The material presented in

this pUblication has been

prepared for the general
information of the reader

and should not be used or

relied on for specific
applications without first
securing competent advice.
The Nickel Development

Institute, its members, staff

and consultants do not
represent or warrant its

suitability for any general or

specific use and assume no
liability or responsibility of

any kind in connection with

the information herein.

G. Sorell
is a consultant to the
Nickel Development Institute

PART I

Corrosion-resistant nickel alloys

Aguide for selection and application

onlinuing advances in mClallurgical

techniques and manufacturing technologies have spurTed the develop-

Nickel alloys offer a combina-

ment of nickel alloys and their broader

utilization in the chemical industry.

tion of excellent corrosion resis-

Nickel alloys offer a combination of

tance, strength, toughness, met-

excellent corrosion resistance. strength,

toughness. metallurgical stability. fabricability and weldability. Many nickel alloys
additionally possess outstanding heal

allurgicaJ stability, fabricability

resiSllmce. making them ideal choices for

applications requiring chemical resistance
and strength at elevated temperatures.

This survey of wrought nickel-based

alloys (here defined as containing more
than 45% nickel) covers a range of
wrought corrosion-resistant 3110ys com-

monly used in chemical plant applications.

Chemical compositions and Unified
Numbering System (UNS) designations
of these alloys are shown in Table I. To
aid the reader, 3.nd not as an endorsement.
some familiar trade names are identified
in the sidebar.

Properties of alloys
Nickel alloys are more expensive than
stainless steels. However. economic comparisons on a first-cost. rather than on a
life-cycle basis. can be: deceiving. For
instance. Ni-Cr-Mo alloys cost roughly
five times as much as ISCr-8Ni stainless
steels and about twice as much as superaustenitic stainless steels.
Owing to the exceptional corrosion
resistance of nickel alloys. the initial COSt
premium can often be recouped through
long-term savings due to prolonged
equipment life. reduced maintenance and
fewer shutdowns.
Physical properties of nickel alloys are
quite similar to those of the 300 Series
austenitic stainless steels. As a class, nickel-based alloys have thermal expansion
rotes about equal to carbon steel. but sig.

and weldabilit)'.
nificantly lowcr than 300 series stainless
steels.
Though the thermal conductivity of
pure nickel exceeds that of carbon steel.
most nickel alloys have markedly lower
conductivities. in some instances even
lower than austenitic stainless steels.
Except for pure nickel. the nickel
alloys used in chemical processing are
considerably stronger than the 300 Series
stainless steels. Nickel alloys also have
very good ductility (as illustrated by the
room temperature mechanical properties
listed in Table 2) and toughness.
Maximum allowable design Stresses for
most of the alloys used in chemical plant
equipment are published in Section vm
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code.
Nickel alloys have fully austenitic
microstructures. Nearly all of the grades
employed in the chemical industry are
solid-solution strengthened. They derive
their enhanced strength properties from
the addition of effective hankners such as
molybdenum and tungsten. rather than
from carbide formation. Like austenitic
stainless steels, solid solution nickel
alloys cannot be strengthened by heat
treatment. only by cold working.
Another broad class of nickelbased
alloys are strengthened by a precipitationhardening heat treatment, These are

reserved largely for ultrahigh-strength

applications sllCh as those encountered in
deep oiVgas production and extreme highpressure processes.
Except for selected components in
valves and TOtating machinery. precipitation-hardened nickel alloys find limited
application in chemical plants. Included in
this alloy class are heat-resistant superalloys employed in gas turbines. combustion chambers and aerospace applications,

Corrosion-resistance
Nickel alloys represent a step up from
conventional slainless steels and superaustenitic iron-based alloys in resisting
corrosion by a wide spectrum of acids.
alkalis and salts. An outstanding attribute
of nickel alloys is exceptional resistance
10 aqueous solutions containing halide
ions, In that regard, nickel alloys are far
superior 10 auslenitic stainless steels.
which are notoriously prone to attack by
wei chlorides and fluorides.
This superior corrosion behavior of
nickel alloys manifests ilself not only in
terms of lower metal loss. but in the ability to better withstand localized auack,
notably pining/crevice corrosion, intergranular auack and Stress corrosion cracking. These forms of localized allack. more
so than general thinning. account for the
majority of corrosion-induced failures in
the chemical industry,
Nickel alloys owe their corrosion
resistance partly 10 the inherent lower
reactivity of nickel relative to iron. as
measured by its more noble oxidation
potential in the EMF Series. Similar to
stainless steels. chromium-containing
nickel alloys have the capability to passivate (i,e.. to spontaneously form an ultrathin but tenacious surface oxide that functions as an effective corrosion barrier).
An added advantage of nickel over iron

Rf!prinlt!dfrom Cllt!mical Pmussing Maga:int! NO'o,t!m!Hr 1997

..

HIGH PERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

Table 1 Nommal composihon 01 corrosion-resIstant nickel allovs (wi %).

Alloy

200
400
600
625
690
825
G-3
G-30
C-276
C-22
C2QOO

622
686
59
8-2
8-3
8-4
Maximum

UNS no.

Ni

N02200

N044QO

99.6
66.5

N06600

75.0

N06625

62.0
61.0
42.0
44.0
43.0
57.0
56.0
59.0
58.0
60.0
60.0
69.0
68.5
66.0

N06690
N08825
N06985
N06030
N10276

N06022
Nl0200
N06022
N06686
N06059
Nl0665
Nl0675
Nl0629

is the ..bilit)' to accept large fractions of

alloying elements wilhout fonning briule

phases. Common alloying additions for

enhanced corrosion resistance are chromium. molybdenum and copper. Their roles

are addressed in the brief chamcterizations

of nickel alloy syStems thaI follow.

Comparative resistance ratings of nickel alloys in common chemical planl cov;-

ronlTl('nlS are shown in Table 3. These general guidelines are nOi intended for specificalion purposes but only as a starting point
in the materials selection process.

Welding guidelines
The majority of nickel alloy welds are performed by shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW). gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and gas metal arc welding
(GMA W). Nickel alloy weldmcnts are
very ductile. and their low thennal expansion characteristics reduee residual stresses
and warpage. Post weld heat treaunent is
generally required only for precipitationhardcnablc grades. Specifications issued
by the American Welding Society (AWS)
for nickel alloy welding electrodes and
filler metals are liSlOO in Table 4.
Welding procedures for nickel alloys
are fairly similar to those used for
austenitic stainless steels. Howevcr. due to

Ell

Cr

15.5
21.5

29.0
21.5
22.0
29.8
15.5
22_0
23.0
20.5
21.0
23.0
1.0'

1.5
1.0

M.

9.0
3.0
7.0
5.0
16.0
13.0
16.0
14.2
16.0
15.8

28_0
28.5
28.0

the greater sluggishness of Ni-rich weld

puddles and the lower penetration characteristics of nickel alloys. the production
of full penctration welds may require
modification of joint configurations and
welding techniques. Nickel alloys are
less tolerant than ferrous materials to contamination that could cause weld embriltlemenl.
The combinatioo of high ductility, low
thennal expansion and the ability to tolerate dilution by numerous metallic elements h:ts made nickel-rich welding coosumables universally 3CCepied for joining
dissimilar metals. This includes not only
welds of nickel-based alloys to iron-based
alloys. but also for welds of stainlcss
steels to carbon and alloy steels.
Similarly. nickel alloys can be welddeposited on carbon steel without the risk
of crocking.

Types of nickel alloys

Nickel alloys are commercially available
in a broad variety of product forms
including plate. sheet. strip. tubes. pipe.
fittings and forgings. Selected ASTM
specifications for some of these are noted
in Table 5. Some nickel alloys arc also
produced as castings. These generally
have different charactcristics from their

F.
1.0
8.0
2.5
9.0
29.5
19.5
15.0

5_5
3.0
1_5
2.3
5.0'
1.5'
2.0'
1.5
3.5

Cu

Other

31.5

1.0 Mn
3.8(Nb+Ta)

1.5'
2.8
3.8
3.0

2.3
2.0'

2.1 Nb

1.7

1.0INb+Ta)

1.0 Ti

1.6
3_2
3_7
3.0'

wrought counterparts.
Nickel alloys are generally classified
according to their principal alloying constilUents. The families of nickel alloys
extensively utilized in chemical plant
equipment are briefly characterized
below;
Pure nickel. Pure nickel (Alloy 200)
has very good resistance to a wide ronge
of reducing acids and salts. but is not a
suiw.bte choice for strongly oxidizing
environments such as nitric acid. The
most significant allribute of pure nickel is
unexcelled resistance to caustic alkalis,
even when molten. Though outstanding in
its resistance to dry halogen environments, nickel is not adequately resistant
below the water dewpoint. For applications m~ than 600"F. a lowcarbon variant, designated Nickel 201 (UNS
N02201), is the preferred choice.
NiCu Alloy 400. The corrosion
behavior of nickel-copper Alloy 400. like
that of nickel. is best under reducing conditions and can be compromised by aeration and oxidizing chemicals. Alloy 400
possesses very good resislance to halogen
acids and compounds. particUlarly hydrofluoric acid and hot gases rich in fluorine
or hydrogen fluoride.
The alloy is used widely for handling

Rt!prillttdfrom Cl1l.'mjrnl Proussing Maga:jnt! NOI'emINr 1997

HIGHPERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

Table 2 MInimum room temperature mechamcal properlies of nickel alloy.

Alloy
lIeslgnalion

Ultimale tensile

Yield strength

Elongation

slrenglh llesl)

0.2% olfs.l(lesi)

(%)

200
400
600
625
690
825
G-3
G-30
C-276
C-22
C-2000
622
59
B-2
B-3
B-4

55
70
80
110
85
85
90
85
100
100
100
100
100
110
110
110

15
28
35
55
35
35
35
35
41
45
41
45
45
51
51
51

40
35
30
30
30
30
45
30
40
45
45
45
45
40
40
40

Table 3. General guidelines lor corrOSion resistance.

Alloy

Sulfuric
acid

200
400
600
625
690
825
G3
C276
B2

Phosphoric
acid

.. ...

.
..

Hydrochloric
acid

...

Hydrofluoric
acid

Nitric
acid

..

......

Organic

Strong

acids

Reducing

Oxidizing

alkalis

salts

salts

.
.

Excellent 10 good;
... Good to satisfactory;
Not recommended.

R~prill1~dfrom

Chtmical Processing Maga:int. NQI,t'm/)er /997

..

HIGHPERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

sulfuric acid solutions. sea water and

brines. For applications requiring higher
strength. such as thaI demanded for valve
and pump components, use is made of

Alloy K-500 (N05500), a precipitationhardenable variant of Alloy 400.

.NiCrFe Alloy 600. The addition of
chromium to the nickel matrix extends the
suitability of Alloy 600 imo the oxidizing
range. Though only mediocre for mil'leral
acids. Alloy 600 has cltccllcnt resislallCe 10
organic acids and is used e:uensively in
fatty acid processing. It is also employed
widely in the production and handling of
caustic and alkali chemicals.

Alloy 600 also qualifies as an excellent

m:lleriaJ for high-temperature applications
requiring a combination of heat and COfTOsion resistance. The alloy's excellent performance in hol halogen environments makes
it a favorite choice for organic chlorination

processes. Other elevated temperature

degradation processes against which Alloy
600 has demonslrated excellenl resistance
are oltidation. carburizalion and nitridation.
NiCrMo Alloy 625. The addition of
molybdenum to the Ni-Cr systems broadens resistance to mineral acids and salts.
both oxidalion and reducing. Molybdenum
additionally confers resistance to pilling
and crevice corrosion by wet chlorides.

Alloy 625 is a very strong material with

excellent resistance to fatigue. Alloy
625LCF. a bellows.quality version of
Alloy 625. lays claim to exceptionally
good resistance to low.cycle and thermal
fatigue.
Like Alloy 600. Alloy 625 serves
effectively both as a corrosion-resislant
and heat-resistant material. The combination of eltcellenl high.temperature
strength and resistance to halogen attack,
oxidation and carburization has made
Alloy 625 a favored choice for chemical
and petrochemical process equipment
exposed to hoslile, high-temperalllre envi
ronments.
Ni-Cr Alloy 690. Alloy 690 has the
highest chromium content among nickel
alloys suilable for fabrication of pressure
equipment. which confers eltceptional
resistance to oxidizing media. It is effectively used for hot concentrated sulfuric
acid, nitric acid and nitric,1lydrofluoric acid
mixtures, as well as for oxidizing salts.
The high chromium content also improves
resislance in hot sulfidizing environments.
NiCrFe Alloy 825. Because of its
near 30% iron content. Alloy 825 is s0metimes included in the family of superaustenitic stainless steels. The alloy excels
in sulfuric and phosphoric applicalions

thai. as with Alloy 20, were major development targets. Though reasonably resistantto hydrochloric acid, Alloy 825 is subject to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion. panicularly in stagnant. unaerated
solutions. Its high iron content makes
Alloy 825 less resistant than higher nickel
containing alloys to alkalis and halogens.
.Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo "G" alloys. Alloy G-3
offers improved corrosion resistance over
alloys 400, 600 and 825 in a wide range of
applications. The: alloy is especially resistant to sulfuric acid and contaminated
phosphoric acid. and can withstand both
reducing and oltidizing conditions. The
more recently developed Alloy G-30 has
better weldability and offers improved a11round corrosion resistance. TlOtably in weld
heat-affected zones.
Ni-CrMo ''C'' alloys. Alloy C-276
is considered [he preeminent alloy
employed in the chemical industry for
exceptionally corrosive environments that
are beyond the capability of stainless
steels. It has outstanding resistance to
acids. acid salts and a wide spectrum of
other aggressive substances encountered in
chemical processing.
Alloy C276 is particularly effective in
such punishing environments as wet chlorine and hypochlorites. Owing to its

Table 4. AWS specifications for welding materials.

Alloy
200
400
600
625
G-3
G-30
C-276
C-22
622
686
59

..

Welding electrode (AS.ll)

ENi-l
ENiCu-7
ENiCrFe-3
ENiCrMo-3
ENiCrMo-9
ENiCrMo-11
ENiCrMo-4
ENiCrMo-10
ENiCrMo-l0
ENiCrMo-14
ENiCrMo-13

Rtpr;nltdfrom Cilemica{ Proussing Maga:int N(A'em~, 1997

Filler metal (A5.l4)

ERNi-1
ERNiCu-7
ERNiCrFe-3
ERNiCrMo-3
ERNiCrMo-9
ERNiCrMo-l1
ERNiCrMo-4
ERNiCrMo-l0
ERNiCrMo-l0
ERNiCrMo-14
ERNiCrMo-13

HIGH PERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

Table 5 ASTM speciflcatlOns lor selected product forms.

Alloy

200
400
600
625
690
825
G-3
G-30
C-276
C-22
C-2000
622
686
59
8-2
8-3
8-4

sbeet

Seamless
pip,

B162
B127
B16B
8443
8168
8409
B582
B582
8575
B575
8575
8575
8575
8575
8333
B333
8333

B161
B165
B167
B444
8167
8407
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622

Plato!

Welded

Seamless

W,ld,d

pip,

tubes

lubes

B725
B725
B517
B705

B161
B165
B167
8444
B167
8407
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
8622
B622
8622

B730
B730
B516
8704

8619
8619
8619
8619
B619
8619
8619
8619
8366
8366
8366

molybdenum content, Alloy C-276 is highly resislant 10 chloride-induced pitting and

crevice corrosion.
The quest for materials possessing betlcr metallurgical propenies and corrosion
resistance than Alloy C-276 has spurred
the development and commercialization of

Recently introduced alloys 8-3 and 8-4

offer improved properties over Alloy B-2.
A practical advantage of these new grades
is minimized formation of undesirable
microstructures during fabrication that can
cause embritllemenl.

several proprietary (.type alloys. represented by alloys C-22. 622, 59. 686 and C2000.

By G. Sorell. president of G. Sorell

Consiliting St'rvius. North Calm.,t'll. NJ.
Sorell is a mott'rialS/CQrrosion engineer with
more toon 40 years of/lIdlUlrial experience.
Preparation oftlJis artielt' ...as sllpported by
(ht' Nickel DeI'tlopmt'rtI Institute.

All have roughly comparable molybdenum content but significantly higher

chromium content than Alloy C-276. Some
grades also contain tungsten and copper.

8515
8626
B626
8626
8626
B626
8626
8626
8626
8626
8626
8626

The effect of these minor alloying conSlilUents on metallurgical propenies and

corrosion resislance is complex and

beyond the scope of this anicte.
NiMo "B" alloys. Alloy B-2 has
exceptional resistance 10 sulfuric. phosphoric and hydrochloric acids under reducing conditions. It is panicularly suited for
equipment handling hydrochloric acid at
all concentrations and temperatures up to
the boiling point.
Oxidizing chemicals adversely affect its
corrosion resistance. notably such strong
oxidizers as ferric and cupric salts thai may
be present as contaminants.

Rt'prinredfrom Chemical Processing Moga:illt. NO\'embn 1997

..

HIGHPERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

Evolution of nickel alloys

Uke iron and copper, nickel has been used in alloys since the dawn of civilization. However, in contrast to steels, brasses and
bronzes, nickel alloys are recent newcomers to the chemical industry.
The first nickel alloy of signHicant commercial importance was Alloy 400, developed and marketed by the International Nickel
Co. (now Inco Alloys Interll3lionaJ) in 1905 under the MONEL trademart. The next important milestone was the emergence around
1930 of Ni-Mo Alloy Band Ni-CrMo-W Alloy C. Their developer, the Haynes Stellite Co. (now Haynes International Inc.), trade
marKed both of these materials as HASTElLOY. The next important rung in the evolutionary ladder of nickelbased alloys came
from Inca, with the advent of Ni-Cr-Fe Alloy 600 in 1931 and Ni-FeCr in 1949, respectively named INCONEL and INCOLOY.
capitalizing on the familiari1y and reputation of these original trademarts, Inca and Haynes are now marketing acombined total
of about 50 corrosion- and heat-resistant alloys in the MONEL, INCONEL, lNCOLOY and HASTELLOY families.
The German company Krupp VDM GmbH, amore recent entrant as aprominent developer and producer of abroad line of nickel-based alloys, uses the trade names Nicrofer, Nimofer and Nicorros.
These three leading companies continue to develop improved and new nickel alloys of interest to the chemical industry. Their
proprietary alloys mentioned in this article are listed in Table A.
All of the early proprietary alloys have long ago lost their patent protection and are now available worldwide from many other
producers. either under their own trade
names or simply as generic alloys conTable A. AlloV trade names.
forming to recognized standards or
specifications. As with pharmaceuticals,
Alloy
Trade name
Trademartl: holder
there is an ongoing debate as to the
equivalence of generic versus propriHASTEllOV<>
6-3~
Haynes
International,
Inc.
63
etary products.
C-22
HASTEllDY<> C-22"
Haynes International, Inc.
Familiar specifications such as ASTM
C-2000
HASTEllOV<> C-2000> Haynes International, Inc.
and DIN may have less restrictive
G-30
HASTEllDV<> G-31l"
Haynes International, Inc.
requirements that those self-imposed by
INCDNEL<> 622
Inca family of companies
622
prominent alloy developers and producINCDNEl<> 625lCf
Inco family of companies
625
ers. Such in-house requirements may
INCONEl<> 666
Inco family of companies
666
involve tighter limits on alloy composi6-4
Nicrofere 6629
Krupp VDM GmbH
tion and metallurgical parameters aimed
Nicrofe.e 5923hMo
Krupp VDM GmbH
59
L
---'at properties enhancement.

Reprintedfrom Chemica! Processing Maga:ine. NO~'tmber 1997

PART II

Picking nickel-base alloys

to resist heat and corrosion
Here's aguide to selecting and using the alloy that's right for the job

he ability to withstand the combined

onslaught of heat and corrosion

makes nickel-base alloys a good

choice for aggressive high-temperature
environments. Nickel alloys find extensive
application for chemical plant equipment

c;.;posed 10 corrosive process streams at

elevated temperatures. commonly defined

as more: than about 1./XllYF.

In many instances, high suength, chemical-resistant nickel alloys are the favored.
if not the only. practical material for hostile environments beyond the capability of

austenitic and superaustenitic stainless

Alloys 600. 601 and 625 are commonly

associated with the INCQNEL. rrademark
held by the Inco family of companies.
Similarly. Alloy X is best known under the
HASTELLOY. trademark owned by
Haynes International Inc. More recently
developed alloys are still proprielaJ)' malerials available only from their developen,
as fOOhloted in Table I.
The types of alloys surveyed are
wrought materials, strengthened principally by solid solution hardeners. Not covered

AII,5000F nickel allnys relain

steels. Though more expensive than iron-

base alloys. the excellent performance

40% to 75% of their room tem-

characteristics of heal- and corrosion-resistant nickel alloys often makes them the
most economicallong-tenn choice.

perature yield strength.

Alloy cDmposltions

are nickel-base alloys strengthened by precipitation hardening, nor oxide dispersion

strengthened (ODS) alloys produced by

powder metallurgy techniques. Those
superalloys. used principally in gas turbine
and aerospace applications. are rarely used
in chemical processing. Also excluded
from this article are cast versions of alloys
listed in Table I.

PhysIcal and mechanical prof)8f1les

1be physical properties of nickel alloys are
similar to those of the 300 Series Cr-Ni
stainless steels. Depending on the individual alloy. lhermal conductivity and expansion characteristics may differ significanlly
and need to be considered in equipment
design.
The mechanical properties of nickel
alloys as a class are excellent. both in
strength and ductile properties. Minimum
room temperature strength and duclility
values are listed in Table 2. Except for

The chemical composition of heal- and-eorro- Table 1. Nommal composillOn of wroughl heal-reSistant nickel alloys. wt %
sion-resistant nickel
NI
Cr
Mo
W
Co
Alloy
UNINo.
Fe
alloys (here defined as
containing more than
7S.0
15.0
8.0
600
N06600
45% nickel) that find
601
N06601
60.5
23.0
14.4
extensive application in
617
52.0
22.0
9.0
1.5
12.5
NIl6617
chemical processing are
625
NIl6625
61.0
21.5
9.0
2.5
listed in Table I. The
alloys are identified by
47.0
21.8
18.5
1.5
X
NIl6OO2
90
their common designa2141
N07214
75.0
16.0
3.0
4.5 AI
tion and by the Unified
57.0
22.0
2.0
1.5
14.0
2.5
N1l6230
230'
Numbering System
2421
65.0
8.0
25.0
2.0'
2.5'
(UNS). Although Ihe
25.5
3.30 17.0
3.3
3.3
333
NIl6333
46.0
long-established alloys
45TM'
46.0
27.5
23.0
N06045
have lost their patent
63.0
25.0
9.5
NIl6025
602CA'
protections. lhey're still
commonly known by
"Maximum
their original trade
1. Haynes8 Alloys 214ftl 230", 242ftl (Haynes international, Inc.)
names.
2. Nicrofe,e AllOy 45 ftl , Nicrofer 6025tfTaIIoy 602CA (Krupp VDM GmbH)
For example. generic

Rrprilltedjrom Chrmicul Processing Maga:ille October /998

Other

1.4 AI
1.2 AI
3.8
(Nb + Ta)
1.4 AI

1.1 Si
2.8 Si
2.1 AI

..

HIGH-PERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

Alloy 601. minimum yield strengths are

considerably higher than 30 ksi, which is
the value for the common austenitic stain-

Jesses.
The greater strength of nickel-base.
compared with iron-base materials,
increases prqgressively with temperature,
as shown in Table 3. N()(c thaI at 1,5(l(FF.
the nickel alloys relain 40% to 75% of

their room temperature yield strength,

compared to only 20% to 35% for siain-

less steels.
The superiority of nickel alloys extends
to creep rupture. as illustrated in Table 4.
While stainless steels essentially lose any

Some nickel alloys, like 600 and

Table 2. Minimum room temperature mechamcal properties

Alloy

UIU..... I...n.

.........,al
80
80

600

601
617

110'
110
184'

333

80
90
94

45TM

602CA

30
30
30
30
35
25'
40
38'
30
35
30

30
35
40
35
65'
45
113'
35
35
43

95

214
230
242

Elongation,

35

95
100

625
X

Y1.ld ItrInglb,
O,2%oftIIl,al

'Typical properties

601, show virtual immunity to

Table 3. Typical hot yield strength, 0.2% olfset, ksi

age embrittlement.
useful srrengm at temperatures of 2,()()()IlF
and above. nickel alloys can still function
effectively for moderately stressed components. For example. the I.QOO-hr rupture

strength at 2,ooooF is about 1.0 ksi for

Alloys 600. 601. 214. 230 and 333. and 1.4
ksi for Alloys 617 and 602CA.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code contains allowable stresses for the
alloys surveyed. except for Alloys 214,
242 aod 45TM.

MetallUfJ1cai stability
Al10Iher important property in alloy selection for high-temperature applications is
metallurgical stability, which is also
known as thennal stability. The tenn refers
to the resistance to fonn brinle micr05U\1ctural phases or precipitates upon aging. i.e.,
after prolonged ellposure 8t elevated temperatures. That so-called "age embrittlement" manifests principally as reduced
ductility and toughness. and may also
impair corrosion resistance.
While some alloys. such as 600 and
601. are vinually immune to age embrittle
ment. most undergo varying degrees of
impairment. Among those adversel)'
affected is Alloy 625, which may suffer a
marked drop in ductility and impact
strength when exposed in the range of

..

Alloy

30455
30955
310 SS
600H
600

601
617
625
X

1,0lIII'f

1,2OO'f

1,6OO'F

42

18

45
45
29
50
40
45
48

26

16
23
21
15
37
28

10
18

Amblotd

49

214
230
242

57
113

333

43

82

45TM

53

602CA

50

25
17
40

32
32
32
33
72
40
70
25
36
38

about 1.2000F to 1,4()(pF. At higher temperatures, those properties are partly

restored because brittle precipitates tend to
redissolve. Equipment failures attributable
to reduced ductility and toughness are
infrequent. which can be ascribed 10 the
very high starting properlies typical of
unaged nickel alloys.

Chemical resistance
The most prevalent form of attack in high
temperature chemical processing environ-

34

35
30
76
39
76
25
34

37

1,BOD'F

IS

13
20
20
35
38
26
81
50
24
28
31

9
9

7
18
18
18
8
21
28
10
13

ments is gaseous corrosion. principally

oxidation, sulfidation and halogenation
(chloridation and fluoridation). Other
fonns of deterioration encountered in hostile elevated-temperature environments are
carburization, nitridation and hydrogen
attack. Those are not classed as corrosion
in the conventional sense of the word.
because there is no metal loss or surface
recession. Rather. damage manifests as
metallurgical/mechanical impairmentmost often in the fonn of embrittlemenl.

Rl!printedfrom Chl!mica/ PrQussing Maga:inl! Ocwber /998

HIOHPERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

lion modes may occur simullafleOUsly. For

example. many industrial environments c0ntain both oxygen and chlorine. subjecting
exposed mcIaIs to ol(ychlorination, a highly
virulent fonn of corrosion. Exceptionally
se~ COITOSion can also be caused by liquid
phases. such as molten salts, ash Of metals.
1llose aggressive species are rarely encountered in chemical processing and hence faJ!
beyond the scope ofthis article.

The directional effect of alloying conSlilUents on either retarding or exacerbating

high-tempernture chemical altack of nickel-base alloys is shown in Table 5.
The effect of Cr. Mo, Co. w. 5i and AI
may be either favorable or detrimental,
depending on the specific exposure condilions. notably lempernture and reducing
versus oxidizing atmosphere.
In practice. several material degrada-

Table 4. Typical creep rupture strength. ksi

Stmslo rupture in 1.000 hr

1,4OO'F

Condition

Alia,

7.4
7.2
7.4
10.0
8.1
9.8
22.0
22.0
16.0
24.0
19.0
15.0
14.0
6.1
8.0

A
A
A

30455
30955
31055
800H
600
&01
617
625

SA
5T
5T

SA
5T
5T

SA
SA

214
230
242
333
45TM
&02CA

1,60O'F

AA

5T
5T
5T

1,800'F

3.0
2.7
3.0
4.9
3.5
4.4
8.4
7.5
6.5
7.8
9.0

1.2
1.0
1.2
2.0
1.8
2.2
3.6
2.7
2.1
1.7
2.8

5.2
2.9
4.5

2.1
1.5
2.4

A:: Annealed:
All:: Annealed and aged;
SA" Solution anoealed;
ST '" Solution treated.

Table 5. Ellecl 01 alloying additions

M....... Oxidation
Sulfidation
Chloridation
Auoridation
Carburization
Nitndation

MI'

F'

In

Cr

Ma

Ca

'.

'.

'.

6 "Improves resistance;
" Lowers resistance;
6. ::

nickel alloys on high-tempera lure allack

Dependent on specific conditions;

"Effect 01 increased nicksl content.

Cb

51

Forms of IIttaek
The common fOMs of high-temperature
chemical attack are brieny characterized
below. Hydrogen attack is omitted because
nickel alloys are highly resistant.
Oxidation. Oxidation, the most common fonn of corrosion at elevated temperatures, is characterized by the formation of
metal oxide corrosion products. 1lIose secalled scales are usually quite dense and
tenacious and thus able to retard further
attack. However. in severely hostile envi
ronments oxide scales can be penelra!ed or
spall off.
Chromium is by far the most important
element for conferring oxidation resistance.
As with stainless steels. small additions of
aluminum. silicon and rare earth elements
further enhance oxide stability and tenacity.
especially under thermal cycling conditions.
Stable oxide scales nO( only retard further
oxidation bot also act as an effective barrier
against other fonns of attack.
Sulfidalion. Sulfidation produces
scales rich in metal sulfides that offer little. if any. protection against further
attack. Reducing-sulfidizing environments are usually more aggressive than
oxidizing-sulfidizing atmospheres. Nickel
alloys. as a class. are more susceptible to
sulfidation than stainless steels largely
because of the formation of low meltingpoint nickel sulfide. As with oxidation.
alloying with chromium progressively
improves resistance.
Chloridation. High-temperature
exposure to chlorine and its compounds
rapidly corrodes stainless
steels. Because iron chlorides and oxychlorides are
quite volatile, severe chloAI
Ti ridation may proceed
without appreciable scaling. Nickel-base alloys are
far more resistant than
iron-base alloys. making
them the materials-ofchoice for environments
'
containing chlorine or
chlorides.
Carburization. In
high carbon activity
atmosphere, carbon tends
to diffuse into the metal

ReprimMfrom Chemical Proressing Magodne Oc/obf!r /998

HIGH-PERFORMANCE METAU & ALLOYS

ea versus corrosion-resistani a o's

AkJy pmdUC81S and spec/fication writefs sometimes find it convenient to classify alloys as either heat-resistant or corrosion-resis-

tant. ThaI somewhat arbitrary dlstinctioo centers on whether the alloy composition and microstructure is optimized for aqueous
corrosion resistance or for eIeYat8d temperature service. Heatresistant alloys ca11 be further subdivided according 10 whether they
designed prirrrarily for chemical resistance in hot aggressive environments or for optimum strength and metallurgical stability.
In practice, there Is considerable overlap and some versatile nickel alloys are capable of serving effectively in multiple capacities.
A November 1997 Chemical Processing article (p.54) discussed corrosion-resistant nickel alloys for applications in aggressive aqueous-environments. Complementing that ear1ier article, this one is focused on nickel alloys targeted for corrosion resisitance in high-temperature gaseous environments. Both stories include Alloys 600 and 625 because of their excellent performance
over abroad temperature SjlOCIrum.
matrix IlI1d ronn metal carbides. ThaI form ly welded by Ihe common welding (GMA W). Nickel alloy weldmenlS typicalof lIt1ack, called carburizlIlion. can cause processes. inclUding shielded metal arc ly exhibit excellent duclility. and their low
severe impainnent of me<:hllnical properwelding (SMA W). gas tungsten arc weld- thermal expansion characteristics tend to
ties. notably duclility and impact strength. ing (GTAW) and gas melal arc welding reduce residual slresses and diSlortion.
Nickel alloys exhibit good carburization
Table 6. AWS speCifications for recommended weldmg materials
resistance because nickel. unlike iron. is
no! a strong carbide fonner.
Nitridation. Nitridation. orten called
Alloy
Welding electrode (AS.11)
Filler m.lal (A5.14)
nilriding. refers to nitrogen diffusion into
the metal lanice to form metal nilrides. In
ENiCrFe-3
600
ERNiCrFe3
the chemical industry. it is encountered
601
ENiCrFe3 '
ERNiCrFe31,2
primarily in high-temperature ammoniaENiCrt:oMo-1
617
ERNiCrt:oMo-1
625
ENiCrMo3
rich atmospheres. As in carburization.
ERNiCrMo3
damage manifeslS no! as metal loss but as
X
ENiCrMo-2
ERNiCrMo-2
embrittlement. Nickel does not form
ENiCrMo2\
ERNiCrMo-2\.2
214
nitrides. which accounlS for the excellent
230
ENiCrWMo-1 1
ERNiCrWMol 1,2
nilridalion resislance of nickel-rich alloys.
ENiMo-3\
242
ERNiMo-3 1,2
Inlernal attack. Carburizalion and
602CA
ENiCrCoMo-1 1
ERNiCrCoMol l ,2
nilridation are by no means the only hightemperature degradation modes character1. These consumables are not exact matches to the loose metal composnions and the resultized by inlemal damage. Vinually all high
ing weld deposits may not have the same high-lemperature corrosion resistance as the base
metal.
temperature corrosion is diffusion driven
and characterized by substantial subsurface
2. Matching filler metals are available but are not Included in AWS specifications.
attack. predominanlly along grain boundaries. That applies to oxidation. sulfidation. and
Table 7. ASTM specifications for selected llroducl forms
especially 10 halogenation.
In many instances. internal
attack penetrales deeper
Alloy PI....... SUml. . plp. Woldedplp.
SlImlns tube Welded tube
into the metal than surfoce
melal loss. Evaluation of
8168
8167
BOO
8517
8167
8516
high temperature corrosion
601
8168
8167
8167
should therefore be based
617
8168
854li
not solely on thickness or
8443
B444
8705
625
B444
8704
weight loss. but additional
X
8435
8622
8619
8622
8626
lyon metallographic
230
843S
8622
8619
8622
8626
examination.
8718
8722
8723
333
8722
8726

45TM
Welding
guidelines
602CA
Nickel alloys can be: readi- L.

8168
8168

8167
8167

8517
8517

Rtprillledfrom Chemical Processing Maga:ine

OCf~r

8167
8167

1998

8516
8516

HIGH.PERFORMANCE METALS & ALLOYS

PostweJd heal treatment is generally not

required for solution strengthened alloys.
RCl:ommended welding consumables

for the alloys surveyed. as covered by

American Welding Society (A WS) specifi.
cations AS.II and A5.14. are listed in
Table 6. Although not included in AW$
AS.II and A5.14, matching filler melals
for Alloys 601, 214. 230. 242 and 602CA

are commercially available. Matching filler

melals are the preferred choice for welds
exposed to aggressive high-temperalUre
environments because they provide greater
assurance that the weld metal will have the

same corrosion resistance as the base

metal. Nickel-rich weld materials are wide
Iy used also for dissimilar metal weld
joints between nickel-base and iron-base
alloys and for depositing weld overlays on
fenuus subslrJles.
Welding procedures for nickel alloys are
broadly similar to those for stainless steels.
However. modifications of joint designs and

Welding procedures are broadIy similar for nickel alloys and

stainless steel.
welding techniques may be indicated to
achieve full penetration welds, conditioned
by the sluggish flow characteristics of highnickel weld puddles. Nickel alloys are
inherently more sensitive than iron-base
metals to weld embriulemeOl by contaminants. Exercise special care to shield the
wcld zone from foreign substances.
Wrought heat- and corrosion-resistant
nickel alloys come in a wide range of product forms. including plate/sheet and both
seamless and welded tubular goods.
ASTM specifications covering those are
listed in Table 7. Most of the alloys in
Table I can also be produced as castings.
albeit with minor chemistry modifications.

Alloy characlerlstics
This brief rundown highlights the attributes
of each of the alloys discussed that affect
their suitability for corrosive high temperature environments in chemical plants.
Alloy 600 has excellent resistance to

oxidation. chloridation. carburiz.ation and

nitridation, but poor resistance to sulfidation. Alloy 600 is widely used for hOI chlorine/hydrogen chloride and for ammonia
atmospheres.
Alloy 601 has excellent resistance to
carburization and cyclic oxidation. It has
moderate strength but excellent thennal
stability. Alloy 601 is widely used in contaminated combustion environments.
Alloy 617 has an exceptional combination of high-temperature strength, thermal stability and resistance to oxidation
and carburization. The alloy is used in
nitric acid and petrochemicals production.
Alloy 625 has the favoroble combination of high strength and good all-around
corrosion resistance. including aqueous
environments. II has excellent fatigue
resistance but only moderate thennal stability. Alloy 625 is used extensively in
chemicaVpetrochemical plant services.
Alloy X has an outstanding combina
tion of strength. fabricability and resistance
to oxidizing. carburizing and nitriding
gllse~. It is a popular alloy for stressed
componems in aggressive combustion
environments.
Alloy 214 has superb resistance to
oxidation (up to 2.2WF), chloridation.
carburiZlition and nitridation. It has
mediocre thermal stability, fllbricability
and welJability. Alloy 214 is a niche alloy
for ex.ceptionally cOfTOsh'e environments.
There is limited availability of product
fonns and quantity.
Alloy 230 has the beSt balance of
strength. thermal stability and fatigue resistastce, oxidation resistance and fabricability
among major high-temperature alloys. It is
favored for high-strength components in
punishing combustion environments.
Alloy 242 is the best among nickel
alloys for fluorine and fluoride resistance.
It has very high strength and good !hennal
stability. Alloy 242 is nOt TC<:ommended
for applications above 1.5WF. It is used in
fluoropolymers production.
.Alloy 333 has ex.cellent oxidation and
carburization resistance. as well as good
sulfidation resistance and mechanical propenies. It is used in diverse chemical/petrochemical plant applications.
Alloy 45TM is the optimum choice

for combined chloridationloxidation,lsulfi

dationjcarburization resistance. The alloy
excels in incineration and gasification

proo=.
Alloy 602CA has ex.ceptional resistance to cyclic oxidation (up to 2.2CJ01'F)
and carburization and also provides good
resistance to oxidizinglsulfidizing gases.
It offers high creep strength at extreme
tcmperatures.

Cost fa<tors
The alloys surveyed are about two times to
five times costlier than Type 310 stainless
steel. The cost differentials are considerably lower on an installed--equipment basis.
largely because the cost of fabrication does
not vary greatly between nickel alloys and
stainless steels.
Another imponant consideration in ec0nomic analysis is the greater capabilities,
lower maintenance and looger life of highperfomlance materials. On the basis of lifecycle cost. nickel alloys often prove the
best economic choice.

By G. Sorell, prtsidel1l ofG. Sorell

Conslliting Sn-,,icts. NOrlh Call"'n!!l. NJ.
Sorell is a materials/carrosiOrl erlgirleer ....ilh
mort Ihan 40 years ofintlllSlrial experimce.
Preporo/iOrl of/his Or/ide ....a s s/lPporied by
/lie Nickel Derefopmem IIlS/i/llte.

Reprimedfrom C/lemical Procusing Maga:irle' October 1998