Robotics

domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots

do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing
bombs, mines and exploring shipwrecks.

Etymology

The word robotics was derived from the word robot, which
was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel apek
in his play R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots), which
was published in 1920.[3] The word robot comes from the
Slavic word robota, which means labour. The play begins in a factory that makes articial people called robots,
creatures who can be mistaken for humans similar to the
modern ideas of androids. Karel apek himself did not
coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an
etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he
named his brother Josef apek as its actual originator.[3]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word
robotics was rst used in print by Isaac Asimov, in his
science ction short story Liar, published in May 1941
in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that
he was coining the term; since the science and technology
of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots.
In some of Asimovs other works, he states that the rst
use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround
The Shadow robot hand system
(Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942).[4][5] However, the original publication of Liar!" predates that of
Robotics is the branch of mechanical engineering, Runaround by ten months, so the former is generally
electrical engineering and computer science that deals cited as the words origin.
with the design, construction, operation, and application
of robots,[1] as well as computer systems for their control,
sensory feedback, and information processing.
2 History of robotics
These technologies deal with automated machines that
can take the place of humans in dangerous environments
or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of todays
robots are inspired by nature contributing to the eld of
bio-inspired robotics.

In 1927 the Maschinenmensch (machine-human)

gynoid humanoid robot (also called Parody, Futura,
Robotrix, or the Maria impersonator), the rst
depiction of a robot ever to appear on lm, was played
by German actress Brigitte Helm in Fritz Lang's lm
The concept of creating machines that can operate Metropolis.
autonomously dates back to classical times, but research In 1942 the science ction writer Isaac Asimov formuinto the functionality and potential uses of robots did not lated his Three Laws of Robotics.
grow substantially until the 20th century.[2] Throughout
history, robotics has been often seen to mimic human In 1948 Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of
behavior, and often manage tasks in a similar fashion. cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics.
Today, robotics is a rapidly growing eld, as technologi- Fully autonomous robots only appeared in the second half
cal advances continue; researching, designing, and build- of the 20th century. The rst digitally operated and proing new robots serve various practical purposes, whether grammable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961
1

3 ROBOTIC ASPECTS

to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine

and stack them. Commercial and industrial robots are
widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply,
or more accurately and reliably, than humans. They are
also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or
dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in
manufacturing, assembly, packing and packaging, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and the mass production of consumer and industrial goods.[6]

Robotic aspects

A level of programming

with the physics of the environment around it. Form

follows function.

Robotic Construction

Electrical Aspect

There are many types of robots; they are used in many

dierent environments and for many dierent uses, although being very diverse in application and form they
all share three basic similarities when it comes to their
construction:
1. Robots all have some kind of mechanical construction, a frame, form or shape designed to achieve a
particular task. For example, a robot designed to
travel across heavy dirt or mud, might use caterpillar
tracks. The mechanical aspect is mostly the creators
solution to completing the assigned task and dealing

2. Robots have electrical components which power and

control the machinery. For example, the robot with
caterpillar tracks would need some kind of power
to move the tracker treads. That power comes in the
form of electricity, which will have to travel through
a wire and originate from a battery, a basic electrical circuit. Even gas powered machines that get
their power mainly from gas still require an electrical current to start the gas using process which is why
most gas powered machines like cars, have batteries.
The electrical aspect of robots is used for movement
(through motors), sensing (where electrical signals
are used to measure things like heat, sound, position, and energy status) and operation (robots need
some level of electrical energy supplied to their motors and sensors in order to activate and perform basic operations)
3. All robots contain some level of computer programming code. A program is how a robot decides when
or how to do something. In the caterpillar track example, a robot that needs to move across a muddy
road may have the correct mechanical construction,
and receive the correct amount of power from its
battery, but would not go anywhere without a program telling it to move. Programs are the core
essence of a robot, it could have excellent mechanical and electrical construction, but if its program is
poorly constructed its performance will be very poor
or it may not perform at all. There are three dierent
types of robotic programs: remote control, articial
intelligence and hybrid. A robot with remote control programing has a preexisting set of commands
that it will only perform if and when it receives a signal from a control source, typically a human being

4.2

Actuation

with a remote control. It is perhaps more appropriate to view devices controlled primarily by human
commands as falling in the discipline of automation
rather than robotics. Robots that use articial intelligence interact with their environment on their
own without a control source, and can determine reactions to objects and problems they encounter using their preexisting programming. Hybrid is a form
of programming that incorporates both AI and RC
functions.

Components

4.1

Power source

Further information: Power supply and Energy storage

At present mostly (lead-acid) batteries are used as a power
source. Many dierent types of batteries can be used as a
power source for robots. They range from lead acid batteries which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives
but are rather heavy to silver cadmium batteries that are
much smaller in volume and are currently much more
expensive. Designing a battery powered robot needs to
take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime and
weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However, such designs are
often mechanically complex and need fuel, require heat
dissipation and are relatively heavy. A tether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power
supply from the robot entirely. This has the advantage
of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere. However, this
design does come with the drawback of constantly having A robotic leg powered by air muscles
a cable connected to the robot, which can be dicult to
manage.[15] Potential power sources could be:
which convert stored energy into movement. By far the
most popular actuators are electric motors that spin a
Solar power (using the suns energy and converting wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial
robots in factories. But there are some recent advances
it into electrical power)
in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity,
hydraulics (liquids)
chemicals, or compressed air.
pneumatic (compressed gases)

ywheel energy storage

organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)
faeces (human, animal); may be interesting in a mil- 4.2.1 Electric motors
itary context as faeces of small combat groups may
be reused for the energy requirements of the robot Main article: Electric motor
assistant (see DEKAs project Slingshot Stirling engine on how the system would operate)
The vast majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots
or AC motors in industrial robots and CNC machines.
4.2 Actuation
These motors are often preferred in systems with lighter
Main article: Actuator
loads, and where the predominant form of motion is roActuators are like the "muscles" of a robot, the parts tational.

4
4.2.2

4 COMPONENTS
Linear actuators

Main article: Linear actuator

Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead
of by spinning, and often have quicker direction changes,
particularly when very large forces are needed such as
with industrial robotics. They are typically powered by
compressed air (pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic
actuator).

brating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are dierent mechanisms of
operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to walk the motor in a circle or a straight line.[24]
Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to
vibrate and drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force
for their size.[25] These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.[26][27]
4.2.8 Elastic nanotubes

4.2.3

Series elastic actuators

Further information: Nanotube

A spring can be designed as part of the motor actuator, to

allow improved force control. It has been used in various Elastic nanotubes are a promising articial muscle techrobots, particularly walking humanoid robots.[16]
nology in early-stage experimental development. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these laments to deform elastically by several percent, with en4.2.4 Air muscles
ergy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm3 for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm
Main article: Pneumatic articial muscles
diameter wire of this material. Such compact muscle might allow future robots to outrun and outjump
Pneumatic articial muscles, also known as air muscles, humans.[28]
are special tubes that contract (typically up to 40%) when
air is forced inside them. They have been used for some
4.3 Sensing
robot applications.[17][18]
Main article: Robotic sensing
4.2.5

Muscle wire

Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy,

Nitinol or Flexinol wire, is a material that contracts slightly (typically under 5%) when electricity runs
through it. They have been used for some small robot
applications.[19][20]

Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks,
and act upon any changes in the environment to calculate
the appropriate response. They are used for various forms
of measurements, to give the robots warnings about safety
or malfunctions, and to provide real time information of
the task it is performing.

4.2.6

4.3.1 Touch

Main article: Shape memory alloy

Electroactive polymers

Main article: Electroactive polymers

EAPs or EPAMs are a new plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) from
electricity, and have been used in facial muscles and
arms of humanoid robots,[21] and to allow new robots to
oat,[22] y, swim or walk.[23]

Main article: Tactile sensor

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less

tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human ngertips.[29][30] The sensor array is constructed as
a rigid core surrounded by conductive uid contained by
an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the sur4.2.7 Piezo motors
face of the rigid core and are connected to an impedancemeasuring device within the core. When the articial
Main article: Piezoelectric motor
skin touches an object the uid path around the electrodes
is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the
Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or forces received from the object. The researchers expect
ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally dif- that an important function of such articial ngertips will
ferent principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vi- be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.

4.4

Manipulation

Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand,
which functions like a real oneallowing patients to
write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform
other ne movements. The prosthesis has sensors which
enable the patient to sense real feeling in its ngertips.[31]
4.3.2

Vision

Main article: Computer vision

Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientic discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind articial systems
that extract information from images. The image data can
take many forms, such as video sequences and views from
cameras.
In most practical computer vision applications, the com- KUKA industrial robot operating in a foundry
puters are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but
methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.
Computer vision systems rely on image sensors which detect electromagnetic radiation which is typically in the
form of either visible light or infra-red light. The sensors are designed using solid-state physics. The process
by which light propagates and reects o surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors even
require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots can also
be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able
to compute the sense of depth in the environment. Like
human eyes, robots eyes must also be able to focus on
a particular area of interest, and also adjust to variations
in light intensities.
There is a subeld within computer vision where articial
systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological system, at dierent levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed
within computer vision have their background in biology.
4.3.3

Other

Puma, one of the rst industrial robots

Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar,

radar and sonar.
perform some small range of tasks. Some have a xed
manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have
one very general purpose manipulator, for example a hu4.4 Manipulation
manoid hand.[34]
Further information: Mobile manipulator
4.4.1 Mechanical grippers
Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an eect. Thus the hands of
a robot are often referred to as end eectors,[32] while
the arm is referred to as a manipulator.[33] Most robot
arms have replaceable eectors, each allowing them to

One of the most common eectors is the gripper. In

its simplest manifestation it consists of just two ngers
which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range
of small objects. Fingers can for example be made of

4 COMPONENTS

Baxter, a modern and versatile industrial robot developed by

Rodney Brooks

a chain with a metal wire run through it.[35] Hands that

resemble and work more like a human hand include the
Shadow Hand, the Robonaut hand,[36] ... Hands that are
of a mid-level complexity include the Delft hand.[37][38]
Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all
the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using
friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place,
using less friction.
Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya.
4.4.2

Vacuum grippers

allowing a robot to navigate in conned places that a four

wheeled robot would not be able to.

Vacuum grippers are very simple astrictive[39] devices,

but can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.
Two-wheeled balancing robots
Balancing robots
generally
use
a
gyroscope
to
detect
how
much a robot
Pick and place robots for electronic components and for
is
falling
and
then
drive
the
wheels
proportionally
in the
large objects like car windscreens, often use very simple
same
direction,
to
counterbalance
the
fall
at
hundreds
of
vacuum grippers.
times per second, based on the dynamics of an inverted
pendulum.[43] Many dierent balancing robots have been
4.4.3 General purpose eectors
designed.[44] While the Segway is not commonly thought
of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a
Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully hu- robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP
manoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS,[40] and (Robotic Mobility Platform). An example of this use has
the Schunk hand.[41] These are highly dexterous manip- been as NASA's Robonaut that has been mounted on a
ulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hun- Segway.[45]
dreds of tactile sensors.[42]

4.5

Locomotion

Main articles: Robot locomotion and Mobile robot

4.5.1

Rolling robots

For simplicity most mobile robots have four wheels or

a number of continuous tracks. Some researchers have
tried to create more complex wheeled robots with only
one or two wheels. These can have certain advantages
such as greater eciency and reduced parts, as well as

One-wheeled balancing robots

balancing unicycle

Main article: Self-

A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a twowheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2D direction using a round ball as its only wheel. Several onewheeled balancing robots have been designed recently,
such as Carnegie Mellon University's "Ballbot" that is the
approximate height and width of a person, and Tohoku
Gakuin Universitys BallIP.[46] Because of the long,
thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight spaces, they
have the potential to function better than other robots in
environments with people.[47]

4.5

Locomotion

Spherical orb robots

7
Main article: Spherical robot

ZMP Technique

Main article: Zero Moment Point

Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning a weight
inside the ball,[48][49] or by rotating the outer shells of the
sphere.[50][51] These have also been referred to as an orb
bot [52] or a ball bot.[53][54]

The Zero Moment Point (ZMP) is the algorithm used

by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robots onboard
computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the oor reaction
force (the force of the oor pushing back on the robots
foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving
Six-wheeled robots Using six wheels instead of four no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall
wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain over).[59] However, this is not exactly how a human walks,
such as on rocky dirt or grass.
and the dierence is obvious to human observers, some
of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it
needs the lavatory.[60][61][62] ASIMOs walking algorithm
is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk
on.
Hopping Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc
Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only
one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a
person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side,
it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch
itself.[63] Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and
TALON military robots used by the United States Army
four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and
even performing somersaults.[64] A quadruped was also
Tracked robots Tank tracks provide even more tracdemonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.[65]
tion than a six-wheeled robot. Tracked wheels behave
For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots
as if they were made of hundreds of wheels, therefore
page.
are very common for outdoor and military robots, where
the robot must drive on very rough terrain. However,
they are dicult to use indoors such as on carpets and Dynamic balancing (controlled falling) A more adsmooth oors. Examples include NASAs Urban Robot vanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balUrbie.[55]
ancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than
the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robots motion, and places the feet in order to
4.5.2 Walking applied to robots
maintain stability.[66] This technique was recently demonDexter Robot,[67] which is so stable,
Walking is a dicult and dynamic problem to solve. Sev- strated by Anybots
[68]
Another example is the TU Delft
eral robots have been made which can walk reliably on it can even jump.
Flame.
two legs, however none have yet been made which are as
robust as a human. There has been much study on human
inspired walking, such as AMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Depart- Passive dynamics Main article: Passive dynamics
ment at Texas A&M University.[56] Many other robots
have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to Perhaps the most promising approach utilizes passive
these robots being signicantly easier to construct.[57][58] dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is
Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which used for greater eciency. It has been shown that totally
would provide better mobility and energy eciency than unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a
other locomotion methods. Hybrids too have been pro- gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves.
posed in movies such as I, Robot, where they walk on 2 Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small
legs and switch to 4 (arms+legs) when going to a sprint. amount of motor power to walk along a at surface or
Typically, robots on 2 legs can walk well on at oors a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises
and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over to make walking robots at least ten times more ecient
rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.[69][70]
been tried are:

8
4.5.3

4 COMPONENTS
Other methods of locomotion

Two robot snakes. Left one has 64 motors (with 2 degrees of

freedom per segment), the right one 10.

Flying A modern passenger airliner is essentially a

ying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot
can control the plane for each stage of the journey, including takeo, normal ight, and even landing.[71] Other ying robots are uninhabited, and are known as unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter
without a human pilot on board, and y into dangerous
territory for military surveillance missions. Some can
even re on targets under command. UAVs are also being
developed which can re on targets automatically, without the need for a command from a human. Other ying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, and
the Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as the Air
Penguin, Air Ray, and Air Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guided by sonar.
Snaking Several snake robots have been successfully
developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these
robots can navigate very conned spaces, meaning they
may one day be used to search for people trapped in
collapsed buildings.[72] The Japanese ACM-R5 snake
robot[73] can even navigate both on land and in water.[74]
Skating A small number of skating robots have been
developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and
skating device. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels,
which can either step or roll.[75] Another robot, Plen,
can use a miniature skateboard or roller-skates, and skate
across a desktop.[76]
Climbing Several dierent approaches have been used
to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of
a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting
the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain

Capuchin Climbing Robot

leverage. An example of this is Capuchin,[77] built by

Dr. Ruixiang Zhang at Stanford University, California.
Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method
of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass. Examples of this approach
include Wallbot[78] and Stickybot.[79] Chinas Technology Daily November 15, 2008 reported New Concept
Aircraft (ZHUHAI) Co., Ltd. Dr. Li Hiu Yeung and his
research group have recently successfully developed the
bionic gecko robot Speedy Freelander. According to
Dr. Li introduction, this gecko robot can rapidly climbing up and down in a variety of building walls, ground and
vertical wall ssure or walking upside down on the ceiling,
it is able to adapt on smooth glass, rough or sticky dust
walls as well as the various surface of metallic materials
and also can automatically identify obstacles, circumvent
the bypass and exible and realistic movements. Its exibility and speed are comparable to the natural gecko. A
third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing
a pole.
Swimming (Piscine)
It is calculated that when
swimming some sh can achieve a propulsive eciency
greater than 90%.[80] Furthermore, they can accelerate
and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or
submarine, and produce less noise and water disturbance.
Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots
would like to copy this type of locomotion.[81] Notable
examples are the Essex University Computer Science
Robotic Fish,[82] and the Robot Tuna built by the Institute
of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model
thunniform motion.[83] The Aqua Penguin,[84] designed
and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined

4.7

Human-robot interaction

shape and propulsion by front ippers of penguins.

Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which
emulate the locomotion of manta ray, and jellysh,
respectively.

Radar, GPS, and lidar, are all combined to provide proper

navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007
DARPA Urban Challenge)

The autonomous sailboat robot Vaimos

such as lidar, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints.

Sailing Sailboat robots have also been developed in order to make measurements at the surface of the ocean. A 4.7 Human-robot interaction
typical sailboat robot is Vaimos [85] built by IFREMER
and ENSTA-Bretagne. Since the propulsion of sailboat Main article: Human-robot interaction
robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries is only The state of the art in sensory intelligence for robots will
used for the computer, for the communication and for the
actuators (to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is
equipped with solar panels, the robot could theoretically
navigate forever. The two main competitions of sailboat
robots are WRSC, which takes place every year in Europe, and Sailbot.

4.6

Environmental interaction and navigation

Main article: Robotic mapping

Though a signicant percentage of robots in commission
today are either human controlled, or operate in a static
environment, there is an increasing interest in robots that
can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment.
These robots require some combination of navigation
hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular unforeseen events (e.g. people and
other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as
ASIMO, and Mein robot have particularly good robot
navigation hardware and software. Also, self-controlled
cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in
the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing the
environment well and subsequently making navigational Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.
decisions based on this information. Most of these robots
employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, along have to progress through several orders of magnitude if
with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory data we want the robots working in our homes to go beyond

10

4 COMPONENTS

vacuum-cleaning the oors. If robots are to work eectively in homes and other non-industrial environments,
the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and
especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may
have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface
will need to be extremely intuitive. Science ction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be
capable of communicating with humans through speech,
gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a commandline interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for
the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots
interact as naturally as the ctional C-3PO.
4.7.1

Speech recognition

Main article: Speech recognition

Interpreting the continuous ow of sounds coming from
a human, in real time, is a dicult task for a computer,
mostly because of the great variability of speech.[86] The
same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It
becomes even harder when the speaker has a dierent
accent.[87] Nevertheless, great strides have been made in
the eld since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed
the rst voice input system which recognized ten digits
spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy in 1952.[88]
Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous,
natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.[89]
4.7.2

Robotic voice

tween humans and robots.[93] A great many systems have

been developed to recognize human hand gestures.[94]

4.7.4 Facial expression

Further information: Facial expression
Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the
progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may
be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic
faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using
their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large
number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the
rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors
(servos).[95] The coating and servos are built on a metal
skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazylooking aects the type of interaction expected of the
robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi[96] can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges
with humans.[97]

4.7.5 Articial emotions

Articial emotions can also be generated, composed of a
sequence of facial expressions and/or gestures. As can be
seen from the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within,
the programming of these articial emotions is complex
and requires a large amount of human observation. To
simplify this programming in the movie, presets were
created together with a special software program. This
decreased the amount of time needed to make the lm.
These presets could possibly be transferred for use in reallife robots.

Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice

for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic
voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium,[90] 4.7.6 Personality
making it necessary to develop the emotional component
of robotic voice through various techniques.[91][92]
Many of the robots of science ction have a personality,
something which may or may not be desirable in the
commercial robots of the future.[98] Nevertheless, re4.7.3 Gestures
searchers are trying to create robots which appear to have
a personality:[99][100] i.e. they use sounds, facial expresFurther information: Gesture recognition
sions, and body language to try to convey an internal state,
which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial exOne can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot ample is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit
chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a several apparent emotions.[101]
robot police ocer. In both of these cases, making hand
gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the rst
case, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by 4.7.7 Social Intelligence
the human, and perhaps repeating them for conrmation.
In the second case, the robot police ocer would gesture The Socially Intelligent Machines Lab of the Georgia Into indicate down the road, then turn right. It is likely stitute of Technology researches new concepts of guided
that gestures will make up a part of the interaction be- teaching interaction with robots. Aim of the projects

5.1

Autonomy levels

11

is a social robot learns task goals from human demonstrations without prior knowledge of high-level concepts.
These new concepts are grounded from low-level continuous sensor data through unsupervised learning, and task
goals are subsequently learned using a Bayesian approach.
These concepts can be used to transfer knowledge to future tasks, resulting in faster learning of those tasks. The
results re demonstrated by the robot Curi who can easily
cook pasta.[102]

Control

RuBot II can resolve manually Rubik cubes

immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain

direction) is inferred from these estimates. Techniques
from control theory convert the task into commands that
drive the actuators.

Puppet Magnus, a robot-manipulated marionette with complex

control systems

Further information: Control system

At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks,

the robot may need to build and reason with a cognitive model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot,
the world, and how they interact. Pattern recognition and
computer vision can be used to track objects. Mapping
techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motion planning and other articial intelligence
techniques may be used to gure out how to act. For example, a planner may gure out how to achieve a task
without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.

5.1 Autonomy levels

The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to

perform tasks. The control of a robot involves three distinct phases perception, processing, and action (robotic
paradigms). Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or
its end eector). This information is then processed to
be stored or transmitted, and to calculate the appropriate
signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical.
The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands. Sensor fusion may rst
be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the po- TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo IREX
sition of the robots gripper) from noisy sensor data. An 2009.[103]

12

6 ROBOTICS RESEARCH

Control systems may also have varying levels of auton- Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would
omy.
be an improvement over the rst and become available
by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparable to that
1. Direct interaction is used for haptic or tele-operated of a mouse. The third generation robot should have the
devices, and the human has nearly complete control intelligence comparable to that of a monkey. Though
fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence,
over the robots motion.
professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he
2. Operator-assist modes have the operator command- does not predict this happening before around 2040 or
ing medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot au- 2050.[104]
tomatically guring out how to achieve them.
The second is Evolutionary Robots.
This is a
methodology
that
uses
evolutionary
computation
to help
3. An autonomous robot may go for extended periods
design
robots,
especially
the
body
form,
or
motion
and
of time without human interaction. Higher levels
behavior
controllers.
In
a
similar
way
to
natural
evoluof autonomy do not necessarily require more complex cognitive capabilities. For example, robots in tion, a large population of robots is allowed to compete
assembly plants are completely autonomous, but op- in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a tness function. Those that perform worst
erate in a xed pattern.
are removed from the population, and replaced by a new
set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winAnother classication takes into account the interaction
ners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a
between human control and the machine motions.
satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any
direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Re1. Teleoperation. A human controls each movement, searchers use this method both to create better robots,[105]
each machine actuator change is specied by the op- and to explore the nature of evolution.[106] Because the
erator.
process often requires many generations of robots to
[107]
this technique may be run entirely or
2. Supervisory. A human species general moves or be simulated,
mostly
in
simulation,
then tested on real robots once the
position changes and the machine decides specic
evolved
algorithms
are
good enough.[108] Currently, there
movements of its actuators.
are about 10 million industrial robots toiling around the
3. Task-level autonomy. The operator species only world, and Japan is the top country having high density
the task and the robot manages itself to complete it. of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.
4. Full autonomy. The machine will create and com6.1
plete all its tasks without human interaction.

Robotics research

Dynamics and kinematics

Further information: Kinematics and Dynamics (mechanics)

Further information: Open-source robotics, Evolutionary The study of motion can be divided into kinematics
and dynamics.[109] Direct kinematics refers to the calrobotics, Areas of robotics and Robotics simulator
culation of end eector position, orientation, velocity,
and acceleration when the corresponding joint values are
Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specic known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case
industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of in which required joint values are calculated for given
robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, end eector values, as done in path planning. Some
and new ways to manufacture them but other investiga- special aspects of kinematics include handling of retions, such as MITs cyberora project, are almost wholly dundancy (dierent possibilities of performing the same
academic.
movement), collision avoidance, and singularity avoidA rst particular new innovation in robot design is the ance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelopensourcing of robot-projects. To describe the level of erations have been calculated using kinematics, methadvancement of a robot, the term Generation Robots ods from the eld of dynamics are used to study the efcan be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans fect of forces upon these movements. Direct dynamics
Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once
Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used
near future evolution of robot technology. First gener- in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics
ation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an refers to the calculation of the actuator forces necessary
intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and to create a prescribed end eector acceleration. This inshould become available by 2010. Because the rst gen- formation can be used to improve the control algorithms
eration robot would be incapable of learning, however, of a robot.

7.1

Career training

13

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones,
and improve the interaction between these areas. To do
this, criteria for optimal performance and ways to optimize design, structure, and control of robots must be
developed and implemented.

of a robot in addition to traditional software engineeringbased coursework. On the Technion I&M faculty an educational laboratory was established in 1994 by Dr. Jacob
Rubinovitz.

Universities oer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in the eld of robotics.[111] Vocational schools oer
robotics training aimed at careers in robotics.

Education and training

Main article: Educational robotics

Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, de-

7.1 Career training

7.2 Certication
The Robotics Certication Standards Alliance (RCSA) is
an international robotics certication authority that confers various industry- and educational-related robotics
certications.

7.3 Summer robotics camp

Several national summer camp programs include robotics
as part of their core curriculum, including Digital Media Academy, RoboTech, and Cybercamps. In addition,
youth summer robotics programs are frequently oered
by celebrated museums such as the American Museum of
Natural History[112] and The Tech Museum of Innovation
in Silicon Valley, CA, just to name a few. An educational
robotics lab also exists at the IE & mgmnt Faculty of the
Technion. It was created by Dr. Jacob Rubinovitz.

7.4 Robotics afterschool programs

Many schools across the country are beginning to add
robotics programs to their after school curriculum.
Two main programs for afterschool robotics are FIRST
Robotics Competition and Botball.
The Lego company began a program for children to learn
and get excited about robotics at a young age.[113]

8 Employment
Main article: Technological unemployment
Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturing environments. As factories increase their use
of robots, the number of roboticsrelated jobs grow and
velop new applications for them, and conduct research
have been observed to be steadily rising.[114]
to expand the potential of robotics.[110] Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high
schools, as well as in numerous youth summer camps,
raising interest in programming, articial intelligence and 9 See also
robotics among students. First-year computer science
Anderson Powerpole connector
courses at several universities now include programming
The SCORBOT-ER 4u educational robot.

14

10

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17

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11

Further reading

R. Andrew Russell (1990). Robot Tactile Sensing.

New York: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-781592-1.

12

External links

Robotics at DMOZ
IEEE Robotics and Automation Society

18

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Robotics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics?oldid=643963934 Contributors: Dsblank, D, Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Ronz, Andres, BAxelrod, Andrevan, Hyacinth, Wernher, Acohen843, Stewartadcock, Academic Challenger, Jondel, Sunray,
Giftlite, Geeoharee, Hockeyrink, Bradeos Graphon, Tdahl, Moshe, Jfdwol, Chowbok, OverlordQ, Kuralyov, CesarFelipe, IcycleMort,
Ukexpat, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pawpawyoung, Florian Blaschke, Andrew Maiman, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog,
CanisRufus, Spalding, BrokenSegue, Elipongo, Man vyi, Nsaa, Alansohn, Arthena, Bdenneen, Bokkibear, Malo, Snowolf, Radical Mallard, Djlayton4, Velella, Docboat, Oleg Alexandrov, Zntrip, Bobrayner, Bacteria, Rechlin, Gengiskanhg, GregorB, Palica, Graham87,
Yuriybrisk, BD2412, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Hulagutten, Matt Cook, Bhadani, Fluoronaut, Pmc, Predictor, King of Hearts, Chobot, Celebere, Bgwhite, Elfguy, Siddhant, Wavelength, RobotE, RussBot, Honshuzen, Nesbit, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Tavilis, NawlinWiki,
Dialectric, Welsh, Paul.h, Tony1, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Andreas-B, Nlu, Robotics1, Phgao, J. Van Meter, Digfarenough, Shawnc, Back
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Makemi, WoodElf, DMacks, Jna runn, Eeyore22, ThurnerRupert, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Bakic, Vanished user 9i39j3, Kuru, John,
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SuperHamster, PhilDWraight, Blanchardb, TypoBoy, Auntof6, Oops i killed the president, Dralexccf, Masterpiece2000, Excirial, Jusdafax, Three-quarter-ten, Praveen khm, Gwguey, SunnySideOfStreet, Chefallen, Misamisam, Chaosdruid, Thingg, Aitias, Dank, Footballfan190, Terminator484, Wakedream, Apparition11, Tdslk, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Fastily, Sponsion, Rror, Squart, Socrluvr1594,
WikHead, ErkinBatu, NellieBly, Alexius08, MystBot, Hm29168, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Betterusername, Shervinemami, Aceituno, TutterMouse, Euge246, Doublea2smoothe, Vadt, Jncraton, Likaito, Hvilshoj, CanadianLinuxUser, Merqurial, MrOllie,
Protonk, MrVanBot, Morning277, Sprock11, CarsracBot, EconoPhysicist, Sillyfolkboy, Schaertl, Engine09, Ajayvarma mav, Favonian,
SpBot, Satyug, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Smeagol 17, Roboticaitesm, Lossieamy, , Teles, UnterLink, Samstonwells, Therussianlife, Virtualblasphemy, DrFO.Tn.Bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Derectus, Roboticsname, Grakk, The Earwig, ArchonMagnus,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Ayrton Prost, Lithium81, , Marshall Williams2, Backslash Forwardslash, Thundera m117,
AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, DemocraticLuntz, Curioussavage, Ciphers, Hairhorn, Jim1138, IRP, Greenbreen, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Glenfarclas, Ulric1313, RandomAct, HRV, Materialscientist, Thisara.d.m, Rtyq2, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, ArthurBot, Kamikaze14, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, Marbech, Thiliniishaka, DSisyphBot, Serious Sam Stone, TheWeakWilled, Jjmatt33, Grim23, Zopoki, Ssedas2000, Crzer07, GrouchoBot, Prunesqualer, Sharath11189, Vikky2904, Ozirock, Shadowjams, Methcub, Joaquin008, Mikhael 666 mikhailovich, , Prari,
FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Arjen IF, Sae1962, JeMcGough, BoundaryRider, Sreevishnus, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Ebgundy, Redrose64, Maxnegro, Lylodo, MacMed, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Skyerise, Whycantigetaname, A8UDI, Victor Korniyenko, RedBot, SpaceFlight89, MKFI, LairepoNite, Redbeanpaste, Reconsider the static, Engology, Director H, SkyMachine, Jmainpri, Cnwilliams,
FoxBot, Wotnow, Vrenator, Begoon, Killr833, Defender of torch, Antipastor, Thevstyle, Merryhanuka, Diannaa, Oerp, Tbhotch, Jimmayjr,
BolonYokte, Reach Out to the Truth, JSo9-10, Alperkaradas, Minimac, Thrive23, H.ehsaan, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Suzy.ali, The Legendary
Sky Attacker, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Js, DexDor, Humanrobo, , Theyer, Khin2718, Nmillerche, Oscar1987, NerdyScienceDude, Becritical, Nick897, Salvio giuliano, Broncomudd, Grondemar, DASHBot, Merock123, Petrellisato, Mcknizzl, EmausBot,
WikitanvirBot, RCpatroler, Nonnka, Zollerriia, ScottyBerg, MartyRobar, Vkslax, Dewritech, Racerx11, Maashatra11, GoingBatty, Ashermehul123, EME44, Lijall, Wowo12, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Nanomega, ZroBot, Ida Shaw, ReWout, Candrlic, Synister35,
RaymondSutanto, Coolcatj999, Leaderpro, H3llBot, Quondum, EWikist, AManWithNoPlan, Wayne Slam, Hironoriyh, Sunderlandyoyo, Robotic Autofellatiing Chimpanzee, Sbmeirow, Donner60, Pun, Ego White Tray, Clup84k, VictorianMutant, Swiss Mister in NY,
Noob4000, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Hussaino3, Cgtdk, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Machineherder, Gareth Grith-Jones, Satellizer, Snotbot,
Aloisdimpmoser, Efaj, TheeDeler, RoboGuru, Sikabor, Widr, Danim, Oeiriad, Helpful Pixie Bot, XantheTerra, Wolverine171, Strike
Eagle, Uwadb, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, Myuphrid, DBigXray, BG19bot, Roberticus, Skarmenadius, Salvador999, Jayp230697, Unixunited, PTJoshua, Northamerica1000, Celticengineer, Wiki13, AvocatoBot, JacobTrue, Fagallos, Nazarenu, Mark Arsten, Cadiomals, Dkdkdk20, Aranea Mortem, Gohilritesh, Kaushik8161, DPL bot, Snow Blizzard, Asthme, Fauve like mauve, Glacialfox, Joshua4157, Cassini
v, Luismanso, BattyBot, Asifparacha786, Conrade234, Pratyya Ghosh, MahdiBot, ChrisGualtieri, Ediaz2, Gruauder, Bharu12, Mediran,
Robotero, EnzaiBot, Khazar2, EuroCarGT, Kragniz, Hmgt, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Futurerobo, Fredolizer, Dlawlgns0, Dlawlgns00, Bismillah4, Toronto30, Makecat-bot, Bwitt94, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Frosty, Graphium, Crazyarana, Joeinwiki, C5st4wr6ch, FrancescaPe,
Epicgenius, FenixFeather, Kittycat008, Red-eyed demon, Mikael Litsegard, I am One of Many, Smokinviolin, Eyesnore, Wiki4Blog,
Tentinator, B14709, Metadox, Luc Jaulin, Ugog Nizdast, Rxzhang12, Manul, Param Mudgal, Div2005, AniketxD, Blasian44, Eelizabethb, Sakthivrajan, Danyc0, Vision2world, Lagoset, Melcous, Monkbot, SantiLak, Juliojames, Kidrage, Chris071985, Hkbvfrbvgeicb,
Steve knapp9, Nano4d, Shah ahmed786, ReadLearnWriteTeach, Icmcarolina, Vishv7052, Ckb308, Aeminigs, Danthemanwiththeplan15,
Mbech, KayleighwilliamsLS, ErickaAgent, Kvangest, Psmpaul1 and Anonymous: 787

13.2

13.2

Images

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Images

File:2005-11-14_ShadowLeg_Finished_medium.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/2005-11-14_

ShadowLeg_Finished_medium.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Shadow Robot Company Ltd. From our contract engineering
gallery. Original artist: David Buckley
File:Animation2.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Animation2.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MG (talk contribs)
File:Automation_of_foundry_with_robot.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Automation_of_
foundry_with_robot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: KUKA Roboter GmbH, Zugspitzstrae 140, D-86165 Augsburg, Germany,
Dep. Marketing, Mr. Andreas Bauer, http://www.kuka-robotics.com Original artist: KUKA Roboter GmbH, Bachmann
File:Capuchin_Free_Climbing_Robot.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Capuchin_Free_Climbing_
Robot.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I built this climbing robot and this image was taken in my lab on May 16th, 2010 Original
artist: Rxzhang12
File:Caught_Coding_(9690512888).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Caught_Coding_
%289690512888%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Caught Coding Original artist: Steve Jurvetson from Menlo Park,
USA
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Computer_Circuit_Board_MOD_45153624.jpg Source:
Circuit_Board_MOD_45153624.jpg License: OGL Contributors:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Computer_

Photo http://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/fotoweb/fwbin/download.dll/45153802.jpg Original artist: Harland Quarrington

File:Dev_win32.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Dev_win32.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: OnionBulb
File:ER4u.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/ER4u.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Vadt
File:ElementBlack2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/ElementBlack2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Spaceape at en.wikipedia
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Kismet_robot_20051016.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Kismet_robot_20051016.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Magnus_B._Egerstedt_puppet.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Magnus_B._Egerstedt_puppet.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jiuguang Wang
File:MobileRobotsPioneerAT.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/10/MobileRobotsPioneerAT.jpg License: CCBY-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:People_icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Puma_Robotic_Arm_-_GPN-2000-001817.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Puma_Robotic_
Arm_-_GPN-2000-001817.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Great Images in NASA Description Original artist: NASA Dominic
Hart
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Robosnakes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Robosnakes.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:RuBot_II.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/RuBot_II.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http:
//www.flickr.com/photos/maria_keays/4430986963/ Original artist: Maria Keays
File:SWORDS.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0a/SWORDS.jpg License: ? Contributors:
[1] Original artist: ?
File:Segway_01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Segway_01.JPG License: CC BY 2.1 jp Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.shadowrobot.com/media/pictures.shtml Original artist: Richard Greenhill and Hugo Elias
(myself) of the Shadow Robot Company
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:TOPIO_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Humanrobo
File:Type_95_wheel_and_treads_detail.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Type_95_wheel_and_
treads_detail.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Vaimosluc.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Vaimosluc.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

Own work Original artist: Luc Jaulin
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

13.3

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