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Chapter15GuidanceandControl
GuidanceandControl
16.1OBJECTIVESANDINTRODUCTION
Objectives
1.Understandthepurposeofaguidancesystem.
2.Understandthethreephasesofguidance.
3.Beacquaintedwiththeconceptandthetypesofcontrolguidancesystems.
4.Knowandunderstandthemethodsofhomingguidance.
5.Understandtheapplicationofmonopulsemethodstoweaponhomingsystems.
6.Beacquaintedwiththefunctionandthetypesofselfcontainedguidancesystems.
7.Beacquaintedwiththebasicoperationandapplicationsofaccelerometers.
8.Beacquaintedwithpresentguidedflightpaths.
9.Knowandunderstandthevariableflightpaths.
Introduction
ThetermmissileinthepostWorldWarIIerahasgenerallybeenusedsynonymouslywith"guidedmissile,"dueto
thewideimpactofguidedmissiletechnologyupontheweaponsfield.Intheunguidedcase,initialconditions
(suchastrain,elevation,powderchargeinnavalguns)andexteriorballisticeffectsareparametersthat,alongwith
normaldistribution,affectthe"fallofshot."Asadvancesintechnologypermitted(paralleledbyincreasingthreat
complexity),thedevelopmentofguidedmissilesmadepossibleasignificantincreaseinterminalaccuracyofmil
itaryweaponry.Theapplicationofautomaticcontrolisprevalentinbroadregionsofmissiletechnologyincluding:
UnderwaterHomingTorpedoes
SurfacetoSurfaceAerodynamicGuidedMissiles
IntercontinentalBallisticMissiles
AirtoAirGuidedMissiles
SurfacetoAirGuidedMissiles
GuidedProjectiles
Thischapterwilldealprimarilywiththeaerodynamicguidedmissile.Variousaerodynamicmissileflightpaths
willbeintroducedandasimplifiedanalysisincludedtodemonstratetherelativeadvantages/disadvantagesof
each.
16.2FUNDAMENTALSOFGUIDANCESYSTEMS
16.2.1PurposeandFunction
Everymissileguidancesystemconsistsofanattitudecontrolsystemandaflightpathcontrolsystem.Theattitude
controlsystemfunctionstomaintainthemissileinthedesiredattitudeontheorderedflightpathbycontrollingthe

missileinpitch,roll,andyaw.Theattitudecontrolsystemoperatesasanautopilot,dampingoutfluctuationsthat
tendtodeflectthemissilefromitsorderedflightpath.Thefunctionoftheflightpathcontrolsystemistodetermine
theflightpathnecessaryfortargetinterceptionandtogeneratetheorderstotheattitudecontrolsystemtomaintain
thatpath.
Itshouldbeclearatthispointthattheconceptof"GuidanceandControl"involvesnotonlythemaintenanceofa
particularvehicle'spathfrompointAtoBinspace,butalsotheproperbehaviorofthevehiclewhilefollowingthe
path.Amissilethatfollowsaprescribedpathhalfthewaytoatargetandthenbecomesdynamicallyunstableis
thenincapableofremaininguponthepath(orelsefailsstructurallyduetoaerodynamicloading).Suchavehicle,
inordertoperformproperly,mustbe"piloted"andcapableofrespondingtocontrolsignals.
Theoperationofaguidanceandcontrolsystemisbasedontheprincipleoffeedback.Thecontrolunitsmake
correctiveadjustmentsofthemissilecontrolsurfaceswhenaguidanceerrorispresent.Thecontrolunitswillalso
adjustthecontrolsurfacestostabilizethemissileinroll,pitch,andyaw.Guidanceandstabilizationcorrectionsare
combined,andtheresultisappliedasanerrorsignaltothecontrolsystem.
16.2.2Sensors
Theguidancesysteminamissilecanbecomparedtothehumanpilotofanairplane.Asapilotguideshisplaneto
thelandingfield,theguidancesystem"sees"itstarget.Ifthetargetisfarawayorotherwiseobscured,radioor
radarbeamscanbeusedtolocateitanddirectthemissiletoit.Heat,light,television,theearth'smagneticfield,
andLoranhaveallbeenfoundsuitableforspecificguidancepurposes.Whenanelectromagneticsourceisusedto
guidethemissile,anantennaandareceiverareinstalledinthemissiletoformwhatisknownasasensor.The
sensorpicksup,orsenses,theguidanceinformation.Missilesthatareguidedbyotherthanelectromagneticmeans
useothertypesofsensors,buteachmusthavesomemeansofreceiving"positionreports."
Thekindofsensorthatisusedwillbedeterminedbysuchfactorsasmaximumoperationrange,operating
conditions,thekindofinformationneeded,theaccuracyrequired,viewingangle,andweightandsizeofthesensor,
andthetypeoftargetanditsspeed.
16.2.3Accelerometers
Theheartoftheinertialnavigationsystemforshipsandmissilesisanarrangementofaccelerometersthatwill
detectanychangeinvehicularmotion.Tounderstandtheuseofaccelerometersininertialguidance,itishelpfulto
examinethegeneralprinciplesinvolved.
Anaccelerometer,asitsnameimplies,isadeviceformeasuringacceleration.Intheirbasicformsuchdevicesare
simple.Forexample,apendulum,freetoswingonatransverseaxis,couldbeusedtomeasureaccelerationalong
theforeandaftaxisofthemissile.Whenthemissileisgivenaforwardacceleration,thependulumwilltendtolag
afttheactualdisplacementofthependulumformitsoriginalpositionwillbeafunctionofthemagnitudeofthe
acceleratingforce.Anothersimpledevicemightconsistofaweightsupportedbetweentwosprings.Whenan
acceleratingforceisapplied,theweightwillmovefromitsoriginalpositioninadirectionoppositetothatofthe
appliedforce.Themovementofthemass(weight)isinaccordancewithNewton'ssecondlawofmotion,which
statesthattheaccelerationofabodyisdirectlyproportionaltotheforceappliedandinverselyproportionaltothe
massofthebody.
Iftheaccelerationalongtheforeandaftaxiswereconstant,thespeedofthemissileatanyinstantcouldbedeter
minedsimplybymultiplyingtheaccelerationbytheelapsedtime.However,theaccelerationmaychange
considerablyoveraperiodoftime.Undertheseconditions,integrationisnecessarytodeterminethespeed.
Ifthemissilespeedwereconstant,thedistancecoveredcouldbecalculatedsimplybymultiplyingthespeedby
timeofflight.Butbecausetheaccelerationvaries,thespeedalsovaries.Forthatreason,asecondintegrationis
necessary.
Themovingelementoftheaccelerometercanconnectedtoapotentiometer,ortoavariableinductorcore,orto
someotherdevicecapableofproducingavoltageproportionaltothedisplacementoftheelement.
Usuallytherearethreedoubleintegratingaccelerometerscontinuouslymeasuringthedistancetraveledbythe
missileinthreedirectionsrange,altitude,andazimuth(figure161).Doubleintegratingaccelerometersare
devicesthataresensitivetoacceleration,andbyadoublestepprocessmeasuredistance.Thesemeasureddistances
arethencomparedwiththedesireddistances,whicharepresetintothemissileifthemissileisoffcourse,
correctionsignalsaresenttothecontrolsystem.

Accelerometersaresensitivetotheaccelerationofgravityaswellasmissileaccelerations.Forthisreason,the
accelerometersthatmeasurerangeandazimuthdistancesmustbemountedinafixedpositionwithrespecttothe
pullofgravity.Thiscanbedoneinamovingmissilebymountingthemonaplatformthatisstabilizedby
gyroscopesorbystartrackingtelescopes.Thisplatform,however,mustbemovedasthemissilepassesoverthe
earthtokeepthesensitiveaxisofeachaccelerometerinafixedpositionwithrespecttothepullofgravity.These
factorscausetheaccuracyoftheinertialsystemtodecreaseasthetimeofflightofthemissileincreases.
Toeliminateunwantedoscillations,adamperisincludedintheaccelerometerunit.Thedampingeffortshouldbe
justgreatenoughtopreventanyoscillationsfromoccurring,butstillpermitasignificantdisplacementofthe
mass.Whenthisconditionexists,themovementofthemasswillbeexactlyproportionaltotheaccelerationofthe
vehicle.
Figure162showsamasssuspendedbyaspringinaliquiddampedsystem.Ifthecaseexperiencesanacceleration
inthedirectionindicatedbythearrow,thespringwillofferarestrainingforceproportionaltothedownward
displacementofthemass,whiletheviscousfluidwillservetodampenanyundesirableoscillations.
Figure163showsasystemthatiselectricallydamped.Themass(M)isfreetoslidebackandforthinrelationto
theironcore(C).Whenthevehicleexperiencesanacceleration,thevoltage(E),whichisproportionaltothe
displacementofthemass,ispickedoffandamplified.Thecurrent(I)(stillproportionaltothedisplacement)is
sentbacktothecoilaroundthecore.Theresultingmagneticfieldaroundthecoilcreatesaforceonthemass,
whichdampstheoscillations.Inthissystemtheaccelerationcouldbemeasuredbythedisplacementofthemass
(X),bythevoltage(E),orbythecurrent(I).
16.3PHASESOFGUIDANCE
Missileguidanceisgenerallydividedintothreephasesboost,midcourse,andterminal.Thesenamesreferto
differentpartsoftheflightpath.Theboostphasemayalsobecalledthelaunchingorinitialphase.
16.3.1BoostPhase.
Navysurfacetoairmissilesacceleratetoflightspeedbymeansoftheboostercomponent.Thisboosterperiodlasts
fromthetimethemissileleavesthelauncheruntiltheboosterburnsitsfuel.Inmissileswithseparateboosters,the
boosterdropsawayfromthemissileatburnout.Theobjectiveofthisphaseistoplacethemissileatapositionin
spacefromwhereitcaneither"see"thetargetorwhereitcanreceiveexternalguidancesignals.Duringtheboost
phaseofsomemissiles,theguidancesystemandtheaerodynamicsurfacesarelockedinposition.Othermissiles
areguidedduringtheboostphase.
16.3.2MidcoursePhase.
Thesecond,ormidcourse,phaseofguidanceisoftenthelongestinbothdistanceandtime.Duringthispartofthe
flight,changesmayberequiredtobringthemissileontothedesiredcourseandtomakecertainthatitstaysonthat
course.Duringthisguidancephase,informationcanbesuppliedtothemissilebyanyofseveralmeans.Inmost
cases,themidcourseguidancesystemisusedtoplacethemissilenearthetarget,wherethe
systemtobeusedinthefinalphaseofguidancecantakeover.Inothercases,themidcourseguidancesystemis
usedforboththesecondandthirdguidancephases.
16.3.3TerminalPhase.
Thelastphaseofmissileguidancemusthavehighaccuracyaswellasfastresponsetoguidancesignals.Missile
performancebecomesacriticalfactorduringthisphase.Themissilemustbecapableofexecutingthefinal
maneuversrequiredforinterceptwithintheconstantlydecreasingavailableflighttime.Themaneuverabilityofthe
missilewillbeafunctionofvelocityaswellasairframedesign.Therefore,aterminalguidancesystemmustbe
compatiblewithmissileperformancecapabilities.Thegreaterthetargetacceleration,themorecriticalthemethod
ofterminalguidancebecomes.Suitablemethodsofguidancewillbediscussedinlatersectionsofthischapter.In
somemissiles,especiallyshortrangemissiles,asingleguidancesystemmaybeusedforallthreephasesof
guidance,whereasothermissilesmayhaveadifferentguidancesystemforeachphase.
16.4TYPESOFGUIDANCESYSTEMS
Missileguidancesystemsmaybeclassifiedintotwobroadcategories:missilesguidedbymanmade
electromagneticdevices,andthoseguidedbyothermeans.(Seefigure166.)Inthe

firstcategoryarethosemissilescontrolledbyradar,radiodevices,andthosemissilesthatusethetargetasa
sourceofelectromagneticradiation.Inthelattercategoryaremissilesthatrelyonelectromechanicaldevicesor
electromagneticcontactwithnaturalsources,suchasthestars(selfcontainedguidancesystems).
Allofthemissilesthatmaintainelectromagneticradiationcontactwithmanmakesourcesmaybefurther
subdividedintotwosubcategories.
(1)Controlguidancemissiles
(2)Homingguidancemissiles
16.4.1ControlGuidance
Controlguidancemissilesarethosethatareguidedonthebasisofdirectelectromagneticradiationcontactwith
friendlycontrolpoints.Homingguidancemissilesarethosethatguidedonthebasisofdirectelectromagnetic
radiationcontactwiththetarget.Controlguidancegenerallydependsontheuseofradar(radarcontrol)orradio
(radiocontrol)linksbetweenacontrolpointandthemissile.Byuseofguidanceinformationtransmittedfromthe
controlpointviaaradioorradarlink,themissile'sflightpathcanbeguided.Thischapterwilluseradarcontrol
guidanceasamodelfordiscussionbecauseitisbyfarthemostcommonapplicationofcontrolguidancemethods.
Theprinciplesdiscussedmaybereadilyappliedtoradio(includingtelevision)controlguidance.
16.4.1.1RadarControlGuidance.Radarcontrolguidancemaybesubdividedintotwoseparatecategories.Thefirst
categoryissimplyreferredtoasthecommandguidancemethod.Thesecondisthebeamridermethod,whichis
actuallyamodificationofthefirst,butwiththeradarbeingusedinadifferentmanner.
16.4.1.2CommandguidanceThetermcommandisusedtodescribeaguidancemethodinwhichallguidance
instructions,orcommands,comefromsourcesoutsidethemissile.Theguidancesystemofthemissilecontainsa
receiverthatiscapableofreceivinginstructionsfromshiporgroundstationsorfromaircraft.Themissileflight
pathcontrolsystemthenconvertsthesecommandstoguidanceinformation,whichisfedtotheattitudecontrol
system.
Inthecommandguidancemethod,oneortworadarsareusedtotrackthemissileandtarget.Figure167isablock
diagramofhowthismethodworksinactualpractice.Assoonastheradarislockedonthetarget,tracking
informationisfedintothecomputer.Themissileisthenlaunchedandistrackedbytheradar.Targetandmissile
ranges,elevations,andbearingsarecontinuouslyfedtothecomputer.
Thisinformationisanalyzedandamissileinterceptflightpathiscomputed.Theappropriateguidancesignalsare
thentransmittedtothemissilereceiver.Thesesignalsmaybesentbyvaryingthecharacteristicsofthemissile
trackingradarbeam,orbywayofaseparateradiotransmitter.Theradarcommandguidancemethodcanbeusedin
ship,air,orgroundmissiledeliverysystems.Arelativelynewtypeofcommandguidancebywireisnow
operationalinsomeshortrangeantitanktypeweapons.Thesesystemsuseanopticalsightfortrackingthetarget
whiletheweaponsemitsacharacteristicinfraredsignature,whichisusedfortrackingtheweaponwithanIR
sensor.Deviationoftheweaponfromthelineofsight(LOS)tothetargetissensed,andguidancecommandsare
generatedthatarefedtotheweaponcontrolsysteminflightviaadirectwirelink.Eachweaponcontainswire
spoolsthatpayoutasthewarheadfliesoutthelineofsighttothetarget.Currentusageofthesesystemsisin
relativelylightweight,portable,shortrangebattlefieldenvironmentsagainstarmoredtargetswheretheirhigh
accuracyandsubstantialwarheadsaremostefficientlyemployed.
16.4.1.3BeamriderMethodThemaindifferencebetweenthebeamridermethodandtheradarcommand
guidancemethodisthatthecharacteristicsofthemissiletrackingradarbeamarenotvariedinthebeamrider
system.Themissilehasbeendesignedsothatitisabletoformulateitsowncorrectionsignalsonthebasisofits
positionwithrespecttotheradarscanaxis.Thetechniqueisbestunderstoodafterreviewingtheprinciplesof
conicalscantrackinginChapter5.Themissile'sflightpathcontrolunitissensitivetoanydeviationfromthescan
axisoftheguidanceradarandiscapableofcomputingtheproperflightpathcorrection.Anadvantageofthistype
ofsystemisthatisrequiresonlyoneradar.Thisradarmust,ofcourse,haveaconicalscanfeatureinorderto
providebothtargettrackingcapabilityandamissileflightpathcorrectionreferenceaxis.Asecondadvantageis
thatsincethemissileformulatesitsowndirectionalcommands,severalmissilesmaybelaunchedto"ride"the
beamsimultaneously,withouttheneedforacumbersomeandcomplicatedmultiplemissilecommandsystem.
Figure168illustratesasimplebeamriderguidancesystemonatypicalLOScourse.Theaccuracyofthissystem
decreaseswithrangebecausetheradarbeamspreadsout,anditismoredifficultforthemissiletoremaininits
center.Ifthetargetismovingveryrapidly,themissilemustfollowacontinuouslychangingpath,whichmaycause

ittoundergoexcessivetransverseaccelerations.
16.4.2HomingGuidance
Homingguidancesystemscontroltheflightpathbyemployingadeviceintheweaponthatreactstosome
distinguishingfeatureofthetarget.Homingdevicescanbemadesensitivetoavarietyofenergyforms,including
RF,infrared,reflectedlaser,sound,andvisiblelight.Inordertohomeonthetarget,themissileortorpedomust
determineatleasttheazimuthandelevationofthetargetbyoneofthemeansofangletrackingmentionedpre
viously.Activehomingmissileswillalsohavethemeansofdeterminingrangeofthetargetifnecessary.Tracking
isperformedbyamovableseekerantennaoranarraywithstationaryelectronicallyscannedarraysin
developmentformissilesandoperationalinsometorpedoes.Determinationofangularerrorbyamplitude
comparisonmonopulsemethodsispreferredovertheolderCOSROsystemsbecauseofthehigherdatarateand
fasterresponsetimehowever,phasecomparisonmonopulseorinterferometermethodshaveadvantagesinsome
applications.Homingguidancemethodsmaybedividedintothreetypes:active,semiactive,andpassivehoming
(figure169).Thesemethodsmaybeemployedinseekersusinganyoftheenergyformsmentionedabove,
althoughsomemethodsmaybeexcludedbythenatureoftheenergyformforexample,onewouldnotbuilda
passivelaserseekeroranactiveorsemiactiveinfraredseeker.
16.4.2.1ActiveHoming.Inactivehoming,theweaponcontainsboththetransmitterandreceiver.Searchand
acquisitionareconductedaswithanytrackingsensor.Thetargetistrackedemployingmonostaticgeometryin
whichthereturningechofromthetargettravelsthesamepathasthetransmittedenergy(figure168).Anonboard
computercalculatesacoursetointerceptthetargetandsendssteeringcommandstotheweapon'sautopilot.The
monostaticgeometryallowsthemostefficientreflectionofenergyfromthetarget,butthesmallsizeofthemissile
restrictsthedesignertohighfrequenciesandlowpoweroutputfromthetransmitter,resultinginshortseeker
acquisitionrange.
16.4.2.2SemiactiveHoming.Insemiactivehoming,thetargetisilluminatedbyatrackingradaratthelaunching
siteorothercontrolpoint.Themissileisequippedwitharadarreceiver(notransmitter)andbymeansofthe
reflectedradarenergyfromthetarget,formulatesitsowncorrectionsignalsasintheactivemethod.However,
semiactivehomingusesbistaticreflectionfromthetarget,meaningthatbecausetheilluminatorplatformand
weaponreceiverarenotcolocated,thereturningechofollowsadifferentpaththantheenergyincidenttothe
target.Duetoitsshapeandcomposition,thetargetmaynotreflectenergyefficientlyinthedirectionofthe
weapon.Inextremecasestheweaponmaylosethetargetentirely,resultinginamissedintercept.This
disadvantageiscompensatedforbytheabilitytousegreaterpowerandmorediversefrequencyrangesinanillum
inationdeviceinaship,aircraft,orgroundstation.
16.4.2.3PassiveHoming.Passivehomingdependsonlyonthetargetasasourceoftrackingenergy.Thisenergy
canbethenoiseradiatedbyashiporsubmarineinthecaseofapassivehomingtorpedo,RFradiationfromthe
target'sownsensorsinthecaseofanantiradiation(ARM)weapon,heatsourcessuchasship,aircraft,orvehicle
exhausts,contrastwiththetemperatureorvisiblelightenvironment,oreventheradiationallobjectsemitinthe
microwaveregion.Asintheotherhomingmethods,themissilegeneratesitsowncorrectionsignalsonthebasisof
energyreceivedfromthetargetratherthanfromacontrolpoint.Theadvantageofpassivehomingisthatthe
counterdetectionproblemisreduced,andawiderangeofenergyformsandfrequenciesareavailable.Its
disadvantagesareitssusceptibilitytodecoyordeceptionanditsdependenceonacertainamountofcooperation
fromtheenemy.
16.4.2.4RetransmissionHomingorTrackViaMissile(TVM).Retransmissionhomingisablendingofthe
characteristicsofbothcommandandsemiactivehomingguidance.Incommandguidance,missilesteering
commandsarecomputedatthelaunchpointusingtargetpositionandmissilepositiondataderivedfromlaunch
pointsensors.Inretransmissionhoming,themissilecontainsasemiactiveseekerthatdeterminestheazimuthand
elevationanglefromthemissiletothetarget,whichisthencodedandtransmittedtothelaunchpointviadatalink
(downlink).Thefirecontrolsystematthelaunchpointcanuseitsowntargettrackingdata,thatofthemissile(or
both),andmissilepositiondatatocomputesteeringcommands,whicharethentransmittedtothemissileviaan
uplink.ThistechniqueisusedinsomenewAAWmissilesystems,includingtheU.S.ArmyPatriotsystem.
SpecificretransmissionorTVMsystemsmayvarysomewhatfromthisidealhowever,theyallwillinsomeway
usetargetangledatafromthemissiletocomputesteeringcommandsatthelaunchpointthatarethentransmittedto
themissile.
16.4.3Accuracy.Homingisthemostaccurateofallguidancesystemsbecauseitusesthetargetasitssourcewhen
usedagainstmovingtargets.Thereareseveralwaysinwhichthehomingdevicemaycontrolthepathofamissile
againstamovingtarget.Ofthese,themoregenerallyusedarepursuitpathsandleadflightpaths,whichare
discussedinasubsequentpartofthischapter.Becausemonopulsemethodsinweaponsseekersareadvantageous

andarebecomingthemethodofchoiceincurrentweapons,itisnecessarytoaddressthetwobasictypes:
16.4.3.1AmplitudeComparisonMonopulse.Thismethod,describedinChapter5,requiresagimballedseeker
antennacoveredbyaradomeatthenoseoftheweapon.Becauseofaerodynamicrequirements,theradomeshape
isnormallynotoptimalforradarperformance.Verypreciseorderstotheantennaarerequiredtoachievetarget
acquisitionduetothesingleantenna'slimitedfieldofview.Inthesesystemsthesizeoftheantennadirectly
determinesthelimitsofthefrequencyrangeoftheseeker.Itsprimaryadvantageisitsconsistentperformance
throughoutthepotentialspeedandmaneuverabilityrangeofpotentialtargets.
16.4.3.2Interferometer(PhaseComparisonMonopulse).Theinterferometereliminatestherequirementfora
movableantenna,havinginsteadfixedantennasmountedattheedgeoftheairframeoronthewingtips,theresult
beingreducedcomplexityandawiderfieldofview.Asdepictedinfigure1610,twoantennasseparatedbya
knowndistanceareinstalledforeachmobilityaxisoftheweapon.InthediagramtheantennasAandB,separated
bythedistanced,receiveenergyemitted(passivehoming)orreflected(semiactivehoming)fromthetarget.
Becausethedistancetothetargetisrelativelylarge,itisassumedthattheRFenergyarrivesasaseriesofplanar
waveswithwavelength.InaccordancewiththediscussionofelectronicscanninginChapter7andtowedacoustic
arraysinchapter9itisevidentthatforthegeometrypictured,thephasesensedbyantennaBwilllagthatsensed
byantennaAbysomephaseanglewhichisproportionaltodsintherefore:
=2dsin
Ifisknownandthephaseanglecanbedetermined,thenthelookangle,,canbecalculated.
Theinterferometerprovidestheadvantageofwidefieldofview,flexibilityinairframedesign,unobstructeduseof
weaponinteriorspace,andtheabilitytocoverbroadfrequencybandswithoutconstraintsimposedbylimited
antennasize.Theseparationbetweentheantennasgovernstheperformanceofthesystem,withmissilebody
diameterorfinspreadseparationastheusualarrangement.Thedisadvantageoftheinterferometeristheangular
ambiguitythatmayexistforwavelengthslessthantheseparationbetweentheantennasataspecificangleof
incidence.Ifthedistancebetweentheantennasatanangleofincidenceisdsin,andislessthandsin,thenitisnot
possibletodetermineifthephaseanglemeasuredisjustthator+n2radians,wherenisanyinteger.However,this
isaminorprobleminmosthomingsystemsbecausetheabsolutelookangleisnotasimportantastherateof
changeofthatangle.
Theinterferometerhasanadvantageinresolvingmultipletargetsattwicetherangeofatypicalamplitude
comparisonmonopulseseekerinthesamesizeweapon.Thisgivesthemissiletwicethetimetorespondtothe
changeoverfromtrackingthecentroidofthegrouptotrackingonespecifictarget,thusincreasingthehit
probability.
16.4.4CompositeSystems.Noonesystemisbestsuitedforallphasesofguidance.Itislogicalthentocombinea
systemthathasgoodmidcourseguidancecharacteristicswithasystemthathasexcellentterminalguidance
characteristics,inordertoincreasethenumberofhits.Combinedsystemsareknownascompositeguidance
systemsorcombinationsystems.
Manymissilesrelyoncombinationsofvarioustypesofguidance.Forexample,onetypeofmissilemayuse
commandguidanceuntilitiswithinacertainrangeofatarget.Atthistimethecommandguidancemaybecomea
backupmodeandatypeofhomingguidancecommenced.Thehomingguidancewouldthenbeuseduntilimpact
withthetargetordetonationofaproximityfixedwarhead.
16.4.5HybridGuidance.
Acombinationofcommandguidanceandsemiactivehomingguidanceisatypeofhybridguidance.Itachieves
manyadvantagesofbothsystems.Itattainslongrangecapabilitiesbymaintainingthetrackingsensorsonthe
deliveryvehicle(ship,aircraft,orlandbase)andtransmittingthedatatothemissile.Byhavingthemissilecompute
itsownattitudeadjustments,theentiremechanizationofthefirecontrolproblemcanbesimplified.
16.5SELFCONTAINEDGUIDANCESYSTEMS
Theselfcontainedgroupfallsinthesecondcategoryofguidancesystemtypes.Alltheguidanceandcontrol
equipmentisentirelywithinthemissile.Someofthesystemsofthistypeare:preset,terrestrial,inertial,and
celestialnavigation.Thesesystemsaremostcommonlyapplicabletosurfacetosurfacemissiles,andelectronic
countermeasuresarerelativelyineffectiveagainstthemsincetheyneithertransmitnorreceivesignalsthatcanbe

jammed.
16.5.1PresetGuidance.Thetermpresetcompletelydescribesoneguidancemethod.Whenpresetguidanceis
used,allofthecontrolequipmentisinsidethemissile.Thismeansthatbeforethemissileislaunched,all
informationrelativetotargetlocationaswellasthetrajectorythemissilemustfollowmustbecalculated.After
thisisdone,themissileguidancesystemmustbesettofollowthecoursetothetarget,toholdthemissileatthe
desiredaltitude,tomeasureitsairspeedand,atthecorrecttime,causethemissiletostarttheterminalphaseofits
flightanddiveonthetarget.
Amajoradvantageofpresetguidanceisthatitisrelativelysimplecomparedtoothertypesofguidanceitdoesnot
requiretrackingorvisibility.
AnearlyexampleofapresetguidancesystemwastheGermanV2,whererangeandbearingofthetargetwere
predeterminedandsetintothecontrolmechanism.TheearliestPolarismissilewasalsodesignedtousepreset
guidanceduringthefirstpartofitsflight,butthiswassoonmodifiedtopermitgreaterlaunchflexibility.
Thepresetmethodofguidanceisusefulonlyagainststationarytargetsoflargesize,suchaslandmassesorcities.
Sincetheguidanceinformationiscompletelydeterminedpriortolaunch,thismethodwould,ofcourse,notbe
suitableforuseagainstships,aircraft,enemymissiles,ormovinglandtargets.
16.5.2NavigationalGuidanceSystems.Whentargetsarelocatedatgreatdistancesfromthelaunchingsite,some
formofnavigationalguidancemustbeused.Accuracyatlongdistancesisachievedonlyafterexactingand
comprehensivecalculationsoftheflightpathhavebeenmade.Themathematicalequationforanavigationproblem
ofthistypemaycontainfactorsdesignedtocontrolthemovementofthemissileaboutthethreeaxespitch,roll,
andyaw.Inaddition,theequationmaycontainfactorsthattakeintoaccountaccelerationduetooutsideforces(tail
winds,forexample)andtheinertiaofthemissileitself.Threenavigationalsystemsthatmaybeusedforlongrange
missileguidanceareinertial,celestial,andterrestrial.
16.5.2.1Inertialguidance.Thesimplestprincipleforguidanceisthelawofinertia.Inaimingabasketballata
basket,anattemptismadetogivetheballatrajectorythatwillterminateinthebasket.However,oncetheballis
released,theshooterhasnofurthercontroloverit.Ifhehasaimedincorrectly,oriftheballistouchedbyanother
person,itwillmissthebasket.However,itispossiblefortheballtobeincorrectlyaimedandthenhaveanother
persontouchittochangeitscoursesoitwillhitthebasket.Inthiscase,thesecondplayerhasprovidedaformof
guidance.Theinertialguidancesystemsuppliestheintermediatepushtogetthemissilebackontheproper
trajectory.
Theinertialguidancemethodisusedforthesamepurposeasthepresetmethodandisactuallyarefinementofthat
method.Theinertiallyguidedmissilealsoreceivesprogrammedinformationpriortolaunch.Althoughthereisno
electromagneticcontactbetweenthelaunchingsiteandthemissileafterlaunch,themissileisabletomake
correctionstoitsflightpathwithamazingprecision,controllingtheflightpathwithaccelerometersthatare
mountedonagyrostabilizedplatform.Allinflightaccelerationsarecontinuouslymeasuredbythisarrangement,
andthemissileattitudecontrolgeneratescorrespondingcorrectionsignalstomaintainthepropertrajectory.The
useofinertialguidancetakesmuchoftheguessworkoutoflongrangemissiledelivery.Theunpredictableoutside
forcesworkingonthemissilearecontinuouslysensedbytheaccelerometers.Thegeneratedsolutionenablesthe
missiletocontinuouslycorrectitsflightpath.Theinertialmethodhasprovedfarmorereliablethananyotherlong
rangeguidancemethoddevelopedtodate.
16.5.2.2CelestialReference.Acelestialnavigationguidancesystemisasystemdesignedforapredeterminedpath
inwhichthemissilecourseisadjustedcontinuouslybyreferencetofixedstars.Thesystemisbasedontheknown
apparentpositionsofstarsorothercelestialbodieswithrespecttoapointonthesurfaceoftheearthatagiven
time.Navigationbyfixedstarsandthesunishighlydesirableforlongrangemissilessinceitsaccuracyisnot
dependentonrange.Figure1612sketchestheapplicationofthesystemasitmightbeusedforaguidedmissile.
Themissilemustbeprovidedwithahorizontaloraverticalreferencetotheearth,automaticstartracking
telescopestodeterminestarelevationangleswithrespecttothereference,atimebase,andnavigationalstartables
mechanicallyorelectricallyrecorded.Acomputerinthemissilecontinuouslycomparesstarobservationswiththe
timebaseandthenavigationaltablestodeterminethemissile'spresentposition.Fromthis,thepropersignalsare
computedtosteerthemissilecorrectlytowardthetarget.Themissilemustcarryallthiscomplicatedequipment
andmustflyabovethecloudstoassurestarvisibility.
Celestialguidance(alsocalledstellarguidance)wasusedfortheMariner(unmannedspacecraft)interplanetary
missiontothevicinityofMarsandVenus.ICBMandSLBMsystemsatpresentusecelestialguidance.

16.5.3TerrestrialGuidanceMethods.
Priortomicrominiaturizationofcomputercircuits,thevariousmethodsofterrestrialguidanceproposedhad
significantlimitations.Theseproposedearlysystemsincludedaninertialreferencesystem,atelevisioncamerato
provideanimageoftheearth'ssurface,andafilmstripoftheintendedflightpath.Theguidancesystemwould
comparethetelevisionpicturewiththeprojectedfilmstripimageanddeterminepositionbymatchingthevarious
shadingsinthetwoimages.Thismethodprovedtooslowinprovidingpositiondata,evenforasubsonicmissile.
Itsotherdistinctdisadvantagewasthatitrequiredextensivelowlevelaerialphotographyofeachpotentialmissile
flightpath.Thedangertoflightcrewsandlossoftheelementofsurpriseinvolvedinextensiveprestrikephoto
reconnaissancemadesuchasystemimpractical.
Withtheavailabilityofcompactmassmemoryandvastlyincreasedcomputationalcapabilitycompatiblewith
missilespaceandweightlimitations,terrestrialguidancemethodsbecamepractical.Theadventofsmallradar
altimetersofhighprecision(Chapter2)providedanalternativetophotographicmethodswiththeaddedadvantage
thatweatherandlightingconditionswererelativelyinconsequential.Theradaraltimeterprovidesacoarsemeansof
detectingsurfacefeaturesbytheirheight,whichcanthenbecomparedwithstoreddataconcerningexpectedland
contoursalongthemissileflightpath.Themissileguidancesystemcontainsexpectedlandelevationvaluestothe
leftandrightofthemissile'sintendedgroundtrack.Theguidancesystemwilldeterminethatthemissileislocated
atapositionwherethestoreddatamostcloselymatchestheobservedaltitudesaspicturedinfigure1613.Oncethe
directionofturnandthedistancerequiredtocorrecttheerrorhavebeendetermined,themissilewillturntoresume
theintendedtrack.ThismethodiscalledTerrainContourMatchingorTERCOM.Eventhemostcapable
TERCOMsystemhasinsufficientmemorytoperformcontourmatchingthroughoutaflightpathofseveralhundred
miles.Therefore,themissilewillbeprovidedwithaseriesofsmallareasknownasTERCOMmapsalongtheroute
tothetarget.ThenumberofTERCOMmapsandtheirseparationisdeterminedbythequalityofinformation
availableontheareaandtheaccuracyofthemissile'sinertialnavigationsystem.Sufficientdataisavailablefrom
varioussourcestosupportTERCOMsuchthataerialreconnaissanceofmosttargetareasisnotrequiredpriortothe
engagement.TERCOMhassufficientaccuracytofind,forexample,alargemilitarybasewithinaregionhowever,
itcouldnotprovidetheaccuracytohitaspecificsectionofthatbase,suchasagroupofhangarsatanairfield.For
thisreason,amissileusingsomevariationofTERCOMonlywouldrequireanuclearwarhead.
Deliveryofaconventionalhighexplosivewarheadrequiresprecisionthatcanonlybeprovidedbysomeformof
opticaldeviceintheterminalstageofflight.Acruisemissilefliesataltitudesandrangesthatwouldprevent
transmissionofimagesbacktothelaunchpoint.Advancesindigitizedimagerypermitcomputerstorageofgrey
shadedscenesinthevicinityofthetarget.Thedigitizedscenecanbecomparedtodatafromatelevisioncamerain
themissileandvaluesofgreyshadingmatchedtodetermineactualpositionrelativetodesiredposition.Themissile
cancorrectitsflightpathtothatdesiredandevenfinallypickoutitstarget.Thismethod,calledDigitalScene
MatchingAreaCorrelatororDSMAC,issufficientlyaccuratetopermittheuseofaconventionalhighexplosive
warhead.TheDSMACtechniquewouldbeusedonlyforthelastfewmilestothetarget,withtheTERCOM
methodbeingusedforthemajorityoftheflightpath.Bothoftheabovemethodsarelimitedbytheaccuracyof
informationusedtocreatethedigitalTERCOMmapsandDSMACscenesthatareloadedinthemissile'smemory.
Buildingandformattingthesedatafilesforcruisemissilesrequiresconsiderablesupportfacilitiesandtalented
personnel.
16.6GUIDEDFLIGHTPATHS
Aguidedmissileisusuallyunderthecombinedinfluenceofnaturalandmanmadeforcesduringitsentireflight.
Itspathmayassumealmostanyform.Manmadeforcesincludethrustanddirectionalcontrolasshowninfigure
1614.Thevectorsumofalltheforces,naturalandmanmade,actingonamissileatanyinstant,maybecalledthe
totalforcevector.Itisthisvector,consideredasafunctionoftimeinmagnitudeanddirection,thatprovides
velocityvectorcontrol.Pathsalongwhichaguidedmissilemaytravelmaybebroadlyclassifiedaseitherpresetor
variable.Theplanofapresetpathcannotbechangedinmidflighttheplanofavariablepathisalteredaccording
toconditionsoccurringduringflight.
16.6.1PresetFlightPaths.
Presetflightpathsareoftwotypes:constantandprogrammed.
16.6.1.1Constant.Apresetguidedmissilepathhasaplanthathasbeenfixedbeforehand.Thisplanmayinclude
severaldifferentphases,butoncethemissileislaunched,theplancannotbechanged.Thephasesmustfollowone
anotherasoriginallyplanned.Thesimplesttypeofpresetguidedmissilepathistheconstantpreset.Here,the
missileflighthasonlyonephase.

Thetermconstantpresetmaybebroadenedtoincludeflightsthatareconstantafterabrieflaunchingphasethatis
differentincharacterfromtherestoftheflight.Duringthemainphaseofaconstantpresetguidedmissileflight,
themissilereceivesnocontrolexceptthatwhichhasalreadybeenbuiltintoit.However,itreceivesthiscontrol
throughouttheguidedphaseofflight.Oftenitispoweredalltheway.Thenatureofaconstantpresetguided
missileflightpathdependsonhowitispowered,andthemediumthroughwhichittravels.
Atorpedofiredfromasubmarinetointerceptasurfacetarget,figure1615,maydescribeastraightlinea
constantpresetguidedpath.
16.6.1.2Programmed.Amissilecouldbeguidedinapresetpathagainstafixedtargetthejointeffectofmissile
powerandgravitywouldthencausethepathtobecomeacurve.Amissilefollowingapresetpathmaybeguidedin
variouswaysforinstance,byanautopilotorbyinertialnavigation.Themeansof
propulsionmaybemotor,jet,orrocket.Amorecomplextypeofpresetpathistheprogrammedpreset.Here,the
weaponflighthasseveralphases:forexample:atorpedo,asillustratedin
figure1616,executingasearchpattern.Duringthefirstphase,thetorpedo,havingbeenlaunchedinsomeinitial
directionotherthanthedesiredultimatedirection,graduallyfindsthedesireddirectionbycontrolmechanisms
suchasgyrosanddepthsettings.Thetorpedothenmaintainsthisdirectionfortheremainderofthisfirstphase,at
theendofwhichitispresumedtobeintheneighborhoodofatarget.Duringthesecondphase,thetorpedo
executesasearchpattern,possiblyacircularorhelicalpath.
16.6.2VariableFlightPaths.
Theguidedflightpathsofgreatestinterestarethosethatcanvaryduringflight.Ingeneral,theheadingofthe
weaponisafunctionoftargetpositionandvelocity.Theseparametersaremeasuredbycontinuoustracking,and
theresultantmissileflightpathisdetermined,assumingthatthetargetmotionwillremainunchangeduntilnew
dataisreceived.Therearefourbasictypesofvariableflightpathsincommonuse:pursuit,constantbearing,
proportionalnavigation,andlineofsight.
16.6.2.1Pursuit.Thesimplestprocedureforaguidedmissiletofollowistoremainpointedatthetargetatalltimes.
Themissileisconstantlyheadingalongthelineofsightfromthemissiletothetarget,anditstrackdescribesa
pursuitpathwiththerateofturnofthemissilealwaysequaltotherateofturnofthelineofsight.Purepursuit
pathsarehighlycurvedneartheendofflight,andoftenthemissilemaylacksufficient
maneuverabilitytomaintainapurepursuitpathintheterminalphaseofguidance.Whenthisisthecase,themissile
canbedesignedtocontinueturningatitsmaximumrateuntilapointisreachedwhereapursuitcoursecanbe
resumed.Themostcommonapplicationofthepursuitcourseisagainstslowmovingtargets,orformissiles
launchedfromapointtotherearofthetarget.
Pursuit:Leadordeviatedpursuitcourseisdefinedasacourseinwhichtheanglebetweenthevelocityvectorand
lineofsightfromthemissiletothetargetisfixed.Forpurposesofillustration,leadangleisassumedtobezero,
andonlypurepursuitisdescribed.(M=).(Seefigure1617).
16.6.2.2ConstantBearing.Attheoppositeextremetoapursuitpathisaconstantbearingorcollisionpath.The
missileisaimedatapointaheadofthetarget,whereboththemissileandtargetwillarriveatthesameinstant.The
lineofsighttothispointdoesnotrotaterelativetothemissile.Themissilepathisaslinearastheeffectofgravity
andaerodynamicforcesallow.Ifthetargetmakesanevasiveturnorifthetarget'svelocitychanges,anewcollision
coursemustbecomputedandthemissileflightpathalteredaccordingly.Theoutstandingfeature
ofthiscourseisthatforamaneuveringconstantspeedtarget,themissilelateralaccelerationneverexceedsthe
target'slateralacceleration.Themajordrawbackliesinthefactthatthecontrolsystemrequiressufficientdata
gatheringandprocessingequipmenttopredictfuturetargetposition.
ConstantBearing:Acourseinwhichthelineofsightfromthemissiletothetargetmaintainsaconstantdirectionin
space.Ifbothmissileandtargetspeedsareconstant,acollisioncourseresults.(Seefigure1618.)
d==0
dt
16.6.2.3ProportionalNavigation.Themoreadvancedhomingmissileswillemploysomeformofproportional

navigation.Themissileguidancereceivermeasurestherateofchangeofthelineofsight(LOS)(bearingdrift,if
youwill)andpassesthatinformationtotheguidancecomputer,whichinturngeneratessteeringcommandsforthe
autopilot.ThemissilerateofturnissomefixedorvariablemultipleoftherateofchangeoftheLOS.This
multiple,calledthenavigationratio,canbevariedduringmissileflighttooptimizeperformance.Amissile
employingthismethodissaidtouseproportionalnavigationratiomaybelessthan1:1earlyintheflightto
conservevelocityandincreaserange.Astheflightproceeds,thenavigationratiowillincreaseto2:1,4:1,oreven
moretoensurethatthemissilewillbeagileenoughtocountertargetmaneuversintheterminalphaseofflight.
Proportional:Acourseinwhichtherateofchangeofthemissileheadingisdirectlyproportionaltotherateof
rotationofthelineofsightfrommissiletotarget.(Seefigure1619.)
dM=KdorM=K
dtdt
16.6.2.4LineofSight.Here,themissileisguidedsothatittravelsalongthelineofsightfromthelaunchingstation
tothetarget.Thisis,ofcourse,theflightpathflownbyabeamridingmissile.Analternativeformofabeamriding
pathistheconstantleadanglepath.Herethebeamthatthemissilefollowsiskeptaheadofthelineofsightbya
constantoffset.Themajoradvantagesofthelineofsightpathareitsflexibilityandtheminimalcomplexityofthe
equipmentthatmustbecarriedinthemissile,sincethemajorburdenofguidanceisassumedatthelaunching
station.
LineofSight:Definedasacourseinwhichthemissileisguidedsoastoremainonthelinejoiningthetargetand
pointofcontrol.Thismethodisusuallycalled"beamriding."(Seefigure1620.)
Table161.GuidanceLawComparison
LawAdvantageDisadvantage
PursuitSimplePoorAgainst
MechanizationManeuveringTargets
LaunchGeometry
Restrictions
FixedLeadAngleSimplePoorAgainstManeuvering
MechanizationTargets
LineofSightLessGeometryLeadAngleCorrectfor
RestrictedThanFixedGeometryOnly
Pursuit
ConstantBearingRequiresMinimumRequiresInfiniteGainandCollisionManeuverCapabilityNoTimeLags
Most
ComplexinData
Gatheringand
Processing
ProportionalGoodAgainstMoreComplex
NavigationManeuveringMechanization
AllAspectTargets
Capability

OptimalHomingSolvesSpecificMoreComplex
ProblemsSuchAsMechanization
LongRange
MayImprove
Proportional
Navigation
Shortcomings
MissileSystemNearsProduction."InternationalDefense
Review,Vol.15(1982):13236.
Table163.CurrentGuidanceSystemExamples
WeaponGuidance
AirtoAir
PhoenixSemiactive/ActiveCommand
SparrowSemiactive
SidewinderPassive(IR)
AirToSurface
HarpoonActiveRadar
MaverickT.V.(passive)
WalleyeT.V.(passive)
ShrikePassive(RF)
SramInertial
StandardArmPassive(RF)
Antisubmarine
SubrocInertial
AsrocBallistic
SurfacetoAir
SeaSparrowSemiactive
HawkSemiactive
RAMPassiveIR/RF(Interferometer)
PatriotCommand,Semiactive(retransmission)
StandardMR(SM1)Semiactive
StandardER(SM1)Semiactive

StandardSM2MR(Aegis)CommandSemiactive
StandardSM2ERCommandSemiactive
SurfacetoSurface
PoseidonInertial
Tomahawk(LandAttack)Terrestrial(terrainfollowing)
TridentInertial
StandardSemiactive
HarpoonActiveRadar
Tomahawk(Antiship)Inertial/ActiveRadar
BattlefieldSupport
LanceInertial
TowWireGuided(command),OpticallyTracked
DragonWireGuided
StingerPassive(IR)ProportionalNavigation
16.7SUMMARY
Thethreephasesofguidanceareboost,midcourse,andterminal.Thedistinctionbetweenphasesisprimarilybased
uponabreakdownoftheflightpathratherthaninanychangeoverpointsinguidancemethods.Theterminal
phaseis,however,themostcriticalanddemandspeakperformanceformtheguidancesystem.
Guidancesystemsaredividedintotwobroadcategoriesthosethatusemanmadeelectromagneticdevicesand
thosethatusesomeothermeans.Thevarioussubcategoriesofguidancesystemsareshownintable162.Guided
missilepathsmaybeclassifiedaseitherpresetorvariable.Presetguidedpathshaveplannedflightroutinesthat
cannotbechangedinmidflightonthebasisofupdateddata.Apresetplanmaybeforaonephaseflight(constant
preset)oraflightofseveralphases(programmedpreset).Variableguidedflightpathshaveplansthatcanbe
changedinmidflightthustheymakepossiblethesuccessfulinterceptofatargetthatmakesevasivemaneuvers.
Predictionoftargetpositioniscontinuouslyreappraisedandthemissilecourseisrecomputedinthelightofnew
targetdata.Variableguidedflightpathsincludepursuit,constantbearing,proportionalnavigation,andlineofsight.
Theinterceptionbyamissileofamovingtargetdependsonthepredictionoffuturetargetposition,andrequires
certainassumptions.Whenusingbullets,ballisticmissiles,orpresetguidedmissiles,itisassumedthatthetarget
motionmeasuredwhiletrackingwillremainunchangedduringmissileflight.Whenusingvariableguidedmissiles,
itisassumedthatthetargetmotion,measuredatanyinstantbyalmostcontinuoustracking,willremainunchanged
overashorttimeinterval.
Table164.GuidanceSystemCategories
GuidanceSystemsthatUse
ManMadeElectromagnetic
DevicesSelfContainedGuidanceSystems
RadarControlHomingPresetNavigational
a.Commanda.Activea.Inertial
b.BeamRiderb.Semiactiveb.Celestial
c.Modifiedc.Passivec.Terrestrial

BeamRider
CompositeSystems
Hybrid(Command/Semiactive)
16.8REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
BureauofNavalPersonnel.PrincipleofGuidedMissilesandNuclearWeapons.NAVPERS10784B,1stRev.
Washington,D.C.:GPO,1972.
Commander,NavalOrdnanceSystemsCommand.WeaponsSystemsFundamentals.NAVORDOP3000,vols.
2&3,1stRev.Washington,D.C.:GPO,1971.
Gulick,J.F.,andJ.S.Miller,MissileGuidance:InterferometerHomingUsingBodyFixedAntennas.Technical
MemorandumTG1331(TSCW3637),Laurel,Md.:JohnsHopkinsUniversityAppliedPhysicsLaboratory.
Kaplan,Fred,"CruiseMissile:WonderWeaponorDud?"High
Technology,(Feb1983).
Meller,Rudi."Patriot,TheU.S.Army'sMobileAirdefenseMissileSystemNearsProduction."International
DefenseReview,Vol.15(1982):13236.

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