Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
in the
manufacture of
fire
extinguishers.
In
medical
and
Design Considerations
Before any calculations are made one must consider whether
displacement can be miscible or immiscible and whether flow is vertical or
horizontal. If the crude oil gravity is medium or light and the reservoir is
deep or of medium depth, then miscible displacement should be
considered. When the reservoir is of medium or shallow depth with
medium or heavy gravity oil the miscibility pressure, if it exists, cannot
be reached without surpassing the formation parting pressure. In this
case displacement has to be immiscible but will include the beneficial
effects
of
viscosity
reduction
and
oil
swelling.
The
horizontal
CO2 Sources
A reliable source of supply for CO2 is very important because the
gas must be available on a continuous basis in large volumes for long
periods of time between 5 to 10 years or more. The CO2 gas used must
have a purity of 90 % or more. If other gases such as methane or
nitrogen are present with the CO2, a higher injection pressure is needed
to render the gas miscible with the oil.
The best CO2 sources are naturally occurring high-pressure gas
reservoirs with high-purity CO2, mostly found while exploring for oil and
gas. In the United States the oil producing basins of Wyoming, Utah,
Colorado, and New Mexico have the largest CO2 reserves. The economics
of a CO2miscible project are improved if CO2 wells are located in the
same geologic basins as those that produce oil, since the CO2
transportation and injection pressure can then be partially supplied by
the CO2reservoir pressure.
Transportation of CO2
The method of transportation of CO2 from its source to the oil
field depends on whether the CO2 is liquid or gas. For small injection
rates of 1 to 5 MM scf/day and short injection periods, CO2 is liquefied
at its source and transported to the project sites by refrigerated trucks,
tank trucks, tank cars on rail, or in storage tanks located on barges.
Transporting the CO2 liquid at 0 F and 300 psi using existing insulated
steel containers is the least costly method of transportation. The CO2
necessary for large long-term projects is transported most economically
through a pipeline as vapour at pressures between 1400 to 2000 psi so
that two-phase flow does not occur.
POLYMER FLOODING
The first attempts to improve sweep efficiency in water-floods
were made by Detling. He patented a number of additives, including watersoluble polymers, to increase the viscosity of injected water and the
volume of the reservoir affected. Because of their low cost, the watersoluble polymers prevailed over other additives.
ALKALINE FLOODING
Alkaline or caustic flooding is another method by which oil displacement
efficiency can be improved. Despite the fact that alkaline agents are less
expensive, the benefits expected from alkaline flood have not been
confirmed by firm field results and still remain a possibility rather than a
reality. Indeed, the major difficulty is that the process appears to be
highly dependent on minerals on the surface of reservoir rock, which are
not
chemically
inert,
and
on the
crude
oil
and
injection
fluid
Electrochemical Processes:
Electro thermal processes utilize electricity or electromagnetic energy
to stimulate heavy oil reservoirs and tar sands. The processes involve
heating of the formation to a temperature that will lower the oil
viscosity to the point where it can flow or be displaced by steam. This
temperature increase is achieved with electromagnetic energy produced
by using adjacent wells as electrodes. Reservoirs can also be heated by
radio frequency (RF).