)[usuallyaandbwouldbetwoxintercepts],then
|

Whenfindingareaofafunctionthatcrossesthexaxisseveraltimes,thesignedareamustbetaken
intoaccount.

2.1.5.1.3

BetweenCurves

Iff(x)>g(x)foraninterval(a,b)[usuallyaandbarepointsofintersection],then

Whenfindingtheareabetweentwocurvesthatcrosseachotherseveraltimes,thesigned
differencemustbetakenintoaccount.
Ifg(x)>f(x)foranotherinterval(b,c),then
|

Page74


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.1.4

AlongtheYAxis

Whenintegratinginversefunctions(whichareratherdifficult),itisofteneasiertofindthearea
alongtheyaxis,andthensubtractthatfromarectangle.

Forexample
sin

Whenx=0,y=0.Whenx=1,y=/2.
sin

sin
sin

sin

Page75

cos


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.2

SolidsofRevolution

Whenanareaisspunaroundanaxis,asolidofrevolutionisformed.

2.1.5.2.1

SlabMethod

Theslabmethodtakesthesolidofrevolutionasinfinitelythincirculardisks(cylinders).Theslab
methodisapplicableonlywhentheareabeingspunisboundbytheaxiswhichitisbeingspun
around.

Ingeneral,
Aboutthexaxis:

Abouttheyaxis:

2.1.5.2.1.1

WasherMethod

Thewashermethod,akathedonutmethod,iswhenanareanotboundbytheaxisofrotationis
spun.Thecrosssectionofsuchavolumeresemblesawasher.
Thistypeofareaistheareabetweencurves,i.e.

Thevolumeiscalculatedbythesummationofinfinitelythinwashers.

Ingeneral,asolidofrevolutionaboutthexaxis:

Abouttheyaxis:

Page76


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.2.2

ShellMethod

Theshellmethodcalculatesthevolumebycylindricalshellsofinfinitesimalwidth.
Thevolumeofacylindricalshell:
2
Where

istheaveragedistancefromtheaxisofrotation,and

Astheshellgetssmall,

isthethicknessoftheshell.

Theheightofthecylindricalshellisgenerallythedifferenceoftwocurves,
Ingeneral,
Abouttheyaxis,
2

Aboutthexaxis,
2

Itiseasiertorememberthisform:

2.1.5.3

LineIntegral
1

Page77


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.4

Work

Whenaforceisappliedonanobjectfromatob,andtheforceontheobjectatpointxisf(x),then

Examples
Aforceof40Nisrequiredtoholdaspringthathasbeenstretchedfromitsnaturallengthof10cmto
alengthof15cm.Howmuchworkisdoneinstretchingthespringfrom15cmto18cm?
,

ByHookeslaw,

40

0.05

800kgs

1.56J

800
. .

A20kgcableof10mlongishangeddownfromthetopofabuilding.Howmuchworkisrequiredto
liftthecabletothetopofthebuilding?
Letthetopofthebuildingbe0.Thedensityofthecableis2kgm1.
Eachsmallsectionsofcable,dx,musttraveluptothetopofthebuilding(xmetresabove)
Therefore,theworkoneachsmallsectionofcable:2*dx*g*x=2gx*dx
2

100 J

Aninvertedconicaltankwithheightof10mandbaseradiusof4isfilledwithwatertoaheightof
8m.Findtheworkrequiredtoemptythetankbypumpingallofthewatertothetopofthetank.
Letthetopofthetankbe0.Atsomexmetresbelowthetop,thereisalayerofwaterwithradiusof
10

randthicknessofdx.

10

Themassofthatlayerofwaterishence
10

Theworkonthatlayerofwaterishence
4
25

10

4000
25

10

Page78

3.4

10 J


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

2.1.5.5

MomentsandCentreofMass

Moment

,wherexnisdistancefromtheorigin.

Thecentreofmassiswherethesumofmomentsfromitequaltozero:
0

IfMisthetotalmassofthesystem,thenthecentreofmasswouldbe:
1

Inatwodimensionalplane,thecentreofmassofaboutthexandtheyaxis(i.e.distancefromthe
axis)arethen:
1

Forashapewithuniformdensityandthickness,representedbyanarea,themomentoftheshape
canbeconsideredtobethesumofmomentsofeachinfinitesimalrectangleinthexdirection:
Foreachoftheseinfinitesimalrectangle,theyhaveathicknessofdx,aheightof
ofmassisthecentreoftherectangle,

,theircentre

,andtheirmassis

,wherepis

thedensity.
,thesumofmomentishence

Hence,themomentabouttheyaxis:

,thesumofmomentishence

Themomentaboutthexaxis:

ThemassMofthesystemis

Hence,thecentreofmassinthexandydirection(thecentroid)are,
1
2

,
Forashapedefinedby

1
2

Page79


SingleVariableCalculus
ApplicationsofIntegralCalculus

TheoremofPappus
IfashapeRisrotatedaboutl,thenthevolumeoftheresultingsolidistheproductoftheareaofR
andthedistancethecentroidofRhastravelled.
I.e.ifthedistancefromthecentroidperpendicularlytotheaxislisr,then
2

Page80


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6

DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.1

SeparableEquations

Ingeneral

Forsecondcase,itshouldbenotedthattheantiderivativewouldmostprobablybealogarithmic
functionofanabsolutefunction,whichcanbepositiveornegative.
Problemsgivinganinitialstatearecalledinitialvalueproblems,andtheinitialvaluedetermines
thepositionatwhichtherelationshipwouldmapto,aswellaswhichbranchthefunctionwilltake.
Forexample,
2

1,

1
ln|2
2

1
1|

1
ln| 1|
2
|2
2

1|

Since 0
1,thelefthandsideisevaluatestoanegativenumber,implyingtherighthandside
mustbenegative.
2

1
2

Page81


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2

ModellingandApplications

2.1.6.2.1

Variation

Directproportion:

Inversevariation:

Notethatinthesecases,bcanbethesquare,thesquareroot,cube,logarithm,orothers
asspecifiedbythequestion.
Inparticular,foravariationwheretherateisproportionaltothevalue,usuallymodellingpopulation:

Given(x0,y0),

ln| |

ln| |

(Notethe+/sign.Inreality,however,mathematicalmodellingrarelyencountersnegativevalues
outsideofratesofchange)

Page82


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2.2

NewtonsLawofCooling

Abodycools/heatsatarateproportionaltothedifferencebetweenitstemperatureandits
surroundings.
Thistranslatestothedifferentialequation
, where isthetemperatureofthesurroundings
1

Ifatt=0,T=T0,

ln|

ln|

Sincethetemperaturefunctionismonotonic(itdoesnotovershoot),thenumeratorexpressionis
alwaysthesamesignwiththedenominatorexpression,andthemodulusisnotrequired.

Sincetherearethreeconstantsinthisexpression,thequestionwouldneedtogiveatleastthree
conditionstoworkouttheseconstants.
Inthisform,solvingforconstantswillbeverydifficult.Thefollowing[nonexplicit]formwouldbe
moreappropriate:
1

ln

Forexample,athermometeristakenfromahouseat21degreestotheoutside.Oneminutelaterit
reads27degrees,anotherminutelateritreads30degrees.Findtemperatureoutsidehouse.
1

ln

21

2
2

ln

21
27

ln

21
30

2
30
51

Page83

21
27
21
620
3

21

30
27
54
729
99
33


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2.3

DifferenceofRates

Foravolumeofsolution,withaninflow,andwhilstitiskeptevenlymixed,anoutflow,adifferential
equationforthissituationcanbemodelledby:

WhereQistheamountofsolute,

istherateofinflow,

istheconcentrationofinflow,and

istherateofoutflow.
Thedifferentialequationcanbethoughtofas:
inflow

outflow

inflow

concentrationofinflow

outflow

Amount

Volume

Forsystemswheretherateofinflowisequaltotherateofoutflow:

Hence,

ln

Solvingthedifferentialequationwheretherateofinflowdoesnotequaltotherateofoutflow
involvesthemethodofintegratingfactor,whichisnotintheSpecialistMathematicscourse.An
exampleofthiswillbecoveredintherelevantsection.

Page84


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2.4

FiniteIntegral

Differentialequationscantranslateintoafiniteintegral,whichcanbesolvednumericallyusing
principlesofapproximation(ormachineapproximations).Thiscanbeusefulforfunctionswithoutan
antiderivative,orarathercomplexantiderivative.
LettherebeafunctionfsuchthatitsantiderivativeisF

Giventheinitialconditionwhenx=x0,y=y0,

BytheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus(II)

Hence,giventheinitialvalue,thedifferentialequationcanbesolvedforanyxwithinacontinuous
closedsetinitsdomain.
For

Page85


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2.5

EulersMethod

Theformulaforlinearapproximationis

Eulersmethodusesthegradientfunctionf(x)toapproximatef(x)withsmallh,numericallysolving
adifferentialequation.
AprogramforEulersMethodontheTI89seriescalculator:
:eulert()
:Prgm
:DelVarx,y,dx,dy,t,yp
:ClrIO
:Inputdy/dx,yp
:Inputxinitial,x
:Inputyinitial,y
:Inputstepsize,dx
:1t
:Definelist1={}
:Definelist2={}
:Inputxfinal,s
:(sx)/dxs
:Whilets
:Definelist1[t]=x
:Definelist2[t]=y
:yp*dxdy
:x+dxx
:y+dyy
:t+1t
:EndWhile
:Definelist1[t]=x
:Definelist2[t]=y
:Dispy
:Dispapprox(y)
:DelVart,x,y
:DelVaryp,dx,dy
:EndPrgm

Forexample,

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

1,

1, find 1 usingastepsizeof0.1

1
0.9
0.7905
0.6721
0.5456
0.4115
0.2701
0.1217
0.0332
0.1944
0.3618

1
1.0954
1.1832
1.2649
1.3416
1.4142
1.4832
1.5492
1.6125
1.6733

Page86

0.1
0.1095
0.1183
0.1265
0.1342
0.1414
0.1483
0.1559
0.1613
0.1673


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.2.6

SlopeField

Aslopefieldofadifferentialequationassignsthevalueofthegradienttoeachpointonaplane
P(x,y).
Thegradientisusuallygivenbyashortstraightlineinthedirectionoftheslopeatregularintervals
inthexandydirections.
Withaslopefield,anydifferentialequationcanbesolvedfornumericallygivenaninitialconditionat
anypointonP(x,y)

2.1.6.2.7

InitialCondition:x=0,y=0

OrthogonalTrajectories

Orthogonaltrajectoriesarecurvesthatarealwaysperpendiculartoeachotheratthepointof
intersection.Thesesatisfythedifferentialequation
1
Ingeneral,apairofrelationshipsthatareorthogonal:
,

\0

Inparticular,whenn=1,
,

\0

Page87


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.3
FirstOrderLinearDifferentialEquations(Integrating
Factors)
Theordinarydifferentialequation

Isanonseparablefirstorderlineardifferentialequation,andcanbesolvedbymultiplyingbothsides
byanintegratingfactor.
Usingtheintegratingfactorrecognisesthat:

Hence,multiplyingbothsidesoftheDEbytheintegratingfactorI(x)

Itcanbeseenthat

Forexample:

A20Ltankofsaltsolutioninitiallyhas2kgofdissolvedsalt.Saltispouredintothesolutionat
0.1kg/min,andthesolutionisflowingoutataconstantrateof1L/minwhilstthesolutioniskept
evenlymixed.
0.1
1
20

20

20|

0.1
|

Theimplieddomainist<20(atthatpointthetankisempty),
20

0.1

20

0.1

20

GiventhatQ=2whent=0,C=0.1
10
20

1
1
10

Page88

20


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.4

SecondorderDifferentialEquations

Anordinarysecondorderlinearequationisintheformof:

2.1.6.4.1

Homogenous

AhomogenoussecondorderDEisintheformof
0
Then,ify1andy2aresolutionstothisdifferentialequation,

Wherey(x)isthegeneralsolutiontothedifferentialequation,andc1andc2arearbitraryconstants.
Thisimpliesthatiftwosolutionsareknown,thenallsolutionsareknown.Thisalsoimpliesthaty1
andy2arelinearlyindependent.
Notalldifferentialequationsaresolvable,butitisalwayspossibletosolveitwhenP,QandRare
constantfunctions.
0
Tosolvethislineardifferentialequation,lety=erx.
0
0
Theaboveequationiscalledtheauxiliaryequation(orcharacteristicequation).
Solvingforrcanhavethreedifferentoutcomes:

Twosolutions

o
Onesolution
o

Norealsolution
,

o
o
cos
sin

o Wherec1andc2canbecomplexnumbers.Thisgivessolutionintherealand
complexplane.

Page89


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.4.2

NonHomogenous

Forsecondordernonhomogenouslineardifferentialequationswithconstantcoefficients:

Thenthegeneralsolutiontakestheform

Whereypisaparticularsolution,andycisthegeneralsolutiontothecomplementaryequation:
0
Whilstyccanbefoundwithreasonableease,findingypismoreinvolved,andtwoofthemethodsare
explainedbelow.

2.1.6.4.2.1 MethodofUndeterminedCoefficients

2.1.6.4.2.1.1 PolynomialFunction
WhereG(x)isapolynomial.
TheparticularsolutionwillbeofthesamedegreeofG(x),andwilltaketheform:

Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficients.
2.1.6.4.2.1.2 ExponentialFunction
If
then,

Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficientsoftheexponentialterms.
2.1.6.4.2.1.3 TrigonometricFunctions
If
cos or sin then,
cos

sin

Substitutingthisanditsderivativesintothedifferentialequationwillgiveasystemoflinear
equationsbyequatingthecoefficientsofthetrigonometricterms.

Page90


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

2.1.6.4.2.1.4 ProductofFunctions
If
isaproductoftheprevioustypesoffunctions,thenatrialsolutionwouldbeaproductofthe
particularsolutions.
,then

If
If

sin

If

sin

or

cos

or

cos

cos

,then

sin

cos

,then

sin

2.1.6.4.2.1.5 SumofFunctions
If
,thentheparticularsolutionswillbethesumofparticularsolutionsto
and
.

2.1.6.4.2.2 MethodofVariationofParameters
Ifthecomplementaryequationhasalreadybeensolvedandisexpressedwitharbitraryconstants,
themethodofvariationofparametersthenletthearbitraryconstantsbearbitraryfunctionsand
triestofindaparticularsolution.

Hence,differentiatinggives:

Sinceu1andu2arearbitraryfunctions,conditionsmaybeimposedonthem,suchthat
0.

Hence,

Sincey1andy2areparticularsolutionstothecomplementaryequation,thissimplifiesto

Alsosince
and

,solvingthesesimultaneouslycangiveexpressionsfor

,whichcanbeantidifferentiatedandhencetheparticularsolutionisfound.

Page91


SingleVariableCalculus
DifferentialEquations

tan , 0
/2

Forexample,solve

0,whichgivesanauxiliaryequation

Thecomplementaryequationis

1
cos

sin

cos

cos
0

Hence,
Also,

sin

cos

cos

sin

sin

sin
0

tan
sin
cos

sin

cos

cos

sin

cos

sin

cos
sin

cos
sin
cos
sin

ln sec

tan

sin
cos

cos

ln sec
sin

tan
cos

ln sec

tan

2.1.6.4.3

InitialValueProblemsandBoundaryValueProblems

Initialvalueproblemsforsecondorderdifferentialequationswillprovideinitialyvalueaswellasthe
initialgradient.Solvethesejustasinitialvalueproblemsinfirstorderdifferentialequations.
Aboundaryvalueproblemgivestwoyvaluesfortwoxvalues,andmaynotalwayshaveasolution.
Substitutethexandyvaluesintothegeneralsolutionandsolvesimultaneouslyforthearbitrary
constants.

Page92


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7

PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.1

Kinematics

2.1.7.1.1

SUVATandVtGraphs

Formotionwithconstantacceleration,thefollowingformulaecanbeused,whereuistheinitial
velocity,visthefinalvelocity,aistheacceleration,tisthetime,andsisthedistancetravelled.

2
1
2

Foravtgraph,thegradientistheacceleration,andtheareaunderthegraphisthe
displacement.
Forparticularproblemswhereanobjecthasamaximumrateofaccelerationa,amaximumrate
ofdecelerationntimesa,amaximumvelocityvatwhichitreachesandtravelsatduringthe
journey,andasetdistancetotravels,thetimetcanbesolvedbythefollowing:

2
3
2

2.1.7.1.2

Acceleration
1
2

Forexample,findxintermsoftif

8andwhen
4

33
27
2

8
4

0,

2
4

Page93

33


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

10
4

2 5

1
2 3
1
cos
2
0,

4since isnegative

2
2

1
cos
2
cos

1
2

3 cos 2

Page94


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2

StaticsandDynamics

2.1.7.2.1

Force

Forceisavectorquantity,withadirectionandmagnitude.Itcanberesolvedintocomponents(in2D
or3D).

2.1.7.2.1.1

Equilibrium

Inequilibrium,theresultantoftheforcesisazero.Thesumofcomponentsofforcesinanydirection
isalsozero.
Forthreeforcesactingonaparticleatequilibrium:

Ifthemagnitudesofthethreeforcesareknown,thenthecosinerulecanbeapplied.
LetthevectoroppositeAbea,oppositeBbeb,andoppositeCbec.
| |

| |

| |

2| || | cos

2.1.7.2.1.1.1 LamisTheorem
Whenanangleisknown,thesinerulecanbeappliedtofindthemagnitude/angleoftheother
forces.
| |
sin

| |
sin

| |

sin

Page95


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.1.1.2 HangingMass
Sincethehangingmassisinequilibrium,wecanmake
thefollowinggeneralisations:
sin

sin
cos

cos

Alternatively,wherethecomplementoftheangles and areknown:

cos

cos
sin

sin

Solvingthesesimultaneouslywhentheangleisgivenwouldgivethemagnitudeofthetensionforces
alongthestrings.Alternatively,LamisTheoremcanbeapplied.
Generally,thelengthsofthestringsaregiven,andtheanglecanbeworkedouthenceforth.
Wheretheangleisrequiredandtheforcesareknown,thecosinerule(picturedasbefore)canbe
applied.

2.1.7.2.1.2

NewtonsLawsofMotion

Newtonsfirstlawofmotion
Aparticleatrestorinconstantmotionwillremainatrestorconstantmotionunlessactedonbyan
unbalancedforce.
Foraparticle/systeminequilibrium,theforcesactingonitmustbalance.
Newtonssecondlawofmotion
Theforceisproportionatetotherateofchangeoftheobjectsmomentum.

ThevalueofoneNewtonischosensuchthatkis1whenaisinms2andmisinkg.
Newtonsthirdlawofmotion
Everyforcehasanequalandoppositeforce
Weight
Theweightisspecifictoparticulargravitationalfields.Onekilograminaparticularfieldweighs1kg
wt.Inotherwords,1kgwt=1gN.

Page96


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.1.3

Friction

Thefrictionforcealwaysopposesthedirectionofmotion.
Themaximumfrictionforcebetweentwoparticularsurfacesisproportionaltothenormalforce
(opposingtheweightforce).

Where isthecoefficientoffriction.Thecoefficientsoffrictionfortwostaticsurfacesandtwo
surfacesslidingrelativelytoeachotheraredifferent.
2.1.7.2.1.3.1

Static

Ifanexternalforceactsonastaticobjectonasurface,frictionopposesthisforceparalleltothe
planeofthesurface.Thefrictionforceopposestheexternalforceasmuchaspossibleuptoits
maximumlimit.Untiltheexternalforceisgreaterthanthemagnitudeofmaximumforce,thereisno
motion,andtheobject/systemissaidtobeinequilibrium.
Foranobject/systeminequilibrium,theminimumcoefficientoffrictionpossibleiswhenthe
object/systemisonthepointofsliding.I.e.thefrictionalforceisatmaximum.(Ifthefrictionalforce
isnotatmaximum,thenthecoefficientoffrictionwouldneedtobegreater.)
2.1.7.2.1.3.2 Sliding
Slidingfrictionopposesthedirectionofmotion,andhasthemagnitude

Page97


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.2

SingleObject

2.1.7.2.2.1 InclinedPlane

Forexample
AnobjectisprojectedwithspeedUuparoughplanewithcoefficientoffrictionandinclinationof
degreestothehorizontal.
Thedistanceittravelsuptheplane(downtheplaneisnegative):
sin

cos

sin

cos

sin

cos

1
sin

cos

sin

cos

sin

cos

Thespeedwhichitreturnstoground:
sin

sin

sin

cos

cos

cos

2
sin
sin

sin
cos

cos

Page98

sin

cos

cos


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Anotherexample
Anobjectofmass24kgisonthepointofslidingdownarough
inclinedplanewhenpulledbyaforceof10kgwtatanangleof
30ototheinclinedplane.Whenthesizeoftheforceis
increasedto12kgwt,theobjectisonthepointofslidingup.
Downtheplaneisnegative.Atpointofslidingdown,the
frictionalforceopposesgravityandpointsuptheplane.At
pointofslidingup,thefrictionalforceopposesthepullingforce
andpointsdowntheplane.Inbothinstances,thefrictional

forceismaximum,i.e.
Pointofslidingdown:
Perpendiculartotheplane:10 sin 30

24 cos

Paralleltotheplane:10 cos 30

24 cos

24 sin

53

24 cos

5
5

24 sin

Pointofslidingup:
Perpendiculartotheplane:12 sin 30

24 cos

24 sin

Paralleltotheplane:12 cos 30
113

24 cos

24 cos

63
5

48 sin

48 sin
53
53

48 sin
48 sin

24 sin
24 cos

113 24 cos

23 27 or76 41

24 cos

113

113 24 cos

0.05243

27.6552

Page99

24 sin
24 sin ,

|0


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.3

MultipleObjects

2.1.7.2.3.1

Stackedobjects

Boxes
Forcesactingontheupperobject:
upwards.

downwards,

Forcesactingonthelowerobject: downwards,
upwards, downwards(asR1isexertedontheupper
massbythelowermass,hencethelowermassmust
experiencetheequalandoppositeforce).
Iftheobjectisinequilibrium,then
.Hence,ifthereisanobjectbelowthelowermass,
itwillexperienceitsowngravitationalattractionandreactionforcefromground,aswellasthe
reactionforcefromabove.
Lift
Foraliftacceleratingupwards:

Foraliftacceleratingdownwards:

or

Forapersoninsidethelift,
normalreactionforce.

,whereNisthe

Theweightforcemeasuredbyaweightisthenormalreactionforce.I.e.Whentheliftisaccelerating
upwards,theweightincreases,whentheliftisacceleratingdownwards,theweightdecreases.
Forexample,aliftislowering.Duringdeceleration,thepersoninsidewouldexperienceminimumR,
andtheresultantforceonthepersonwouldbedownwards.Duringconstantspeed,Risequaland
oppositetothegravitationalattraction.Duringdeceleration,thepersonwouldexperiencemaximum
R,andtheresultantforcewouldbeupwards.

Page100


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

MoveableWedge
Foramoveablewedgeonasurfaceandablock
sittingontop,theblockexertsaforce
perpendiculartotheslantface,causingthe
wedgetomoveaway.Theblockhasanet
accelerationtowardstheslantfaceaswellas
paralleltoit.
Inthediagramontheright,blueforcesactson
theblock,andredforcesactsonthewedge,and
thegreenforcesarecomponentsofR1,which
areparticularlyimportant.
Theblockisacceleratingdownwardsperpendiculartotheslantface(downwardsdirectionis
negative).
cos
Theblockexertsaforceonthewedge,R1,whichisequalandoppositetoR1.
cos

Hence,theaccelerationofthewedgetotheleftwouldbe(leftisnegative)
sin
sin
Also,astheblockacceleratesperpendicularlytotheslantface,itdoesso
thatitkeepsupwiththewedgewhichismovingaway.i.e.the
accelerationoftheblockisthecomponentofthenetaccelerationofthe
wedgeperpendiculartotheslantface.
sin
Thenormalreactionforceexertedbythegroundonthewedge,R2,is
cos

Page101


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Forexample,a2kgsmoothwedgeisplacedonasmoothtable,andasmooth1kgblockisplacedon
theslantface.
cos
cos

cos
sin
2
sin
cos
2
cos sin

sin
2
2
5
2

sin

sin
5
2

1
cos 2
2

1
2

2
2

sin

sin 2
sin 2
sin 2

sin 2

5 cos 2

Nowthefrictionlesstableisreplacedbyaroughsurface.Theminimumcoefficientoffrictionwould
beifthesystemisnowonthepointofsliding.
2

cos

Sincethewedgeisnotmoving,theblockhasnonetaccelerationperpendiculartotheslantface.
cos
sin
2

cos

cos sin

1
sin 2
2

1
cos 2
2

5
2

sin 2

cos 2
5

Page102


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.3.2

ConnectedParticles

Inconnectedparticles,therope(inextensible)exertsanequaltensionforceonbothobjects
connectedtoit.
Horizontalplane

Pulley
Thepulleysystemmovestowardstheheavierside.
Ontheheavierside:

Onthelighterside:

Ifanobjecthastwostringsattached:
or

Page103


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

2.1.7.2.4

VectorForce

Ifaforceisgivenasavector,theforceactsinthedirectionofthevector,andthemagnitudeofthe
forceisthemagnitudeofthevector.
Ifseveralforcesareinvolved,theresultantvectorcanbefound.

2.1.7.2.5

VariableForce

Ifforceisvariable,thenaccelerationisnotconstant.
If

Forexample,anobjectmass3kgisprojectedverticallyupwardswithinitialspeedUm/s,andreturns
,wherevisthespeedofthe

toitsstartingpointwithspeedVm/s.Assumethatairresistanceis
object.
Upwardsmotionispositive.
Maximumheight:
60
20

20
60
60

60
60

60
60
60
60

30

30

ln|60

60

Page104

30

ln

60
60


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Thetimetakenfortheobjecttoreturntostartingpointfrommaximumheight(frictionisupwards
[positive]thistime)
60
20

20
60

60
60

60
60

60
260

15

60
15

15

60

60
60

ln

60

60

Givenwhent=0(maximumheight),v=0
15

15

ln 1

0
60

ln

60

Whenv=V(whenitreachestheground)
15

ln

60

15

60

Page105

ln

60
60


SingleVariableCalculus
PhysicalApplications

Also,
60

60
60
60
60

30

30

60

ln|

60
30

60

ln

Notethatthemagnitudeofthedistancetravelledis

60

60|

30

ln

60
60

ln

,asthedistancetravelledisinthe

downwardsdirection,i.e.negative.
Sincethedistancetravelledontheupwardsjourneyisthesameasthedistancetravelledonthe
downwardsjourney,
30

ln

60

30
60

60

ln

60

60

60
60

60

Page106


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8

SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.1

Sequence

Asequenceisalistofnumberswritteninadefiniteorder,usuallyobeyingaparticularrule.
,

1 isusuallyincorporatedinitsrule.

Foralternatingsequences,

2.1.8.1.1 LimitsofSequences
Asequencemaybedefinedasafunctionofnaturalnumbers,andthisfunctionisasubsetofthe
functionoverR.
Thelimitlawsappliesforlimitsofsequences,whichmaybeevaluatedsimply.
Severalkeynotesare:
Forasequencethatdoesnotconvergeatinfinity,itiscalleddivergent(usuallyanoscillating
function).Forasequencethatgetsinfinitelylargeorsmall,itiscalleddivergenttoinfinity.
Aparticularusefulidentity,
lim |

0, then lim

Whereanindeterminateformisencounteredwhenevaluatingalimit,LHopitalsrulecannotbe
applieddirectly,butachangeofvariablesmay:
If

where isaninteger, and lim

for

, then lim

also.

LHopitalsrulecanbeappliedforthelimitoverreals,butnotoverintegers.
Also,fortheseries

,
0,
1
1
1,
1

divergent,
elsewhere

lim

Asequencecanbesaidtobeincreasingordecreasing.Ifasequenceisalwaysincreasingor
decreasing,itiscalledmonotonic.
Forasequencethathaveanupperboundorlowerbound,itissaidtobeboundedaboveor
boundedbelow,andinthecaseofboth,bounded.
Everyboundedmonotonicsequenceisconvergent.

Page107


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.2

Series

Aseriesisthesumofinfinitetermsofasequence.

However,itisnotalwaysmeaningfultodiscussseriesastheymaydiverge.Hencepartialsumsare
usedtodeterminewhetheraseriesisconvergentornot.

Ifaseriesisconvergent,thenlim

existsandisafinitenumber.

Thegeometricseries:

Isconvergentif| |

1,

Theharmonicseries

,andisotherwisedivergent.
isdivergent.

Ingeneral,ifaseriesisconvergent,thenlim
divergent.

0.Iflim

0,thenitsseriesis

Page108


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.2.1 TestsofConvergence
2.1.8.2.1.1 IntegralTest
Iffisacontinuous,positiveanddecreasingfunctionon , ,and
If

isdivergent,then

If

isconvergent,then

,then

isalsodivergent.
isalsoconvergent.

Bothofthesecanbeshowngraphicallybyconstructingleft/rightrectangles(overestimationtoshow
itisdivergent,underestimationtoshowitisconvergent).
Notethatthelowerboundisnotnecessarily1,iftheseriesisdefinedfromn=k,thentheintegral
wouldbecomputedfromk.
Whenthefirstntermsareusedtoestimatetheseries(i.e.usingapartialsum),theerrormade
)isboundedsuchthat
(calledtheremainder,

Also,

.Thisgivesabetterestimationthanpartialsumsdo.

Inthiscase,theerrorishalfwaybetweentheupperandlowerbounds.
2.1.8.2.1.1.1 pSeries
Thepseries

isconvergentif

1andisdivergentotherwise.

2.1.8.2.1.2 ComparisonTest
Thecomparisontestcomparesagivenserieswithaseriesthatisknowntobeconvergentor
divergent.
Fortwoseries

and

If

foralln,and

isdivergent,then

If

foralln,and

isconvergent,then

Ifbothsequencesarepositivetermsand
bothdiverges.

isalsodivergent.
isalsoconvergent.
/

,theneitherbothseriesconvergesor

ThisrestonthefactthatthereexiststwonumbersmandMsuchthat
,hence
.If wasconvergent,theupperboundisfinitehence isalsoconvergent.
If wasdivergent,thelowerboundisinfiniteandhence isalsodivergent.
If wasfoundtobedivergentbycomparisonwith ,then canbeestimatedbypartial
seriesandtheerrorcouldbefoundbycomparingremainders.Notethatthisonlyworksif
,
andtheremainderof islessthantheremainderof .

Page109


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.2.1.3 AlternatingSeries
Foranalternatingseries
sequencethatconvergestozero,
Orinotherwords,if

or
converges.

,wherebnisamonotonicdecreasing
0,then

foralln,andlim

converges.

Also,wheretheaboveconditionsaremet,theerror(remainder)isboundedsuchthat|

2.1.8.2.1.4 AbsoluteConvergenceandRatioTest
Foraseries
convergent.

,itsabsoluteseriesis|

|.If|

|isconvergent,then

isabsolutely

Allabsolutelyconvergentseriesareconvergent.Aconvergentserieswhichisnotabsolutely
convergentiscalledconditionallyconvergent.
Theratiotestusesthelimit

IfL<1,thentheseries isabsolutelyconvergent.
IfL>1,thentheseries isdivergent
IfL=1,thentheratiotestisinconclusive

However,itshouldbenotedthatthislimitevaluatesto1forallpseries,andhenceall
rational/algebraicfunctionsofn.
Similarly,thereisalsoaroottestforexponentialseries,using

IfL<1,thentheseries isabsolutelyconvergent.
IfL>1,thentheseries isdivergent
IfL=1,thentheratiotestisinconclusive

2.1.8.2.1.5 Mixed

Evaluatethelimitofthesequencefirst,itisnotzero,itisdivergent.
pseriesandgeometricseriesareeasilyidentifiable.
Forseriessimilartothepseriesorgeometricseries,usethecomparisontest.
Foralternatingseries,usethealternatingseriestest.
Iftheseriesinvolvesfactorialsorotherproducts(orexponentials),trytheratiotestorthe
roottest.
Iftheintegralcanbeeasilycomputed,thentheintegraltestiseffective.

Page110


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.2.2 PowerSeries
Apowerseriesisdefinedas:

Wherecnisacoefficient.Thepowerseriesissimilartoapolynomial,exceptthatithasinfinite
numberofterms.Wherea=0andcnisaconstant,thepowerseriesbecomesageometricserieswith
x=r.
Thepowerseriescanbeconvergent/divergentdependingonthevalue(s)ofx.Ingeneral,thethree
possibilitiesare:

Theseriesconvergeswhenx=a
Theseriesconvergesforallx
Theseriesconvergesforarangeofvaluesuchthat|

Forthelastcase,Riscalledtheradiusofconvergence,andisequaltozero/infinityfortheother
twocases.Theintervalofconvergenceistheintervalonxatwhichthepowerseriesconverges.
|

Normally,theratiotestisusedtofind|
|
isconvergentwhen|
.

,andothermethodsareusedtofindiftheseries

Somerationalfunctioncanbeexpressedasapowerseriesusingtheformulaforthegeometric
sequence.
Forexample,

1
2

1
1
1

Thisseriesconvergeswhen

1
2

1
2

2
| |

Page111

1
2


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

IfthepowerserieshasaradiusofconvergenceR>0,thenthefunctionfdefinedbythepowerseries
isdifferentiable(andcontinuous)ontheintervalofconvergence.

Forexample,
tan

1
2

Substitutingwhenx=0,tan1(x)=0,C=0
Theradiusofconvergenceofthisseriesisthesameastheradiusofconvergenceofthepowerseries
for

,whichis1.

Page112


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

2.1.8.2.3 MaclaurinandTaylorPolynomialsandSeries
ATaylorseriesataisthepowerseriesexpansionofafunctionfata.Assumingthatfhasderivatives
ofallorders,
, where

isthen derivative

Inparticular,theMaclaurinserieswherea=0.
ATaylorpolynomialTnisthenthpartialsumofthepowerseries,andRnistheremainder.Ingeneral,
iff(x)isthesumofaTaylorseries,then
lim
|

fortheinterval|

Also,if

0
,then

1 !

ThisiscalledTaylorsInequality,andisoftenusedtoprovetheabovetoshowthattheTaylorseries
isequaltothefunction.Indoingso,thefollowingfactisalsohelpful:
lim

0istrueifthereexistsanupperboundMsuchthat

Hencelim

Forexample,findtheMaclaurinseriesforsin ,andprovethatitrepresentssin forallx.

0

sin 0

0,

cos 0

1,

sin 0

sin 0

0,

cos 0

Thepatternrepeatsitselfinacycle,anditsderivativesareallsineandcosinefunctions,hence,itsn
thderivativeisboundedby1
|

lim
HenceRnisconvergestozero,andsin
sin

0
0!

0
!

1 !
|
1 !

1
1!

0
2!

0
,itsMaclaurinseries.
1
3!

Page113

0
4!

1
2

1 !


SingleVariableCalculus
SequencesandSeries

SomeimportantMaclaurinseries:
1

sin

cos

tan

1
2
1
2

1 !

1
2

MultiplicationanddivisionofTaylorseriescanbedoneusinglongmultiplicationandlongdivision.

Page114


VectorCalculus
SpaceCurveandContinuity

2.2VectorCalculus
2.2.1

SpaceCurveandContinuity

Avectorspacecurveisacurvedefinedin3Dspacebyavectorequation.

Avectoriscontinuousifandonlyif:
lim

Thisimpliesthatforthevectorspacecurvetobecontinuous,allthreefunctionsx,yandzmustbe
continuous.

2.2.1.1

VectorFunctionandPaths

Usingvariousidentitiesorsubstitutionstoequatethexandyterms,aCartesianequationcanbe
foundfromthevectorfunction.Ifthevectorfunctionisdefinedintermsofanothervariable,thenx
andyareboundedifthatvariableisbounded.
Forexample,

2 sin

cos

for0

cos

2 sin

2
0

3
2

1
2, 1

Page115


VectorCalculus
Derivative

2.2.2

Derivative
lim

Asmoothfunctionsderivativemustnotbeazerovectoratanypoint.

2.2.3

VectorTangent

Thevectortangentisdefinedastheunitvectorinthedirectionofthespacecurve.
|

Propertiesofthevectortangent:
| |

1
0

2.2.4

Curvature
|

|
|

|
1

isameasureofcurvature(thehigheritis,themorecurvedthespacecurveis).
istheradiusofcurvature.

2.2.5

NormalandBiNormal

Page116


MultivariableCalculus
Continuity

2.3MultivariableCalculus
2.3.1

Continuity

Afunctionfoftwovariablesiscontinuousat(a.b)if:
,

2.3.2

lim

PartialDerivatives

Whenfindingapartialderivativewithrespecttoonevariable,theothervariableistreatedasa
constant.

2.3.2.1

lim

lim

TabularDataInterpretation

Primarilyanapproximation:

Page117


MultivariableCalculus
PartialDerivatives

2.3.2.2

ImplicitDerivationofPartialDerivatives

Where

, ,

isstatedimplicitlyas

,thepartialderivativescanbefoundimplicitly.

Tofind ,holdingyconstant,zcanbeexpressedas
, ,

, ,

, ,

Thisisthetechniqueofimplicitdifferentiation(discussedlater).
Forexample:
5

Rememberingthatzisafunctionofx,theproductrulemustbeusedforbothterms:
2

2.3.2.3

HigherPartialDerivatives

Thefirstderivativemaybepartiallydifferentiatedfurthertofindhigherpartialderivatives.The
implicationisthatthefirstpartialderivativewithrespecttoxcanbedifferentiatedagainwith
respecttoeitherxory,henceforafunctionof2variables,thereare4partialderivatives,
, , , .

2.3.2.3.1

ClairautsTheorem

IffisafunctionfortwovariablesandiscontinuousonadiskDcontaining(a,b),thenfxyandfyxare
bothcontinuousonD,then
,

Page118


MultivariableCalculus
Tangentplanes

2.3.2.4

PartialDifferentialEquations

Laplacesequation
0
sin .

Onesolutionis
Waveequation

Onesuchsolutionis

2.3.3

sin

Tangentplanes

Atangentplanetoz=f(x,y)atP(x0,y0,z0):
,

2.3.3.1

LinearApproximations

For(x,y)closeto(a,b):
,

2.3.3.2

Differentials

For(x,y)closeto(a,b):

2.3.4

Chainrule

Forafunctionofseveralvariableswhereeachvariableisafunctionofothervariable(s):
Letz=f(x,y)andx=g(s,t),y=h(s,t)

Forfunctionswithmorevariables,thechainrulecanbegeneralised:
Letf(x,y,z,)beafunction,wherex=g(s,t),y=h(s,t),z=j(s,t),

Page119


MultivariableCalculus
DirectionalDerivatives

2.3.4.1

ImplicitDifferentiationUsingPartialDerivatives

LetF(x,y)=0definey=f(x)implicitly
0

2.3.5

DirectionalDerivatives
,

Forpartialderivativesinthedirectionofaparticularunitvector
,

2.3.5.1

lim

GradientVector
,

Hencethedirectionalderivativecanbeexpressedas:
,

2.3.5.1.1

Direction
|

| 1 cos

Hence,thedirectionalderivativeisatmaximumwhentheanglebetweenthetwovectorsiszero.
Hence,thedirectionalderivativepointsinthedirection(onthexyplane)ofmaximumrateof
change.
,

Forlevelcurves
uphilldirection.

2.3.5.1.2

,thegradientvectorpointsperpendicularlytothelevelcurvesinthe

Magnitude

Themaximumdirectionalderivativeisthemagnitudeofthegradientvector.

2.3.5.2

TangentPlanetoLevelSurface
, ,

Foralevelsurface
,
Or,forthecase
,
,

2.3.5.2.1

,theequationofthetangentplaneis

,
,

,itcanbereexpressedas
1

,
, ,

,
,

0
0,where

NormalLine

Thenormallinethroughoriginperpendiculartothetangentplanehasthesymmetricequation:

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MultivariableCalculus
CriticalPointsofaSurface

2.3.6

CriticalPointsofaSurface

Acriticalpointofasurface

2.3.6.1

occurswhenbothpartialderivatives and arezero.

SecondDerivativeDeterminant

Thenatureofcriticalpointscanbefoundbyfindingthefollowingdeterminant:

IfDispositiveandfxxispositive,thecriticalpointisalocalminimum.
IfDispositiveandfxxisnegative,thecriticalpointisalocalmaximum.
IfDisnegative,thecriticalpointisasaddlepoint(notamaximumnorminimum).
IfDiszero,thetestisinconclusive.
NotethatforpositiveDvalues,wherefisdefinedintherealplane,fxxcannotbezero,asthatwill
imply(fxy)2isnegative,hencefxyisacomplexnumber.

2.3.6.2

AbsoluteExtremum

Forafunction
, definedonaclosedsetD(intwodimensions),theabsoluteextremaiseither
atacriticalpointwithinD,orontheedgeofD.Itisnecessarytofindtherelationshipbetweenxand
yontheboundaryofDtofindtheabsolutemaximumandtheabsoluteminimum.
I.e.ifDisarectangle(0,0)(5,0)(5,3)(0,3),thenitisnecessarytofindcriticalpointsoff,the
maximumandminimumoffwhen
0,
3,
0,
5andbycomparison,findtheabsolute
maximumandminimum.

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