Esperanto

This article is about the language. For other uses, see its 64th language.[14] Duolingo started the development
Esperanto (disambiguation).
of Esperanto on September 2014 as a language that can
be learnt, making it the rst invented language ever on
Duolingo; the course is expected to become available in
Esperanto (/sprnto/ or /-rnto/; [esperanto]
February 2015.[15]
listen ) is a constructed international auxiliary language.
It is the most widely spoken constructed language in the Currently, Esperanto is seen by many of its speakers as
world.[5] Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto (Es- an alternative or addition to the growing use of English
peranto translates as one who hopes), the pseudonym throughout the world, oering a language that is easier to
under which physician and linguist L. L. Zamenhof pub- learn than English.[16]
lished the rst book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro,
on July 26, 1887. Zamenhofs goal was to create an easyto-learn, politically neutral language that would transcend 1 History
nationality and foster peace and international understanding between people with dierent languages.
Main article: History of Esperanto
Between 100,000 and 2,000,000 people worldwide uently or actively speak Esperanto, including perhaps
1,000 native speakers who learned Esperanto from birth.
Esperanto has a notable presence in 120[6] countries. 1.1 Creation
Its usage is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South
America.[7]
The rst World Congress of Esperanto was organized in
France in 1905. Since then, congresses have been held in
various countries every year, with the exceptions of years
during the world wars. Although no country has adopted
Esperanto ocially, Esperanto was recommended by the
French Academy of Sciences in 1921 and recognized
by UNESCO in 1954, which recommended to international non-government organizations to use Esperanto in
1985. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) 1980 Manila Manifesto was calling the
tourism industry to use Esperanto for better human resources. Esperanto was the 32nd language accepted as
adhering to the "Common European Framework of Reference for Languages" in 2007.[8]
Esperanto is currently the language of instruction of the
International Academy of Sciences in San Marino.[9]
There is evidence that learning Esperanto may provide a
superior foundation for learning languages in general, and
some primary schools teach it as preparation for learning
other foreign languages.[10]
Esperanto has a notable online presence. lernu!, the most
popular online learning platform of Esperanto, reported
150,000 registered users in 2013, and sees between
150,000 and 200,000 visitors each month.[11] With about The rst Esperanto book by L. L. Zamenhof.
209,000 articles, Esperanto Wikipedia is the 32nd-largest
Wikipedia as measured by the number of articles,[12] and
Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s
the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language.[13] On
by L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish-Jewish ophthalmologist from
22 February 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as
Biaystok, then part of the Russian Empire. According
1

HISTORY

to Zamenhof, he created the language to foster harmony

between people from dierent countries. His feelings and
the situation in Biaystok may be gleaned from an extract
from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:[17]
The place where I was born and spent
my childhood gave direction to all my future
struggles. In Biaystok the inhabitants were
divided into four distinct elements: Russians,
Poles, Germans and Jews; each of these spoke
their own language and looked on all the others
as enemies. In such a town a sensitive nature
feels more acutely than elsewhere the misery
caused by language division and sees at every
step that the diversity of languages is the rst,
or at least the most inuential, basis for the
separation of the human family into groups
of enemies. I was brought up as an idealist; I
was taught that all people were brothers, while
outside in the street at every step I felt that
there were no people, only Russians, Poles,
Germans, Jews and so on. This was always
a great torment to my infant mind, although
many people may smile at such an 'anguish
for the world' in a child. Since at that time I
thought that 'grown-ups were omnipotent, so
I often said to myself that when I grew up I
would certainly destroy this evil.
L. L. Zamenhof, in a letter to Nikolai
Borovko, ca. 1895

After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof

spent translating literature into Esperanto as well as writing original prose and verse, the rst book of Esperanto
grammar was published in Warsaw on the 26th of July
1887. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the
next few decades, at rst primarily in the Russian Empire
and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the
Americas, China, and Japan. In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals, but in 1905 the rst world
congress of Esperanto speakers was held in Boulognesur-Mer, France. Since then world congresses have been
held in dierent countries every year, except during the
two World Wars. Since the Second World War, they have
been attended by an average of more than 2,000 people
and up to 6,000 people.
Zamenhofs name for the language was simply Internacia
Lingvo (International Language).[18]

1.2

Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905.

tiethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its ocial language.
However, time was running out for the tiny territory. Neither Belgium nor Prussia (now within the German Empire) had ever surrendered its original claim to it. Around
1900, Germany in particular was taking a more aggressive stance towards the territory and was accused of sabotage and of obstructing the administrative process in order to force the issue. It was the First World War, however, that was the catalyst that brought about the end of
neutrality. On August 4, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, leaving Moresnet at rst an oasis in a desert of
destruction.[19] In 1915, the territory was annexed by the
Kingdom of Prussia, without international recognition.
After the Great War, there was a proposal for the League
of Nations to accept Esperanto as their working language,
following a report by Nitobe Inaz, an ocial delegate
of League of Nations during the 13th World Congress
of Esperanto in Prague. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate,
Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not like how the French
language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat, eectively wielding
his veto power to block the decision. However, two years
later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. For this
reason, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the
Esperanto movement. Anarchism as a political movement was very supportive during this time of anationalism
as well as of the Esperanto language.[20]

1.3 Responses of 20th-century totalitarian

regimes to Esperanto

Early proposals

Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many totalitarian

The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between states. The situation was especially pronounced in Nazi
what is today Belgium and Germany, had a sizable pro- Germany, Francoist Spain, and the Soviet Union under
portion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and mul- Joseph Stalin.

7th Esperanto congress, Antwerp August 1911.

In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish. In his work, Mein
Kampf, Adolf Hitler specically mentioned Esperanto as
an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world
domination.[21] Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhofs family in particular singled out
for murder.[22] The eorts of some Esperantists to expel Jewish colleagues and align themselves with the Reich
were nally futile and Esperanto was forbidden in 1936.
Esperantists in German concentration camps taught the
language to fellow prisoners,[23] telling guards they were
teaching Italian, the language of one of Germanys Axis
allies.

Location of Moresnet.

beginning of the 20th century to establish Neutral Moresnet as the worlds rst Esperanto state. In addition, the
self-proclaimed articial island micronation of Rose Island used Esperanto as its ocial language in 1968. In
February 2013 an Avaaz petition was created to make
Esperanto one of the ocial languages of the European
Union.[28]

In Imperial Japan, the left-wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was persecuted, but its leaders were
careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were revolutionaries, which
proved a successful strategy.[24]
The US Army has published military phrase books in
In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto Esperanto,[29] to be used in war games by mock enemy
was given a measure of government support, and the forces. In the summer of 1924, the American Radio ReSoviet Esperanto Association was an ocially recognized lay League adopted Esperanto as its ocial international
organization.[25] The degree of support possibly existed auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be
because Stalin himself had studied Esperanto.[26] How- used by radio amateurs in international communications,
ever, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy. He denounced but its actual use for radio communications was negligiEsperanto as the language of spies and had Esperantists ble.
exiled or executed. The use of Esperanto was eectively Esperanto is the working language of several nonbanned until 1956.[25]
prot international organizations such as the Sennacieca
Fascist Italy, however, allowed the use of Esperanto nd- Asocio Tutmonda, a left-wing cultural association, or
ing its phonology similar to that of Italian and publishing Education@Internet, which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specically Essome tourist material in the language.
peranto organizations. The largest of these, the World
After the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain persecuted
Esperanto Association, has an ocial consultative relaanarchists and Catalan nationalists, among whom the use
tionship with the United Nations and UNESCO, which
[27]
but in the 1950s the Esof Esperanto was extensive,
recognized Esperanto as a medium for international unperanto movement was tolerated again.
derstanding in 1954.[30] Esperanto is also the rst language of teaching and administration of one university,
the International Academy of Sciences San Marino.[9]

Ocial use

All the personal documents issued by the World Service

Authority, including the World Passport, are written in
Esperanto has not been a secondary ocial language of Esperanto, together with English, French, Spanish, Rusany recognized country. However, there were plans at the sian, Arabic, and Chinese.[31]

3
3.1

Linguistic properties
Classication

As a constructed language, most scholars would say

Esperanto is not genealogically related to any natural
language. The phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and
semantics are based on the Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. The sound inventory is essentially Slavic,
as is much of the semantics, whereas the vocabulary derives primarily from the Romance languages, with a lesser
contribution from Germanic languages and minor contributions from Slavic languages and Greek. Pragmatics
and other aspects of the language not specied by Zamenhofs original documents were inuenced by the native languages of early authors, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French. However, Paul Wexler proposes that Esperanto is relexied Yiddish, which in turn
he claims is a relexied Slavic language.[3]

LINGUISTIC PROPERTIES

if debated, assimilation includes the pronunciation of nk

as [k] and kz as [z].
A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to
three in initial position (as in stranga, strange) and four
in medial position (as in instrui, teach). Final clusters
are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of
nal o, and a very few basic words such as cent hundred
and post after.

3.2.2 Vowels
Esperanto has the ve cardinal vowels found in such languages as Spanish, Swahili, Tagalog, Modern Hebrew,
and Modern Greek:
There are also two semivowels, /i/ and /u/, which combine
with the cardinal vowels to form six falling diphthongs: aj,
ej, oj, uj, a, and e.

Esperanto has been described as a language lexically

predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively
agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in
character.[32] Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions
and a pragmatic word order that by default is subject
verbobject. Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the
noun is more common. New words are formed through
extensive prexing and suxing.

Since there are only ve vowels, a good deal of variation

in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance, e commonly
ranges from [e] (French ) to [] (French ). These details
often depend on the speakers native language. A glottal
stop may occur between adjacent vowels in some peoples
speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in
heroo hero ([he.ro.o] or [he.ro.o]) and praavo greatgrandfather ([pra.a.vo] or [pra.a.vo]).

3.2

3.3 Alphabet

Phonology

Main article: Esperanto phonology

Main article: Esperanto orthography

Esperanto has 23 consonants, ve vowels, and two

semivowels that combine with the vowels to form six
diphthongs. (The consonant /j/ and semivowel /i/ are both
written j, and the uncommon consonant /dz/ is written
with the digraph dz,[33] which is the only consonant that
doesn't have its own letter.) Tone is not used to distinguish meanings of words. Stress is always on the secondlast vowel in fully Esperanto words unless a nal vowel
o is elided, which occurs mostly in poetry. For example, familio family is [fa.mi.li.o], with the stress on the
second i, but when the word is used without the nal o
(famili), the stress remains on the second i: [fa.mi.li].

The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script, using

a one-sound-one-letter principle. It includes six letters
with diacritics: , , , , (with circumex), and (with
breve). The alphabet does not include the letters q, w,
x, or y, which are only used when writing unassimilated
foreign terms or proper names.

3.2.1

Consonants

The 23 consonants are:

The sound /r/ is usually trilled [r], but may be tapped [].
The /v/ is normally pronounced like English v, but may
be pronounced [] (between English v and w) or [w], depending on the language background of the speaker. A
semivowel /u / normally occurs only in diphthongs after
the vowels /a/ and /e/, not as a consonant /w/. Common,

The 28-letter alphabet is:

abcdefghijklmnoprstuvz
All unaccented letters are pronounced approximately as
in the IPA, with the exception of c. Esperanto j and c are
used in a way familiar to speakers of many European languages, but which is largely unfamiliar to English speakers: j has a y sound, as in yellow and boy, and c has a ts
sound, as in hits or the zz in pizza.[34] The accented letters
are a bit like h-digraphs in English: is pronounced like
English ch, and like sh. is the g in gem, a zh sound,
as in fusion or French Jacques, and the rare is like the
German Bach, older Scottish English loch, or how Scouse
people pronounce the 'k' in book and 'ck' in chicken.

3.5
3.3.1

Vocabulary

Writing diacritics

that the word is a noun, -j- indicates the plural, and n indicates the accusative. Adjectives agree with their
Until the widespread adoption of Unicode, the letters with nouns; their endings are plural -aj (pronounced eye),
diacritics (found in the Latin-Extended A section of accusative -an, and plural accusative -ajn (rhymes with
the Unicode Standard) caused problems with printing and ne).
computing. This was particularly true of the ve letters The sux -n, besides indicating the direct object, is used
with circumexes, as they do not occur in any other lan- to indicate movement and a few other things as well.
guage. These problems have abated, and are now normally seen only with computing applications that are lim- The six verb inections consist of three tenses and three
ited to ASCII characters (typically internet chat systems moods. They are present tense -as, future tense -os, past
tense -is, innitive mood -i, conditional mood -us and
and databases).
jussive mood -u (used for wishes and commands). Verbs
There are two principal workarounds to this problem, are not marked for person or number. Thus, kanti means
which substitute digraphs for the accented letters. Za- to sing, mi kantas means I sing, vi kantas means you
menhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an h- sing, and ili kantas means they sing.
convention, which replaces , , , , , and with ch,
gh, hh, jh, sh, and u, respectively. If used in a database, a Word order is comparatively free. Adjectives may preprogram in principle could not determine whether to ren- cede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may
der, for example, ch as c followed by h or as , and would occur in any order. However, the article la the,
fail to render, for example, the word senchava properly. demonstratives such as tiu that and prepositions (such
A more recent "x-convention" has gained ground since as e at) must come before their related nouns. Simithe advent of computing. This system replaces each dia- larly, the negative ne not and conjunctions such as kaj
critic with an x (not part of the Esperanto alphabet) after and and ke that must precede the phrase or clause that
the letter, producing the six digraphs cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, and they introduce. In copular (A = B) clauses, word order is
just as important as in English: people are animals is
ux.
distinguished from animals are people.
There are computer keyboard layouts that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically replaces x- or h-convention digraphs with the 3.5 Vocabulary
corresponding diacritic letters (EK for Microsoft Windows[35] and Esperanta Klavaro for Windows Phone[36] Main article: Esperanto vocabulary
are examples). Another example is the Esperanto
Wikipedia, which accepts the x-convention for input:
when a contributor types cx when editing an article, it The core vocabulary of Esperanto was dened by Lingvo
will appear as the correct in the article text. (The in- internacia, published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book
put pane also accepts ; when the page is saved, it will be listed 900 roots; these could be expanded into tens of
changed to cx, so that the x-convention applies uniformly thousands of words using prexes, suxes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the rst Esin the wikitext.)
peranto dictionary, Universala Vortaro, which had a
larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed
speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recom3.4 Grammar
mended, however, that speakers use most international
forms and then derive related meanings from these.
Main article: Esperanto grammar
Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily
(but not solely) from the European languages. Not all
Esperanto words are derived by stringing together proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do,
prexes, roots, and suxes. This process is regular, so especially technical and scientic terms. Terms for everythat people can create new words as they speak and be un- day use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived
derstood. Compound words are formed with a modier- from existing roots; komputilo computer, for instance,
rst, head-nal order, as in English (compare birdsong is formed from the verb komputi compute and the sux
and songbird, and likewise, birdokanto and kantobirdo). -ilo tool. Words are also calqued; that is, words acquire
The dierent parts of speech are marked by their own new meanings based on usage in other languages. For exsuxes: all common nouns end in -o, all adjectives in -a, ample, the word muso mouse has acquired the meaning
all derived adverbs in -e, and all verbs in one of six tense of a computer mouse from its usage in English. Esperanto
and mood suxes, such as the present tense -as.
speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowPlural nouns used as grammatical subjects end in -oj (pro- ing is justied or whether meaning can be expressed by
nounced like English oy), whereas their singular direct deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.
object forms end in -on. Plural direct objects end with Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are
the combination -ojn (rhymes with coin); -o- indicates not entirely straightforward; for example, eldoni, literally

4 EDUCATION

give out, means publish, paralleling the usage of cer- 4 Education

tain European languages (such as German). In addition,
the sux -um- has no dened meaning; words using the The majority of Esperanto speakers learn the language
sux must be learned separately (such as dekstren to the through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correright and dekstrumen clockwise).
spondence courses taught by volunteers. In more recent
There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Es- years, free teaching websites, like lernu!, have become
peranto, as these forms of speech tend to make inter- popular.
national communication dicultworking against Es- Esperanto instruction is occasionally available at schools,
perantos main goal.
including four primary schools in a pilot project under
the supervision of the University of Manchester, and by
one count at 69 universities.[38] However, outside China
3.6 Useful phrases
and Hungary, these mostly involve informal arrangements rather than dedicated departments or state sponBelow are listed some useful Esperanto words and phrases
sorship. Etvs Lornd University in Budapest had a
along with IPA transcriptions:
department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966
to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto
3.7 Sample text
instructors.[39][40] Additionally, Adam Mickiewicz Uni[41]
The following short extract gives an idea of the charac- versity in Poland oers a diploma in Interlinguistics.
ter of Esperanto.[37] (Pronunciation is covered above; the The Senate of Brazil passed a bill in 2009 that would
make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in
Esperanto letter j is pronounced like English y.)
public schools, although mandatory if there is demand for
it. As of 2012 the bill is still under consideration by the
Esperanto:
Chamber of Deputies.[42][43][44]
En multaj lokoj de inio estis temploj de la
drako-reo. Dum trosekeco oni preis en la
temploj, ke la drako-reo donu pluvon al la
homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de
la supernatura estao. Kaj pli poste, i fariis
prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan atoritaton de feda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas lo
de la drako. iuj liaj vivbezonaoj portis la
nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakoguroj. Nun ie en inio videblas
drako-ornamentaoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri
drakoj.
English translation:
In many places in China, there were temples of
the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragonking would give rain to the human world. At
that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural. Later on, it became the ancestor of
the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute
authority of the feudal emperor. The emperor
claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his
personal possessions carried the name dragon
and were decorated with various dragon gures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons
circulate.

Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be

learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the
amount of time required for other languages.[45] Claude
Piron, a psychologist formerly at the University of Geneva
and ChineseEnglishRussianSpanish translator for the
United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more intuitive than many ethnic languages. Esperanto relies entirely on innate reexes [and] diers from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency
to generalize patterns. [...] The same neuropsychological
law [called by] Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation
applies to word formation as well as to grammar.[46]
The Institute of Cybernetic Pedagogy at Paderborn (Germany) has compared the length of study time it takes
natively French-speaking high-school students to obtain
comparable 'standard' levels in Esperanto, English, German, and Italian.[47] The results were:
2000 hours studying German = 1500 hours studying English = 1000 hours studying Italian (or any
other Romance language) = 150 hours studying Esperanto.

4.1 Language acquisition

Main article: Propaedeutic value of Esperanto
Four primary schools in Britain, with some 230
pupils, are currently following a course in "propaedeutic
Esperantothat is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness and accelerate subsequent learning of

5.1

Geography and demography

foreign languagesunder the supervision of the Univer- 5.1.1 Number of speakers

sity of Manchester. As they put it,
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was
made by Sidney S. Culbert, a retired psychology profesMany schools used to teach children the
sor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperrecorder, not to produce a nation of recorder
antist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers
players, but as a preparation for learning other
in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of
instruments. [We teach] Esperanto, not to protwenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and
duce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a
two million people speak Esperanto at Foreign Service
[48]
preparation for learning other languages.
Level 3, professionally procient (able to communicate
moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to folStudies have been conducted in New Zealand,[49] United low speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).[61] Culberts estiStates,[50][51][52] Germany,[53] Italy[54] and Australia.[55] mate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part
The results of these studies were favorable and demon- of his listing of estimates for all languages of more than
strated that studying Esperanto before another foreign one million speakers, published annually in the World Allanguage expedites the acquisition of the other, natural, manac and Book of Facts. Culberts most detailed aclanguage. This appears to be because learning subse- count of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to
quent foreign languages is easier than learning ones rst David Wol.[62] Since Culbert never published detailed
foreign language, whereas the use of a grammatically intermediate results for particular countries and regions,
simple and culturally exible auxiliary language like Es- it is dicult to independently gauge the accuracy of his
peranto lessens the rst-language learning hurdle. In one results.
study,[56] a group of European secondary school students
In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language
studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three
speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the
years, and ended up with a signicantly better command
number for Esperanto speakers is shown as two million.
of French than a control group, who studied French for
This latter gure appears in Ethnologue. Assuming that
all four years. Similar results have been found for other
this gure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the
combinations of native and second languages, as well as
worlds population speaks the language. Although it is not
for arrangements in which the course of study was reZamenhofs goal of a universal language, it still represents
duced to two years, of which six months is spent learning
a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed
[55]
Esperanto.
language.

5
5.1

Community
Geography and demography

Location map of hosts of the Esperanto community hospitality

service Pasporta Servo (akin to CouchSurng), by 2005.

Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken constructed

language in the world.[57] Speakers are most numerous in
Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where
they often form Esperanto clubs.[58] Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of
Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia;[24]
in Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico in the Americas;[59] and
in Togo in Africa.[60]

Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this

gure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that
even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would
lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne. Van
Dijk nds only 30 uent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected gures in several other places
thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of
Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total
of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are
undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely
that there are fty times more speakers than organization
members.[58]
Finnish linguist Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born
Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme[1]
to show the overall proportions of language capabilities
within the Esperanto community:
1,000 have Esperanto as their native language.
10,000 speak it uently.
100,000 can use it actively.
1,000,000 understand a large amount passively.

5 COMMUNITY
10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some
time.

Esperantists can access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature.
There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both origIn the absence of Dr. Culberts detailed sampling data, or inals and translations, as well as several regularly disIn 2013 a museum about
any other census data, it is impossible to state the number tributed Esperanto magazines.
[69]
Esperanto
opened
in
China.
Esperantists use the lanof speakers with certainty. According to the website of
guage
for
free
accommodations
with Esperantists in 92
the World Esperanto Association:
countries using the Pasporta Servo or to develop pen
pal friendships abroad through the Esperanto Pen Pal
Numbers of textbooks sold and membership of
Service.[70]
local societies put the number of people with
Every year, 1,5003,000 Esperantists meet for the World
some knowledge of the language in the hunCongress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso de Es[63]
dreds of thousands and possibly millions.
peranto).[71][72]
Historically, much Esperanto music, such as Kaj Tiel Plu,
has been in various folk traditions.[73] There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both
original and translated, as well as large ensemble music
that includes voices singing Esperanto texts. Lou Harrison, who incorporated styles and instruments from many
world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or
texts in several of his works, most notably La Koro-Sutro
(1973). David Gaines used Esperanto poems as well as
5.1.2 Native speakers
an excerpt from a speech by Dr. Zamenhof for his Symphony No. 1 (Esperanto) for mezzo-soprano and orchesMain article: Native Esperanto speakers
tra (199498). He wrote original Esperanto text for his
Povas plori mi ne plu (I Can Cry No Longer) for unaccomNative Esperanto speakers, denaskuloj, have learned the panied SATB choir (1994).
language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents.[59]
This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only There are also shared traditions, such as Zamenhof Day,
common language in an international family, but some- and shared behaviour patterns. Esperantists speak pritimes occurs in a family of devoted Esperantists.[66] The marily in Esperanto at international Esperanto meetings.
15th edition of Ethnologue cited estimates that there were Detractors of Esperanto occasionally criticize it as hav200 to 2,000 native speakers in 1996,[67] but these gures ing no culture. Proponents, such as Prof. Humphrey
were removed from the 16th and 17th editions.[68]
Tonkin of the University of Hartford, observe that Esperanto is culturally neutral by design, as it was intended
to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier
5.2 Culture
of any one national culture. The late Scottish Esperanto
author William Auld wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is the expression of a common human culture, unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it
is considered a culture on its own.[74]
In 2009 Lu Wunsch-Rolshoven used 2001 year census
data[64] from Hungary[65] and Lithuania as a base for an
estimate, resulting in approximately 160,000 to 300,000
to speak the language actively or uently throughout the
world, with about 80,000 to 150,000 of these being in the
European Union.

5.3 Noted authors in Esperanto

Main article: Esperanto authors
Some authors of works in Esperanto are:

5.4 Popular culture

Main article: Esperanto in popular culture
Esperanto has been used in a number of lms and novels. Typically, this is done either to add the exotic avour
Main articles: Esperanto culture, Esperanto literature, of a foreign language without representing any particuEsperanto lm and Esperanto music
lar ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language. The Charlie Chaplin lm The Great
Esperanto books at the World Esperanto Congress, Rotterdam
2008.

5.5

Science

9
Additionally many of the signs around the ship Red Dwarf
are written in both English and Esperanto. The novel
Innity Welcomes Careful Drivers states that, although not
required, it is widely expected that ocers in the Space
Corps be uent in the language, hence Rimmers interest.

5.5 Science

Scene from Chaplins The Great Dictator with a shop sign reading Vestaoj Malnovaj (Old Clothes).

Dictator (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shop signs in Esperanto. Two full-length feature lms have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: Angoroj, in
1964, and Incubus, a 1965 B-movie horror lm. Other
amateur productions have been made, such as a drama- Hungarian astronaut Bertalan Farkas, the rst Esperantist in
tisation of the novel Gerda Malaperis (Gerda Has Dis- space.
appeared). A number of mainstream lms in national
In 1921 the French Academy of Sciences recomlanguages have used Esperanto in some way.
mended using Esperanto for international scientic
Esperanto is used as the universal language in the communication.[75] A few scientists and mathematicians,
far future of Harry Harrison's Stainless Steel Rat and such as Maurice Frchet (mathematics), John C. Wells
Deathworld stories. Poul Anderson's story "High Trea- (linguistics), Helmar Frank (pedagogy and cybernetics),
son" takes place in a future where Earth became united and Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten (economics) have
politically but was still divided into many languages and published part of their work in Esperanto. Frank and
cultures, and Esperanto became the language of its space Selten were among the founders of the International
armed forces, ghting wars with various extraterrestrial Academy of Sciences in San Marino, sometimes called
races.
the Esperanto University, where Esperanto is the priThe opening song to the popular video game Final Fan- mary language of teaching and administration.[76][77]
tasy XI, 'Memoro de la tono', was written in Esperanto. A message in Esperanto was recorded and included in
It was the rst game in the series that was played online, Voyager 1's Golden Record.
and would have players from both Japan and North America (ocial European support was added after the North
American launch) playing together on the same servers, 5.6 Commerce and trade
using an auto-translate tool to communicate. The composer, Nobuo Uematsu, felt that Esperanto was a good Esperanto business groups have been active for many
language to symbolize worldwide unity.
years. The French Chamber of Commerce did research
Esperanto is also found in the comic book series Saga as in the 1920s and reported in The New York Times in
the language Blue, spoken by the inhabitants of Wreath. 1921 that[78]Esperanto seemed to be the best business
It is rendered in blue-colored text. Blue is generally only language.
spoken by inhabitants of Wreath, while most other cultures use a universal language that appears to be simply
named Language. Some Wreath inhabitants use translator rings to communicate with those who don't speak
Blue. Magic seems to be activated via the linguistic
medium of blue.
In the television show Red Dwarf, the bulk of which takes
place more than three million years in the future, crewman Arnold Rimmer constantly spends his time trying to
learn Esperanto and failing, even compared to his bunkmate Dave Lister who only maintains a casual interest.

5.7 Goals of the movement

Zamenhofs intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to
serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as
a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto
speakers in the early decades of the movement. Later,
Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves,

10

5 COMMUNITY

even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations cism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the melor other international organizations.[75]
ono (melon) because of the designs elliptical shape. It
Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional
[84]
adopted ocially or on a large scale worldwide are com- symbol, known as the verda stelo (green star).
monly called nvenkistoj, from na venko, meaning nal
victory, or pracelistoj, from pracelo, meaning original
goal.[79] Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the
language are commonly called ramistoj, from Rauma,
Finland, where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the na venko and the value of Esperanto
culture was made at the International Youth Congress in
1980.[80]

5.9 Politics

Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political

situations. The most popular of these is the Europe
Democracy Esperanto, which aims to establish Esperanto as the ocial language of the European Union.
Grins Report, published in 2005 by Franois Grin found
The Prague Manifesto (1996) presents the views of that the use of English as the lingua franca within the
the mainstream of the Esperanto movement and of its European Union costs billions annually and signicantly
main organisation, the World Esperanto Association benets English-speaking countries nancially. The re(UEA).[81]
port considered a scenario where Esperanto would be the
lingua franca and found that it would have many advantages, particularly economically speaking, as well as ide5.8 Symbols and ags
ologically.
Main article: Esperanto symbols
Esperanto symbols

5.10 Religion
Esperanto has served an important role in several religions, such as Oomoto from Japan and the Baha'i Faith
from Iran, and has been encouraged by others, like some
Spiritist movements.

5.10.1 Oomoto
The verda stelo

The Oomoto religion encourages the use of Esperanto

among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its
deied spirits.[85]

5.10.2 Bah' Faith

The jubilea simbolo

The Bah' Faith encourages the use of an auxiliary international language. The Baha'is believe that it will not be
the language of the future, although it has great potential
in this role, as it has not been chosen by the people.[86] L.
L. Zamenhof's daughter Lidja became a Bah',[87] and
various volumes of the Bah' literatures and other Baha'i
books have been translated into Esperanto. In 1973, the
Bah' Esperanto-League for active Bah' supporters of
Esperanto was founded.

The earliest ag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green ve-pointed star against a white
canton, upon a eld of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by Irishman Richard Geoghegan, author of the rst
Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The
ag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the rst conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer. A version with
an E superimposed over the green star is sometimes
seen. Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the 5.10.3 Spiritism
green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the eld
changed from green to red.[82]
In 1908, spiritist Camilo Chaigneau wrote an article
In 1987, a second ag design was chosen in a contest named Spiritism and Esperanto in the periodic La Vie
organized by the UEA celebrating the rst centennial d'Outre-Tombe recommending the use of Esperanto in
of the language. It featured a white background with a central magazine for all spiritists and esperantists.
two stylised curved E"s facing each other. Dubbed the Esperanto then became actively promoted by spiritists,
jubilea simbolo (jubilee symbol),[83] it attracted criti- at least in Brazil, initially by Ismael Gomes Braga and

11
Frantiek Lorenz; the latter is known in Brazil as Francisco Valdomiro Lorenz, and was a pioneer of both spiritist and Esperantist movements in this country.[88]

1911 The International Christian Esperantists

League.

The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto Individual churches using Esperanto include:
coursebooks, translations of Spiritisms basic books, and
encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.[89]
The Quaker Esperanto Society, with activities as described in an issue of The Friend[91]
5.10.4

Bible translations

The rst translation of the Bible into Esperanto was a

translation of the Tanakh or Old Testament done by L.
L. Zamenhof. The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages translations by a group of
British clergy and scholars before its publication at the
British and Foreign Bible Society in 1910. In 1926 this
was published along with a New Testament translation,
in an edition commonly called the Londona Biblio. In
the 1960s, the Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto
Bible version.[90] Since then, the Dutch Remonstrant pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the Deuterocanonical
or apocryphal books in addition to new translations of
the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and
some books of the Tanakh or Old Testament. These have
been published in various separate booklets, or serialized
in Dia Regno, but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the Londona Biblio.

5.10.5

Christianity

1910 First Christadelphian publications in

Esperanto.[92][93]
There are instances of Christian apologists and
teachers who use Esperanto as a medium. Nigerian
pastor Bayo Afolaranmis "Spirita nutrao" (spiritual
food) Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted
weekly messages since 2003.[94]
Chick Publications, publisher of Protestant fundamentalist themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of
comic book style tracts by Jack T. Chick translated into
Esperanto, including This Was Your Life!" (Jen Via
Tuta Vivo!")[95]
5.10.6 Islam
Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran called on Muslims to learn
Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of dierent religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international lingua franca, it began to be
used in the seminaries of Qom. An Esperanto translation of the Qur'an was published by the state shortly
thereafter.[96][97] In 1981, its usage became less popular when it became apparent that followers of the Bah'
Faith were interested in it.[96]

6 Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Esperanto
Esperanto was conceived as a language of international
communication, more precisely as a universal second language.[98] Since publication, there has been debate over
whether it is possible for Esperanto to attain this posiMass in Esperanto during the 95th World Congress of Esperanto tion, and whether it would be an improvement for internain Havana.
tional communication were it to do so; Esperanto proponents have also been criticized for diverting public funds
Christian Esperanto organizations include two that were to encourage its study over more-useful living world lanformed early in the history of Esperanto:
guages.[99]
1910 The International Union of Catholic Esperantists. Two Roman Catholic popes, John Paul II
and Benedict XVI, have regularly used Esperanto in
their multilingual urbi et orbi blessings at Easter and
Christmas each year since Easter 1994.

Since Esperanto is a planned language, there have been

many criticisms of minor points.[100] An example is Zamenhofs choice of the word edzo over something like
spozo for husband, spouse,[101] or his choice of the Classic Greek and Old Latin singular and plural endings o, -oj, -a, -aj over their Medieval contractions -o, -i, -

12
a, -e. (Both these changes were adopted by the Ido reform, though Ido dispensed with adjectival agreement altogether.) Some more common examples of general criticism include the following:
Esperanto has not yet achieved the hopes of its
founder to become a universal second language.
Although many promoters of Esperanto stress the
successes it has had, the fact remains that well
over a century since its publication, the Esperantospeaking community remains comparatively tiny
with respect to the world population. In the case
of the United Kingdom, for instance, Esperanto is
rarely taught in schools, because it is regarded by the
government as not meeting the needs of the national
curriculum.[102] Many critics see its aspirations for
the role of a preponderant international auxiliary
language as doomed because they believe it cannot
compete with English in this regard.

EPONYMOUS ENTITIES

way it is (in their view) misused by many (mostly

European) speakers; they argue that compounds
or derivations should be used whenever possible,
and new root words borrowed only when absolutely
necessary.[110][111]
Esperanto asymmetry in gender formation makes
it sexist.[108] Most kin terms and titles are masculine by default and only feminine when so specied.
There have been many attempts to address this issue, of which one of the better known is iism[112]
(used by the Esperantist writer Jorge Camacho),[113]
from which Riism derived.
Esperanto is, looks, and/or sounds articial. This
criticism is often due to the letters with circumex diacritics, which some nd odd or cumbersome, along with their being invented specically
for Esperanto rather than borrowed from existing
languages; as well as being arguably unnecessary,
as for example with the use of instead of w.[108]
Others claim that an articial language will necessarily be decient, due to its very nature,[114] although the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has
found that Esperanto fullls all the requirements of
a living language.[115] In Culture and Value, Ludwig
Wittgenstein said:

The vocabulary and grammar are based on major

European languages, and are not universal. Simultaneously, the vocabulary, diacritic letters,[101] and
grammar are too dissimilar from the major European languages, and therefore Esperanto is not as
easy as it could be for speakers of those languages
to learn, even though it is much easier to learn than
any other European language.[103][104] The too EuEsperanto. The feeling of disgust we
ropean criticism is often specic to a few points
get if we utter an invented word with insuch as adjectival agreement and the accusative case
vented derivative syllables. The word is
(generally such obvious details are all that reform
cold, lacking in associations, and yet it
projects suggest changing), but sometimes it is more
plays at being language. A system of
general: Both the grammar and the 'international'
purely written signs would not disgust us
vocabulary are dicult for many Asians, among
so much.[116]
others, and give an unfair advantage to speakers
of European languages.[105] One attempt to address
this issue is Lojban, which draws from six languages,
7 Modications
Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi, Russian,
and Spanish, and whose grammar is designed for
computer parsing.[106] Attempts to address the not Main article: Esperantido
European enough criticism include the younger
planned languages Ido and Interlingua.[107]
Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the pub Either that Esperanto has no native culture,[108] or lication of the Fundamento de Esperanto (Foundation of
that Esperanto culture is Euro-centric. Although it Esperanto), a number of reform projects have been prohas a large international literature, Esperanto does posed over the years, starting with Zamenhofs proposals
not encapsulate a specic culture. Its vocabulary in 1894 and Ido in 1907. Several later constructed lanand semantics are derived from European languages. guages, such as Universal, were based on Esperanto.
Both infuse the language with a European world In modern times, attempts have been made to eliminate
view.[109]
perceived sexism in the language. One example of this is
Riism. However, as Esperanto has become a living lan The vocabulary is too large. Rather than deriving
guage, changes are as dicult to implement as in ethnic
new words from existing roots, large numbers of
languages.
new roots are adopted into the language with the intent of being internationally accommodating when
in reality the language only caters to European languages. This makes the language more dicult 8 Eponymous entities
for non-Europeans than it needs to be.[105] A similar argument is made by many Esperanto speak- There are some geographical and astronomical features
ers, not against the language itself but against the named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamen-

13
hof. These include Esperanto Island in Zed Islands o
Livingston Island,[117] and the asteroids 1421 Esperanto
and 1462 Zamenhof discovered by Finnish astronomer
and Esperantist Yrj Visl.

See also
Distributed Language Translation
Color argument
Comparison between Esperanto and Ido
Comparison between Esperanto and Interlingua
Comparison between Esperanto and Novial
Encyclopedia of Esperanto
EoLA
ESP-Disk

[6] Universala Esperanto-Asocio:

Kio estas UEA?".
Uea.org. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
[7] User locations. Pasporta Servo. Retrieved 6 January
2014..
[8] edukado.net / Ekzamenoj / Referenckadro.
Edukado.net. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
[9] Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj (AIS) San-Marino.
Ais-sanmarino.org. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[10] YouTube: Learn Esperanto rst: Tim Morley at TEDxGranta
[11] La programo de la Kleriga lundo en UK 2013. Universala Esperanto Asocio. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
[12] List of Wikipedias. Meta.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 14
January 2015.
[13] List
of
Wikipedias
by
language
group.
Meta.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

Esperantic Studies Foundation

[14] Brants, Thorsten (February 22, 2012). Tutmonda

helplingvo por iuj homoj. Google Translate Blog.
Google. Retrieved August 14, 2012.

Esperanto library

[15] incubator.duolingo.com/courses/eo/en/status

Esperanto magazine

[16] Grin Report, page 81 Thus Flochon (2000: 109) notes

that 'the Institute of Cybernetic Education of Paderborn
(Germany) has compared the learning times of several
groups of French-speaking baccalaurat students to reach
an equivalent standard level in four dierent languages:
Esperanto, English, German and Italian. The results are as
follows: to reach this level, 2000 hours of German study
produce a linguistic level equivalent to 1500 hours of English study, 1000 hours of Italian study and ... 150 hours
of Esperanto study.' No comment. Other estimates scattered in the literature conrm faster achievement in target
language skills in Esperanto than in all the other languages
with which the comparison has been made (Ministry of
Education [Italy], 1995) as well as propaedeutic benets
of Esperanto (Corsetti and La Torre, 1995).

Esperanto Wikipedia
Esperantology
Esperantujo
lernu!
Indigenous Dialogues
North American Summer Esperanto Institute
Semajno de Kulturo Internacia

10

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14

10

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[34] These letters occasionally have these values in English
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Ethno-

[82] Flags of Esperanto. Flagspot.net. Retrieved 14 January

2015.

[60] Afrika Agado. Pagesperso-orange.fr. Retrieved 201012-05.

[83] Esperanto ag: The jubilee symbol. Fotw.net. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[61] Culbert, Sidney S. Three letters about his method for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers, scanned and
HTMLized by David Wol

[84] Esperanto ag. Fotw.net. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[62] Number of Esperantists (methods)". Panix.com. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[63]
[64] Popolnombradoj donas indikon pri la kvanto de esperantistoj Libera Folio (in Esperanto). Liberafolio.org.
Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[65] Population by knowledge of languages.
lalas.hu. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

Nepszam-

[66] Jouko Lindstedt (January 2006). Native Esperanto as

a Test Case for Natural Language (PDF). University of
Helsinki Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages
and Literatures.
[67] Esperanto reference at Ethnologue (15th ed., 2005)

[81]

[85] The Oomoto Esperanto portal. Oomoto.or.jp. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[86] The Baha'i Faith and Esperanto. Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo
( B.E.L. ). Retrieved 2006-08-26.
[87] Smith, Peter (2000). Zamenhof, Lidia. A concise encyclopedia of the Bah' Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. p. 368. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
[88] (Portuguese) O Espiritismo e o Esperanto (Spiritism and
Esperanto)
[89] Uma s lngua, uma s bandeira, um s pastor: Spiritism
and Esperanto in Brazil by David Pardue (PDF).
University of Kansas Libraries. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
[90] La Sankta Biblio Londona text"". Retrieved 2006-0826.

[68] Esperanto reference at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009)

[91] Eric Walker (May 27, 2005). Esperanto Lives On. The
Friend.

[69] Chinas rst Esperanto museum opens. Xinhuanet.com.

Retrieved 14 January 2015.

[92] Botten J. The Captive Conscience 2002 p.110 re. Esperanto speaking Christadelphians in Tsarist Russia.

[70]

[93] Internacia Biblio-Misio. Biblio-misio.org. Retrieved

2010-12-05.

[71] Ziko van Dijk. Sed homoj kun homoj: Universalaj Kongresoj de Esperanto 19052005. Rotterdam: UEA, 2005.
[72] Szilvsi Lszl. International Esperanto meetings.
Eventoj.hu. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[73] musicexpress.com.br. Musicexpress.com.br. Retrieved
14 January 2015.
[74] Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto (The Esperanto
Phenomenon).
Rotterdam: Universala EsperantoAsocio, 1988.
[75] Peter Glover Forster (1982). The Esperanto Movement.
Walter de Gruyter. p. 181. ISBN 978-90-279-3399-7.

[94] Bayo Afolaranmi. Spirita nutrao. Retrieved 2006-0913.

[95] Esperanto This Was Your Life"". Chick.com. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[96] Esperanto Have any governments opposed Esperanto?". Donald J. Harlow. Retrieved 2006-08-26.
[97] Esperanto in Iran (in Persian)". Porneniu. Retrieved
2006-08-26.
[98] Esperanto.org. Esperanto.org. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[99] Christopherculver.com. Christopherculver.com. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

[76] Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj rande de pereo.
Libera Folio (in Esperanto). 2011-09-05. Retrieved July
[100] There have been a number of attempts to reform the lan1, 2012.
guage, the most well-known of which is the language Ido
[77] Frank, Helmar; Fssmeier, Reinhard (2000). AIS La
which resulted in a schism in the community at the time,
Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino / Die Interbeginning in 1907. See Why Ido?" The International
nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften San Marino. InstiLanguage of Ido. 18 March 2008. 4 February 2009
Idolinguo.org.uk.
tut fr Kybernetik. p. 449. ISBN 9783929853124.

16

11 FURTHER READING

[101] Why Ido?" The International Language of Ido. 18 Mach

2008. 4 February 2009 Idolinguo.org.
[102] Who, What, Why? (2008-07-16). Bbc News. BBC
News. Retrieved 2010-12-05.

Ludovikologia dokumentaro I Tokyo: Ludovikito,

1991. Facsimile reprints of the Unua Libro in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish,
with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those
languages.

[103] Claude Piron, articles en anglais: Linguistic Communication - A Comparative Field Study"". Claudepiron.free.fr. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

Fundamento de Esperanto. HTML reprint of 1905

Fundamento, from the Academy of Esperanto.

[104] C.E. King, A.S. Bryntsev, F.D. Sohn, Report on the implications of additional languages in the United Nations
system, Geneva: UN, Joint Inspection Unit, 1977, document A/32/237

Esperanto Lessons. Including the alphabet, adjectives, nouns, plural, gender, numbers, phrases,
grammar, vocabulary, verbs, exam, audio, and
translation.

[105] Is Esperantos vocabulary bloated?". Rickharrison.com.

Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[106] Lojban. Neptune.spaceports.com. 2004-03-01. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[107] What is Esperanto?". Langsuuage-learning-advisor.com.
Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[108] Critiche all'esperanto ed alle altre lingue internazionali.
Parracomumangi.altervista.org. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
[109] Europes Babylon
[110] La Bona Lingvo, Claude Piron. Vienna: Pro Esperanto,
1989. La lingvo volas eleganti, ne elefanti. The language
wants to be elegant, not elephantine.
[111]

Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto (The Esperanto Phenomenon). Rotterdam: Universala

Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
Butler, Montagu C. Step by Step in Esperanto.
ELNA 1965/1991. ISBN 0-939785-01-3.
DeSoto, Clinton (1936). 200 Meters and Down.
West Hartford, Connecticut, US: American Radio
Relay League, p. 92.
Crystal, David, article Esperanto in The New Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, 2002.
Crystal, David, How Language Works (pages 424
5), Penguin Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-14-1015521.

[112] PMEG. Bertilow.com. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

Everson, Michael. The Alphabets of Europe: Esperanto PDF (25.4 KB). Evertype, 2001.

[113] Camacho, Jorge. Sur la linio. Rakontoj kaj noveloj de

Georgo Kamao. Enkonduko de Fernando de Diego.
Berkeley : Eldonejo Bero, 1991.

Forster, Peter G. The Esperanto Movement. The

Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982. ISBN 90-2793399-5.

[114] Claude Piron cites and replies to several such criticisms in

his Le D des Langues (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994).

Gledhill, Christopher. The Grammar of Esperanto:

A Corpus-Based Description. Second edition. Lincom Europa, 2000. ISBN 3-89586-961-9.

[115] La la komuna opinio de gvidaj fakuloj de la Instituto, Esperanto apartenas al la kategorio de vivaj lingvoj. Pli detale
traktante la temon, konsiderante la historion kaj la nunan
staton de Esperanto, a.) i estas grandmezure normigita,
b.) amplekse sociiinta, c.) ne-etna viva lingvo, kiu en
sekundara lingva komunumo plenumas iujn eblajn lingvajn funkciojn, kaj samtempe i funkcias kiel pera lingvo.
i supre diritaj respegulas la sciencan starpunkton de nia
Instituto. Malgranda na venko. El Hungario
[116] Wittgenstein on Esperanto. The Autodidact Project.
Retrieved 2012-07-17.
[117] Esperanto Island. Data.aad.gov.au. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

11

Further reading

Emily van Someren. Republication of the thesis

'The EU Language Regime, Lingual and Translational Problems.

Harlow, Don. The Esperanto Book. Self-published

on the web (199596).
Okrent, Arika. In the Land of Invented Languages.
Wells, John. Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto
(Linguistic aspects of Esperanto). Second edition.
Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus, Dr. Esperantos International Language: Introduction & Complete Grammar The original 1887 Unua Libro, English translation by Richard H. Geoghegan; HTML online version 2006. Print edition (2007) also available from
ELNA or UEA.
Patterson, Robert; Hu, Stanley M. (November
1999), The Decline and Fall of Esperanto, Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association
6 (6): 444446, doi:10.1136/jamia.1999.0060444,
PMC 61387, PMID 10579602

17

12

External links

Esperanto at DMOZ
UEA.org Website of the World Esperanto Association
Kurso Saluton! International Course
Lernu!
Esperanto Bookshelf at Project Gutenberg
Esperanta babilejo Esperanto chat
Eldonejo Mistera Sturno Short-story e-books with
linked dictionary dening all uncommon terms.
1985 UNESCO resolutions

18

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Esperanto Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto?oldid=642955411 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Chuck Smith, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Stephen Gilbert, Taw, Alex.tan, Danny, Fcueto, Walter, Phil Bordelon, Rootbeer, SimonP, Shii, DavidLevinson, Tox, Montrealais, Lefte, Modemac, Hephaestos, Soulpatch, Bdesham, Nealmcb, Patrick, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, EddEdmondson, EvanProdromou, Cprompt, Oliver Pereira, Talshiarr, Gdarin, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Chuck SMITH, SGBailey, Menchi, Ixfd64,
Zanimum, Cyde, TakuyaMurata, Gene Poole, Skysmith, SebastianHelm, ArnoLagrange, Ellywa, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, Mac,
Davidme, J'raxis, William M. Connolley, Baylink, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Pweemeeuw, Angela, Jebba, LittleDan, Ugen64, Error, Susurrus,
Kwekubo, Andres, Junesun, Jiang, Panoramix, GCarty, Samuel, Tobias Conradi, BRG, Etaoin, Ananaso, AhmadH, Ffransoo, Feedmecereal, Crusadeonilliteracy, Trainspotter, Timwi, Nohat, JonMoore, Ed Cormany, Lfh, N-true, Gebeleizis, Mw66, Doradus, WhisperToMe, Wik, Peregrine981, Pedant17, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Dogface, VeryVerily, Christopher Sundita, Shizhao, Finlay McWalter, Denelson83, Donarreiskoer, Vt-aoe, Robbot, Vardion, Astronautics, KeithH, Scriptwriter, Ly, Altenmann, Romanm, Modulatum,
Kokiri, Calmypal, Lowellian, Postdlf, Merovingian, Cxarli, Yacht, Auric, Timrollpickering, Iaen, Rasmus Faber, Intangir, UtherSRG,
Borislav, Rsnn, Vikreykja, Dmn, Berge, Adam78, Unfree, JamesMLane, Marnanel, Nadavspi, Seabhcan, Inter, Netoholic, Zigger, Monedula, Elf-friend, Oleg326756, Curps, Hans-Friedrich Tamke, LLarson, Rpyle731, Malyctenar, LarryGilbert, Daibhid C, Guanaco, Bsoft,
Proslaes, Node ue, Eequor, ArinArin, ElfMage, Chameleon, Delta G, KirbyMeister, Cam, SonicAD, Gyrofrog, Esrogs, Neilc, Pamri,
Zeimusu, Formeruser-81, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Antandrus, Blazotron, LudwigVan, DNewhall, M.Moehling, DenisMoskowitz, Pgreennch,
Marcos, Grossdomestic, Neutrality, Marcus2, Oknazevad, Sonett72, Montereyham, Lacrimosus, Esperant, Tier, N-k, Grstain, Noktulo,
Venu62, Poccil, Ultratomio, Alers, Jim Henry, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Rama, Schuetzm, Florian Blaschke, Wikiacc, Vapour, HeikoEvermann, Warpyght, Saintswithin, Ailanto, E03bf085, Stbalbach, Bender235, Deprifry, Kbh3rd, Plugwash, Evice,
CanisRufus, Remush, Mr. Billion, Livajo, Purplefeltangel, El C, Edwinstearns, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Digital.spy, Worldtraveller, Muntsh, MPS, Abisai, Jpgordon, Tgeller, Circeus, Irrbloss, Infocidal, John Vandenberg, Cmdrjameson, .:Ajvol:., Reuben,
Ziggurat, Phansen, Ahc, Zacharyburt, Thewayforward, B0at, DCEdwards1966, Polylerus, Dygituljunky, HasharBot, Jumbuck, Orzetto,
Alansohn, Blahma, Andrewpmk, Verdlanco, Sowelilitokiemu, Bantman, Lee S. Svoboda, Hohum, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, PaePae, Wtmitchell, Ish ishwar, Almafeta, WisTex, Garzo, Evil Monkey, Wyatts, IJzeren Jan, Ringbang, Goulo, Nightstallion, LukeSurl, Ceyockey,
KriZe, Mbere, Bobrayner, Angr, Starblind, Woohookitty, Jannex, Guy M, Uncle G, Sonnetjoy, Je3000, Apokrif, Amikeco, Joygerhardt,
Waldir, Wayward, Microx, Palica, Stevey7788, Johndoe85839, 0pera, Ashmoo, Graham87, TAKASUGI Shinji, BD2412, Monk, FreplySpang, Seyon, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Koavf, MarSch, Feydey, Kevinht, The wub, Jayson Virissimo, Heptor, FayssalF, FlaBot, Tuaw,
Duomillia, Theirishguyfromchi, Salim, Estrellador*, JDM1991, Gurch, Str1977, Sopiro, Joedeshon, Melancholie, Thecurran, BradBeattie,
Chobot, Cactus.man, Check two you, PhilipR, YurikBot, Wavelength, Tristatestar, Sean Et Cetera, Neitherday, Stan2525, Hairy Dude,
Waitak, RussBot, BruceDLimber, Lincolnite, Nataliatoombs, Briaboru, Trishkincade, GregorU, Eyeon, ChristianEdwardGruber, RadioFan, Hydrargyrum, Mithridates, Gaius Cornelius, Nicke L, Tavilis, Purodha, MosheA, Lalulilo, A314268, Stephen Burnett, Aeusoes1,
Wikipedia Loves Trolls, Goetzfoo, TheDeadlyShoe, Howcheng, Justin Biggs, Psychoslave, MSJapan, MaxVeers, BOT-Superzerocool,
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SFGiants, Thnidu, Nikkimaria, Skenmy, Arthur Rubin, Eduard Gherkin, Banana04131, Saizai, Gwylim a, Diddims, JLaTondre, Pdraic
MacUidhir, Curpsbot-unicodify, Smurfy, JDspeeder1, Minur, GrinBot, DVD R W, One, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Mr. ATOZ, Crystallina, A
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WildElf, Zekkelley, David G Brault, Kintetsubualo, Scott Paeth, Jdfoote, Armslurp, Athgorn, Macdu, Marc Kupper, Bluebot, Kharker,
Thegn, Thumperward, DroEsperanto, Bazonka, DoctorW, Ikiroid, JONJONAUG, Bowmanjj, DHN-bot, Zephyrad, Darth Panda, CJGB,
Tsca.bot, DelanoC, Tamfang, Xyzzyplugh, Edivorce, Aarondude919, Cameron Nedland, Khoikhoi, Mikefox, Jiddisch, Mustanglover,
Derek R Bullamore, DylanW, LeoNomis, Jesuschex, Curly Turkey, BobbyPeru, Nov ialiste, TenPoundHammer, Will Beback, Phillinz,
Runa27, The undertow, SashatoBot, Severisth, Swatjester, Guyjohnston, Nareek, John, KenFehling, Loodog, Clare., Korean alpha for
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Aplonis, JForget, Unidyne, Rfontaine, Shahzaad, Altales Teriadem, CmdrObot, The ed17, Jfnord, Macg4cubeboy, R9tgokunks, Pajast,
Neelix, Bobnorwal, Alton, Rogermexico, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Tono-bungay, Flowerpotman, KnightMove, Torvik, Nmajdan, Dougweller,
Starionwolf, Lee, Garik, Simplemime, Gimmetrow, Casliber, Joowwww, Thijs!bot, Kahastok, Dmrx, Imfafa, PaperTruths, Word.smith,
Keelm, Eb.eric, Escarbot, Nigel Wick, Gioto, SummerPhD, Stormyhawn, Zweifel, Eddyspeeder, Zofodraz, Silver eyes, JAnDbot, Deective, Ruari1988, Dsp13, Epeeeche, Quentar, 100110100, UtDicitur, Gavia immer, Andreas Toth, Magioladitis, Puellanivis, Bongwarrior,
T@nn, Shruth, Swpb, TARBOT, Echternacht, Mo-Slimy, P-TOR, Nyttend, Majorarcanum, Brusegadi, Objectivesea, Avicennasis, Indon,
Edmundwoods, Edward321, Pikolas, Oren0, MartinBot, Bradgib, Arjun01, Rettetast, Juansidious, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Raonisousa,
Hans W, Wiki Raja, Randfan, Freeboson, Ssolbergj, Joel Mc, Helenuh, JoDonHo, Maurice Carbonaro, SimpsonDG, Ian.thomson, Inexorability, Dawright12, Dahliarose, AntiSpamBot, Shomroni, SJP, Aisano, AnnaErshova, CBChamp, KirvesAxe, Bofoc Tagar, STBotD, Tygrrr,
Mattrogers, DorganBot, RjCan, Rmih, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Vilepluume, Dave Andrew, TheOtherJesse,
JoshuL, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Coldfrog, Ebay3, Deleet, Snorr, Comrade Graham, Li Mem, Bennyisraeli, Vaarsuvius, Andreas
Kaganov, Gekritzl, Elvo86, Martin451, LeaveSleaves, PDFbot, Rginns, Cremepu222, Osho-Jabbe, Welnias, Wassamatta, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Cnilep, AlleborgoBot, Scottywong, EmxBot, Esperanto41, Xett, Dogah, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, BotMultichill, VVVBot, RJaguar3,
Dddwwwhhh, Alex9788, Xenophon777, Flyer22, Qst, DanEdmonds, Adrianphull, Esperanta bonfaranto, Oxymoron83, Wiqiboy, Lisatwo,
BenoniBot, Fratrep, AcroX, Diego Grez, Mr White, Gixx, Pripensulo, UB65, Driftwood87, Ecthelion83, Circasix, Kalidasa 777, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Vonones, The benevolent dictator, Startswithj, TFCforever, Madzo, Mr. Granger, WikiBotas, Martarius, ClueBot,
Hofbauer, Timeineurope, Rjd0060, EoGuy, Wutsje, Boing! said Zebedee, Iuhkjhk87y678, P. S. Burton, Pernambuko, Sustainablefutures2015, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Ziko, MacedonianBoy, Wiki libs, Jmfarquhar, Max7437, Highy3442, Redthoreau,
Davidesperanto, LBEAR, Jauclair, DL1982, KuboF, Versus22, Canihaveacookie, Runefrost, Oceanbuddy, DumZiBoT, Spikey7, Youngwebprogrammer, Delicious carbuncle, Spitre, Jed 20012, FellGleaming, XalD, Ajcheema, NHJG, Renumeratedfrog, James Blanchett,
Lu Wunsch-Rolshoven, D.M. from Ukraine, Paulinobrener, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Chrisgledhill, Blcarson, Jafeluv, Yoenit, FokkerTISM, Betterusername, Cognati, Dazzsa, Spazmilk72, JTGlackin, MrOllie, Gizziiusa, Download, LaaknorBot, Carsphairn, Marthman
006, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Alan16, Function95, CountryBot, The Bushranger, Skippy le Grand Gourou,
Legobot, Zobango, Tucson Arizona Mexico, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Ajh1492, JessXe, Legobot II, PMLawrence, KamikazeBot,
Crkyes, Eduen, Eric-Wester, Hery-Tep Medu, Upstandingj, AnomieBOT, Foxd3, Iosko, Floozybackloves, JackieBot, Neptune5000, Govage, Wiki88V, Kingpin13, ChristopheS, Nick UA, Bluerasberry, 95jb14, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Elmmapleoakpine, Citation
bot, Er Cicero, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Jchthys, Lnkinparkfan556, Wellington grey, MauritsBot, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, TinucherianBot

13.2

Images

19

II, Txebixev, TechBot, Nasnema, ChildofMidnight, , Chinglash, Mlpearc, Klanestro, Srich32977, Like You Never Did See,
Azimsultan, Almabot, Fornitani, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Philip72, GhalyBot, MuedThud, Shadowjams, HollyHollyHolly, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Zero Douji, LucienBOT, Kittins oating in the sky yay, Chaperon Rouge, Outback the
koala, OgreBot, Mundart, Intelligentsium, Nolween, Seethefnords23, Pied-a-mer, Tszyn, Olnnu, Fti, TobeBot, Ora Unu, Wrapped in
Grey, Lotje, Persian knight shiraz, Pbrower2a, Exarion1, Dbmikus, Reaper Eternal, Tressif, Difu Wu, Updatehelper, TjBot, Likemonkeys,
123Mike456Winston789, Bossanoven, Noommos, UnProdigii, In ictu oculi, Jeeeeeeeeeebus, Archimedes In Blue, EmausBot, Pejokontakto, WikitanvirBot, Gtmattshortbus, Ianholst, ChuckSmith, Douwebeerda, Abu Amal Bahraini, GoingBatty, RA0808, Cocotte1920, Mo
ainm, SGC.Alex, Frglz, Mcfaggins, ZroBot, Learn to Read Latin, Catalaalatac, HardcoreGamer4Ever, H3llBot, Diego Grez Bot, Bxj,
SporkBot, Wingman4l7, Jamescb106, RMPK, Gordan12, Richard Tuckwell, Erget2005, BasilDiggswell, ChuispastonBot, Hajjmaster1,
Robin Lionheart, EdoBot, Iketsi, Vexillologist123, Chrislaing, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Thomassisson, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven,
Battlesnake1, ReecyBoy42, Chester Markel, Hazhk, Parcly Taxel, Mesoderm, O.Koslowski, Calisthenis, Og of Bashan, EzzetYou, Paul Desailly, Paul Joseph Desailly, Justinmeiche, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattleStarGalactica117, Sfelts21, Exgphe, Wbm1058, Cbrick77, BG19bot,
Rapn21, Wasbeer, Piotrrrr, Northamerica1000, , Interchangeable, AvocatoBot, Altar, Zvezdada, Min.neel, Toriean, MisterCSharp,
Uknow1andtwo645, RadicalRedRaccoon, Hwlyz, Cengime, Nicoleteeny, Lieutenant of Melkor, BattyBot, MiniCampos, Zhaofeng Li,
Miguellara, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Verdaarbo, JYBot, Tow, Dexbot, Giromin Cangiaxo, Lavojo, EliasOenal, Jewelfox, Sedssles1,
Dennydoo4, Gironauni, RobMidder,
, Jaxcp3, Jg6606, The Mol Man, Koriroxx, Epicgenius, UW Dawgs, Malapeinenglish, Darshit
Paramantharhamshankaran, Sonanto, Sinjoroeng, Tango303, Serpinium, Transphasic, Money money tickle parsnip, ReconditeRodent,
Eagle3399, Oliszydlowski, Taohinton, Spacenut42, Oltedal, Literally Satan, Terumimei, Meemo16, Monkbot, Barkhastic, Thedaydreamdragon, Ismaelmaavila, Zetey2, Nepetaleijon777, Rebelalliance352 and Anonymous: 957

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Images

File:1905-03-ge-frankf-mapo.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/1905-03-ge-frankf-mapo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from eo.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Ziko at eo.wikipedia
File:1911_Anvers_Congrs_Esperanto.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/1911_Anvers_Congr%
C3%A8s_Esperanto.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale ancienne Original artist: Unknown
File:Bertalan_Farkas_(Author_-_Rudolf_Csiba).jpg Source:
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Original artist: Rudolf Csiba
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Esperanto-meso_La_Habana_2010_(Peter_Knauer).jpg Source:
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Esperanto-meso_La_Habana_2010_%28Peter_Knauer%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marek
Blahu
File:Esperanto_spoken_article.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Esperanto_spoken_article.ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original
artist: Genjix + darkweasel. Genjix at en.wikipedia
File:Esperanto_star.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Esperanto_star.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Created by bdesham in Inkscape.
Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
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