Have Total Quality Management, Business

Process Re- Engineering and the Learning

Organisation been Replaced by
Knowledge Management?

(~rrlie

.111 E.Y/'/(lr(lIitlll
Rl'il'I'.'lId'

tJ Laic

SIIAHON

1M"

nYAN*

pO/)/I/driry

(1I1d

Criu urv .\J(IIl",~(,IIICllr

AND

If\.

.\JC'lllill,~.

JOHN

IIURII

Praaic!
Theories

'1'**'

TRO[)U( Tin,

ot.lI(Juahry Munagcrnenr (TQM). BlNU("S Proce-, R.el'llgll1cerillg (I:3PR).

rhc Lc.rrning Organisation (LO) .md Knowledge Management (KM) are
just four of 111.111)' 111.1I1JgCIl1l'lHtechniques that emerged ill till' Litter parr of the
zoth century All tour techniques have been called !:ld, or t:l~hiom, hv dcfuution
easy to dismi with each new idea repLlong the 1.I,t, KM hCllIg the LH<:,'<,t
technique. vubsuming the LO .md superseding TQM .md 13PR. However, just
becau-c these ininative-, art' labelled J~ faslnons. rhis docs not me.1I1that they do
not have enduring ctlects. "Man.rgemenr fl',hlOm are l10t cosmetu dud trivial.
Management t:"hl()Il' shape the management techmque-, th,rt thousands of
marugerv look to III order ro cope with extremely unporrant .md complex
man.rgcrial problem .. and challenges ,. (Abrahamson. 1\)1)(': 271)). In ,I turbulent
and l'h'lI1ging world there 1" J .. desperate quest" for new approaches to
11l,1l1,I~C11ll'1It (Eccle-, and Nohr ia, I \)\):l: z). Thi ... desper.mon has led to
dissansfiction with cxisnng paradigms of management .md rhe vc.irch tor new
P,ll';ILhgm\ (1-1 ,II1)CI .md Prahalad, I W..J.).
Tim paper examines the I:l..luon mcraphor as a descnpror tor the growrh and
decluie of management iuitiatives. In addition. the char.irtcrrsticv .uid hfecyclcs

Cit)' ( '1I111{'('<IIJ'
BII-'III1'SS School, Dubuu CII)' l 'lIi"CI'511)'

.... BII'<IIICS'<

**

Sc/I()(l/.

Dllb/1I1

ortads

,HId

fr-hions are ourlined.The

tour discourses (TQM. BPR.LO

and KM)

are compared and discuwed III light of the f~l~hiolml etaphor, with
p.rrucular emphasis On the origin, of c.ich technique. problems of dctinirion
and reasons lor decline ill mreresr. FlI1,llJy, ,I bibliornerric au.ilvsis is employed to
evaluate the adherence to the t:1~h.ionmetaphor of the four rrun.rgerueur
approaches and the re-ults are discuxsed with respect to existing theory.
ARt TQM.

UPR.. LO AND KM FAl)<;. FA~I[J(lN-;

OR ENDURINC

CLASSIC~?

In order (() answer rhi. question ,I disrincnon need, to be made between

cLI\\icu manageruenr theories and management thcorie-, rhar adhere ro the
t~l\hion metaphor, CIJ"ic.11 mauagemcnr rheorie-, such ,IS division 0'- labour
have endunng qualines rhar arc applicable ,1lIU repeatable. Classics emerge fiom
pracririoner-,' response to social JI1U economic challenge- and .ire "complex.
mulriraceted. and applied ill ditlerenr \\,,11" to ditferenr businesse-." (Milkr and
Hartwick, 2002: n). The tour managerneur theories under discussion h.ive
arisen in response to social and economic challenges bur the main exponents
of these theories are "fashion setters" and their place ill m.magernenr history as
classics is questionable.
The Fashion Metaphor
The fashion metaphor i, often used to describe the adoption. diffusion J.JlU
decline of management ideas, with the terms tjd~ and fashions being used
inrerchangeablv However, there is ,I subtle difference between the [\\,0: tJd,
peak and decline within five years. whereas management fashious are more
enduring. briefly ~ho\\'illg signs of uururiry before declining (Ponzi and
Koenig. 2002: 2). The [\\'0 terms will be used interchangeably ill this p,lpeL
Fad" and t:lshi()n~ are developed by t:\~hionsetters who, generallv speaking.
are consultantmanagement
gurus. bu-iness schools and business mass-media
publications (Abrahamson. I V!)(l). Others hold that it i~ the adopters themselves
that create the tads that in turn influence the man.rgeuienr rhetoric (Carson.
Lanier. Carson and Berkenmeier. I \)\)9) or at least plav J parr in the diffusion
of fads (Newell. Robertson and Swan. 200 I).

Characteristics of Fads and Fashions

Kieser (1')')7) outlined two main characteristic- rhar define a fJ~hion. Firstly, the
"new" management idea i presented J~ ,I radical departure ti'OI11 current
practice and so is not merely "old wine new bottles". Secondly. the idea is
presented as an imperative to prevent disaster, In an article in the Harvard
Business R('I'ICII', Miller and Hartwick (2002) presented a comprehensive list of
qualities that typify fads incorporating Kieser', characteristics (Table 3.1).These
authors contend that the characrerisrics of fads. which allow them to become
<;0 popular and diffll~c so upidly. are also their undoing.

IIII

IRI'lllllI.IRN\1

III

\1\N\(,I\111'.1

Table 3, L:Characteristics
-Characteristic
Simple

Explanation
Easy to understand and communicate with buzzwords
and acronyms.

Prescriptive

of Fads

Tell managers what to do which allows misinterpretation

to occur.

Falsely encouraging

Promise outcomes such as effectiveness and

performance.

One-size-fits-all

Universal relevance that apply to almost any Industry

organisation or culture.
Can be partially applied. certain fad features can be
grafted onto standard operating procedures.
Focus ISon current concerns In the business world at the
expense of fundamental Issues and problems.
Often repackaged Ideas sold as radical and new.
Gain prestige through their proponents rather than
empirical evdence

Easy to cut and paste

In tune with the Zeitgeist
Novel. not radical
Legitimised by gurus and disciples

.'lIlli/If

Ad,(prni

rmill

M ilia .md l-l.irrwn k

(2002\

The nature of t:llh ,1tH_[ fashion-, lend-, it~e1f to rapid ditTmiol1 and popularity
peaks. But nor ,III new iuitianves are taken up or popul.rrised: ,Ollie "new"
ideas become disper-cd .md others do not. Ro~l'r~ (11)1)3) ~L1ggl'\t' this
may be becau-e innovauou- .ire <ubjecr (0 "Bandwagon Et1~<.:t," where
the more people who r.ike up the ide.i. the more pre-sure [here i, ro do '0.
Simplicity and .uubiguiry .Ire linked .ind t:1~hioll-~ertcr<;C.111 hi~h"ght
unccrr.tiury while at till' same rime on(.'nll~simple volurions (Sc.i.rbrough
and Swan. coo I). In .1
~rud~

III

zcoz. Ernst and Kieser. using

.1

,eril'~ of semi-structured

interviews

wirh man.igerv and consulranrs, found th,n consultants rend to both incrca-e
and decrease man.igcr-,' anxiery (perceived control) by pointing our new rypes
of org.misatiorul problems and providing new solutions that art' of tell
m.nugcrucnr frvluons. Converselv, they also hell' re-establish managerial
control by providing 1l1,1ll.lgers with relevant information and tools, .md by
cll,lblillg them to rcinrerprcr their organisation ....current viruarion.

A.PPI ic A 1Il)N

Dr r nt, rAS\uON

LO

AND

MLTAPI lUI\' IU

-l QM. BPR.

KM

The origin ,11lL! defining characteristics of each m.magcrnenr technique are

examined millg the ti'alllcwork tor characte nsricv of tjd<. ami t,1\hiom outlined
by Miller and Hartwick (zooz) ill Table 3. I,

Origins ofTQM, BPR, LO and KM

I Ill' nrlglll' of all tillll 1II,lll,lgl'lll<.'ll( uuu.mvc- h;IW rherr root, ill other
thcorie and r.m therefore be considered to lw novel lint r.idu al (Miller and
Hartwick. :l002) , Bq~llllJlllg wid) TQM, it 1\ not \\I'Y to l'\t,lbh,h rhe exact d.irc
the term TUL.d Qu.rliry M,lll.lgl'lllt'l1t \\'d\ tirsr used (Martinez-Lorcntc.
1)('\\'hUN .uid Dale I \)1):-:), I ()M grl'\\ out tIt" till' (/uJlity 1I1OVl'IIH:.'llitll the
11)50' ill JIP,llI .uul more rl'Ll'mly our of 1Ill' 1I)t{0, ':lsbIOIl of Qualiry Cin le
(jur.rn. It)K(), The term T(~M I' 1110'[ pmh,lhly ,I substitute t()r 1 QC -local
Qu.iliry Control (Ft'lgl'nh,lulll,if)(ll) and au cx.unin.inon of tilt' definitions of
T(~M .ind 1 QC found rh.u there .rrr 11(1,IPP,ll'l'1\t ditlerence III meaning
(Martinez-I orcnre cr .i1.. 1')')1"),
The orrgin of BPR j, ill v.ilur t'nginl'l'I'illg, \\ hich \\"." developed by General
Elecrnc III the I').J.0' .1' ,I u-chmque to improve product, through redesign:
.1l1ythlllg rh,u did not rourriburc to the urilir, o( the product \\',1\ eliminated. This
redl"I~1 Idt'.l \\',1\ applied to processe and ,(1 to t11L' birth of BPR., wluch C,III he
traced to two papers published in 11)')0 (D.1Vl'IlPorC aud Short, 1')')0; Hammer,
I ')l)o),I:WIl... emerged p.lrtl,dly ill l"l'SP(\!hl' to [he Lick of emphasis 011 information

rcchnology (IT)

III

TQM.

The LO \\"l~ expounded h~ \t'n~c III hrs book 7711'FHi" [);mJl/illr (1')\)0) and
h.i-, it-, rom, III rhe organix.rrion dcvelopmeur movement of rhe 1 ')(,0, advocated
by .rurhor- such as .l\r!:-')Tj~,llId Schon (11)7X) and make and Mouton (1l){I.J.),
KM, .ILL'ordill~ to Beckmann (I ')t)t)), \\"" tim coined by Dr Karl Wiig in I\)X(l
who wrote one of the tir~l books 01] the subject called KII(l",J('~~{' ,\/tI/lIll!l'II/l'1I1
Fonudation puhlishcd in 11)')5, KM. like BPR, caine to prominence because It
wa-, seen to till rhe IT g,lp leti by rhc Lo. TIl<.:profile of the KM literature I'
similar to that of BPR, with 5 I ,1 per cent of article- referring (0 the role of IT
III BPR. (Tinaik.tr. Hartiu.m .uid Nath. 11)\):\),"KM is not ;t development of. but
rather .I divergence fro 111, the literature 011 the LO - d new t;l,hlOll 111 its own
right wirh ;1 new I"ocm Oil tools and systeu. rather than 011 people .ind
procev.e-," (Scarbrough and Swan, 200 I: 7),
Each mnovanon j, 1I0W!. nor radical, with 1[\ roots ill other movcmenr-, bur
what .111 lllur have 111 common i~ that thev address ,I gar 111 the exisnng
marugement lirerarurc and are "Ill runt' WIth the Zcirgeisr" capturing the
comelllpor.lry
1I1.1113gt'I1ICllt rhetoric
(Miller .md Hartwick, 100.2), BPR
acknowledges the IT g,lp ,11ILl concenrratcs Oil processe-, LO highlights the
importance of the orgamsanon -- culture and Klvl advocates the capture llf
knowledge \\ irhin the llfg.IIII\.ltlllll, reflecnng the rhetoric of rhe "iuforuiarion
era". The virch ill abbreviation from TQC to TQM without .Iny .1pparcm
c11.1llgt' in me.lIlin~ j, llldicltive of the C()IJ(Clllpordry Zeitgl'i~l.
i\lI t(lllr 1I1,1l1.lgelllt'lIr ide,ls have COlll'Ollllr,lnt guru,>, T(~M wa~ based 011
Dellling" W Edwards" 14 rn11m" (I \)X6),Jo,cph JlIl',llI\ "Qll,tli~' Trilogy" (I
,)X(}) and Philip Cro,by'~ "QlI,dl~' M,ltlirity Grid" (I ')7\), I-:Io\\'t'\'l:r. It
i<,inrerl'sting to noel' rh,lt nOlle of the~e .lCtLI,dly u,e rill' rcrlll TQM, BPR 1\
dSSoCl,lted mJinly with H,llllllll'r JIld Clumpy (I W3), the LO \\'Ith Peter
Sengt'. ,lIld KM wirh NOllJk.1 and T.lkeuchi (I ')\)5) dJld I)awnpot'l ,llid Prus,lk
(I \)\)X),

1111 Illl'"

IlllllN'\1

III

\1\N'\I,I\IIr"1

Defining TQM, BPR, LO and KM

Conruuuug \\ uh tilt' ch.rr.u tcrixrir- of t:lt!\ outlined III l ablc 3.1, "<implc",
.. .unluguouv".
"prcvcr iprivc" ." olll'-.,izl'-tit,-.dl" and "1:11\(I' y cue otlr,lgllIg"
m,IY he uvcd to ch.lr,lltl'n'l' the mulnrudc of dehmtion-, Cor c.uh
m.nugcmcnt concept .md then COIIC0l11ir.11ltn-chniqucs. }1,,1I1our technique
have onrusiou
ill .ippln.ano of till' technique .md Ill,lll~ COJllI1l't1l1g dctimrion-. All are
prenuxcd Oil the notion th.rr it I~ imperative fill' comperinvc .rdv.mr.igc to
l'l1g,lgl' ill rhc 111,111 ,lgt'lllc' III practice that 1\ heillg promoted. It i\ often difticulr
ro find one \llIgIL-dcfinirio:
,)\ ditlert'llt consulr.uirs or huvincv, ,chonl., r.ikc
up rhc tJd. they .Idd their derinitionv en the ,drt';ld~ growillg pleihor.r.
Uill' otthc \llllpl("t dctuuriou-, torT()M i-, ",111 organi\,ltillll \\"Ide effort to
improve qu.iliry through (h,lI1gl'~ ill structure, pr.rcrice-, ~y\(l'Ill\ .md .rbovc all
artitudc-,' (D,11e .md Cooper. 1l)l)2).The .11111()CT(~M 1\ to reduce vari.uion in
products .uid prl)l"l,."l'\, which le.id ... to unproved qu.rlrry ,lIld productivity
(B.III!...\,2000). fill' cu-romcr I, cxrremely imporr.inr III TQM .unl (hl\ nutiative
h.i-, .1 \ct of \r.ltI\(llal rcchruquc-, ,I\\(1cJ.ltl'd with it to monitor rill' performance.
There 1\, however, no \Jllgul,lr vcr of practices that ddllll'\ TqM wuh dltTcrt'llt
t.ivluon xetrcr-. ()I'tlll~ for dlttcrl'nt pr.icnccs. Other p.rr.tdigm-., such ,1\ six
\iglll.1. k.uzcn ,11ll1rl'l'llglllt't'rIllt;
compere
with TQM for prominence. These
p.rr.idrgmv .rre vomctimc-, seen ,1\ P,lrt 01 TQM or cl-c \t'p.lr.ltl' p.uadigrn-,
,Iddlllg to the confusiou. TQM set about improving l'Xi\t111g proCt'\'>t'\

incremcnrallv whereas BPR radic.illy rr.mstorms them crcanng brand new

one- but <l!l:,lillthere i, no urnversal or proven BPR. method. According to
Valenun l' and Knight (1\)~7). there' are two rype\ of 13PR. literature: radical
BPR .md reflective. revivionisr .BPR. the Lirtcr l'1lll'rging a... 1 response to
difticulrie ill implcmeuting radical BPR initiatives P...dical HPR h.i-, .1 top
down iruplcmcntarion. with leader- driving change and technology enabling
that l h.uigc. Employee- do not participate ill decisiou-m.ikmg. BPR 111,11' be
defined ,1\ "initi.inve large and small. radical and conservative. whose common
rheme i~ the .nhlevcmcur
of si~niticJnt irnprovemcntv
III orgarusat ional
performance by augmenting the et}ici"nc~ and dl~L'nwlll'" of key business
proccwe-" (W.l\tdl. White and Kawalek. I\)\).j.: 2.3),
BPI~ was revived ,1IId .I, .1 rexulr is mort' pragmanc, but now rl"l'lllhl('~ tht.'
Iangll,lgt' oCTQM.
One 111,1)" tent,lti\'l~ly conclude that "ill practKe, BPI~ i, ellll'rging .I~ ,1 nt'\y
ulllbrell.1 COIlCl'pt under which a Dumber of quality illltiariw\ t:lll" (Valentine
,lIld Kn i~lm, I \)l)~: ~.j.). Ag.lIll. thL~ adeh to (he lonti.l~ion ,llld
,nnhiguiry ch,lr.lrteri\tlc of t:ltk
S\.'n~\.' ddint'd ,I LO .\," .Ill ()q1;al\i~,ltion due i., cominu,tll\' cxp.mding it~
cap<lciry to LTt'.ltl' it, tlItUrt''' (I ~90: q). Thi~ COl1[r,l~t' vvith burcducratic
organi\;ltion~, which potelltially ohstruct le<lrujng ,1Ild preVl'ilt ti'ee flow of
informatioll. Sengt' dt'\crillL'd tlvl' disciplines neces~,lry for b~'comillg a LO:
per,oll,tl ma ..t.t'ry, 111('11[,11 models, sh,ITed vision, tt',lm learning and systems
thinklllg (11)1)0: 11\5). The LO is ofteJ1 cOllfll~t'd with thl' COllCept of
Orgal1J~ational Learning which, ,Iccording to Schwt'n. K,lllI1all. H,n',1 ,lIld

Ki\lin~ (1!J1)i. \\',1\ ruined

by Herbert

Simon ill IV)] .md i-, "the adaptive

ch.ingc proCl'\~ th.ir i, influem ed hy pa\t experience, focused Oil developing or

llluditY'illg rourinev, ami supported by organisanou.il memory" (Nonak.i and
Takeuchi. I\N5: -J..'i). Organisanonal Le,lrJ1in~ i\ parr of the LO but is
independent and call t.I!...t pLICL' ill bureaucratic org,1I1i\,ltiol1\.Ag,lill there i,
confusion of drtin ition. allowing lor misiurcrpretations. Current theories of
the LO h.ivc vcveral ~'l!'\ th,tr need tilling. partirul.irly concerning
the
implerncuration
of lc.rr n iru; processes, vtrurrure
.md the underlying
psychodynamic nature of org,llli,.ttioll\ (Starkev, I V\)X).
KM i, .in ill-defined area in the man.rgcmenr literature. Like the previous
three 1l1.111,tgl'IllCllt theories, it 1\ .unhiguouv, geller,d. tJhdy encouraging and
prevcriptivc. "The rcr m i\ so \',If!;Ut' rh.it it i~ e,l~y to dismiss Wor~e. it has been
jumped 011 by cou sultants. who know a good t"Jd when they 'IeI:' one" (jackson.
I !J!JX). Other rhcorisrs \ec' KM ,1\ ,I genuine core competitive
,ldv,ll1t.1ge (tor
example McKlTl1. I')!J(>; Ruggb.
I!J!JX: Skyrmc .md Amidon.
I<J!J7).There are
Ill,my themes ill the KM literature including the nature of knowledge,
informauon management. information cechuolol,,'y. people management
(knowledge
roles, knowledge' workers), knowledge creation. knowledge
sh.uing, transfer of learning, intellectual capital. tacit knowledge and so on.
Scarbrough. $\\,,111 .ind Preston conducted a review of the knowledge
managerneut
literature
and produced the following broad definition:
"Knowledge management: Any process or practice of creating. acquiring.
capturing, ~haring and using knowledge wherever it resides. to enhance
learning and performance 111 organisation-," (, !JI}<): I). It appears that KM has
taken over tj'01I1 and incorporated the LO. leading to confusion and a blurring
of boundaries between the two rnanagernenr innovations.
}\II four theories were initiallv thought J~ having orgamsation-wide
implications. but ill practice they become e,I')7 to cur-and-paste (Miller and
Hartwick. 2.002.). This cut-and-paste practice i~seen ,t~ the reason and excuse
made tor the t~lillire to deliver 011 promise. since managers IlldY only implement
certain aspens of the managemenr technique gr.lfied onto existing procedure,
(Banks, :1(00). III terms of fad~ and fashions. TQM has given way to BPR and
LO has been subsumed by KM. All possess the characteristics of fad, and
tashions .1~ outlined hy Kieser (I ~<J7) and Miller and Hartwick (2.00.2). To
examine further the fad-like qualities of all four techniques, it i) necessary to
look at the lite cycle of each to ascertain if they conform to the typical
diffusion characteristics of management fads (Abrahamson, I yy(i; Ponzi and
Koenig, 2.00.2).

LIrE

CYCLES

OF FADS

AND

FASHIONS

TQM. BPR, LO and KM possess fashion-like

characteristics and should

therefore follow d bell-shaped curve life cycle, which was first demonstrated by
Abrahamson (I <J\)6) in his work on the life cycle of Quality Circles in the
I yXos. Using ,I bibliomerric
technique (counting published articles), he tracked

I II I
;--I.

I I~I'll

I" II I( '" '\ I

I'

+7

\1 \ N .\, ,I \1I

the dcvclopmcnr 01 rill' Qu.ihry Cm lc lit;: c vclc Oil the :\HI lntorru d,lt.lh.I'L'
.md liHllld rh,u I[ h.id ,I bell -h.ipcd p.irrcrn. Etrorre (Il)'r) propovcd rh,u .1t:ld
gm" through .1 \tt;" rydl' of:i 'Llgl" (Figure .,.1). ~t.lgl' I I' "l)"tO\'l'f'"
when

.irnclcs Ilr\r bcgm to JppC.lr. Sr.lgt' 2 I' "Wild Acrcprancc" when concept
become wry popular. ~tJgc 3 I' the .. Digt',noll" ph.iw \\ here rrrncr-m-, .irc
levelled .Ig,lllh[ till' lOIlCl'Pr. S[,lgl' + I~ "Divilluvionuu-ur where rhc idea "
found 11mto h<' .1 p.llI.ICl',1.md flil, to dehvcr on prollllW. fiJl,tlly, St.lgt' :i i,
"H,lrd CW'l''''' hen (111) true -upporrcr- rem.nn loy.il LO the technique,
III cx.uuininj; rhc lit;', cycle. it can he 'l't'll rh,n dur ing the disillusionmcur
l,h,l\l' the next t:ld h.I' hcgun ro emerge. vhowinj; ho 1:1(" 1','P1.1 cc one
another.It I, useful to note that "whil there 111.1\' he ,III upward .md downward
trend [0 most t:l,hiom, the -Jope (r.irc of 1l1Ll\'.IW .ind d,',rL"I'L' III number of
article-) for each t.i-hrou I~ diflerenr, Thi-, I, Itl..t'ly to dl'l1L'lld 011 the cxi-rencc
of other I:hh ion-. "lid events" (:">1",11I. '),)i-i, ,1\ erred III C; ibvon aud Tevonc. 200
I:

12-1)'

Figure 3,l: Life Cycle of a Management Fad

DIGESTION
The concept IS subject

[0

cnuasm

DISILLUSIONMENT
WILD ACCEPTANCE

_ ..

The Idea ca/cl,es file

DISCOVERY"
A buzzword
Is._:b:.;o';-.-.,:fI_'

.........

-----

...

TI,e Idea does not solve all problems

HARD CORE
NEXT FAD

Only true beuever remam

'--

VariableTime Frame

It i\, pmpo~<:J 111 thl' p.lper th.at TQM, BPR., LO and KM lollo\\' the \,\111<'
predictable bell shaped lite cycle ;1\ outlined hy Abraham-on (I ~)!)()) and
Errorre (I C)1)7) , Furthermore. it i~ expected that each new management
mnovation will he replaced <It the disillusionmenr stage, J~ ,I new t:ld emerges.
The following section preseuts .1 comp.msou
of [he lite Cylk-, ofTQM,
BPR., LO and KM

.uid trace the emergence and decline of each discourse.

,~ C()~IPAIU'ON

or

1111

Lu r \

'IT I I'> 01

U'IN(, A BIBII\),\I[

I RI<

Tt~M, IWR. I 0

I\NP

KM

At-... .. l Y'h

Rationale
/\ bibhomerru rechruquc \\'.1' employed to mvc-ngare .md compare the lIie:
l'ycb or rQM, RPR, LO .U1d KM, Prl'VI(HI' .malyses h.rvc round hell sh.ipc

dismhurions

for

these

COI1Cl'pr"

bur all

four

h.ive nor prevrouslv been drrcrtly

comp.ircd T he bibhornerru techmque provide .1 reliable .m.ilvrical appro.ich

to truce the development o( .1 concept. I'rl'\'IOU, rl'\eJrchl'r, have used rhiv
tecluuque: Ponzi and Koenig (zooz). lI'lll~ A BI Inform .md ~1It'1H:l' Cuarion
Index. rr.ickcd TQM .md 13Plt li'om 1'.)1)0 1II1[11~OOo. dcmon-rr.iruig the hell
shaped di'lrihmioll of the-e man.igcmeut imn.invcs. wirh T(~M peaking ill
11)\)3 ,111\1BPlt peaking III I')l)~, "lc,lrhrou!!h ,Iml Swan (':'0(') I) .IIHI Scarbrough
et .il. (IVIN) .il-,o uved .1 bihliomctrrc tec hmque and tracked tilt' literature fix
rhc Ll) and Klvl using the comprehensrve on-lure journal d.lt.lh."l" Pro'Qu ..r
Direct (Pt~f)) and Bln~, The, covered the period 11)1)0 to II)\)~and tl)Ulld ,I
decline 111 rerereuces to rill' I 0 smce I ')l):i which \\'J' rcfierred ill the ~h.lrp
incre.rse ill reference- to Ki'vl.These mO\'I:I1It'nt\ follow the bell-shaped pattern.
Wil,OIl (2002) conducted ,I suuil.rr -tudv, tr'll'in~ KM onlv, and found all
t':!\110111'll(I,d rrse III KM lircr.irure t()lIO\\'I11~ II)')!,
Method and Results
Arucle counr-, were conducted 011 I 0 .A.l1gll~( 2003, from \liieh of Science and
EBSCO Husiness Source Premier, These J.1C.llM~l~were wit-ned because of
rherr couiprcheu-tve
co\'er,lgl' of rhc ac.idenuc literature. Counts were
conducted annually to cover the period &0111 j.muarv t \)')0 until the end ofJul~
],003 ror each of the four m.iu.rgemenr phrases located III title. abstract or
devcripror fields. Each d.lt.lb.t\l'\ revultv were taken separacelv to .iccounr tor
overlap of journals.TIlt' EH~('0 Business Source
Prcnu ...r L'OIlUlm
pcer reviewed .md mdusrrv .irnc lcs: however, oulv rhc peer-reviewed articles
were counted to ,111m\, tor COll1p.lmoll with the Wd, of Science (WOS)
d.iraba-,c. ,1\ the WOS .rrricle-, .rre all peer reviewed. Tilt' counts for EHSCO
and WOS .ire tabulated In 1 ,Ible ... 3,2 .uid 3,J, re-pecrivcly.

Table 3.2: EBSCO Article Count for TQM, BPR, LO and KM from
January

1990-July 2003

No. of Articles per Year

'90

TOM 80
BPR

LO

KM

0
7
3

'91

'92

95
1
9
5

153 314
2
15
13 21
6

'93 '94

289
59
30
11

95
293
40
40

'96

'97

253
47
32

27

300
55
35
38

'98 '99
308 2631
75 31
37 36
97 168

I '00

'02

'03

265 2291 199

29 21 I 19
54
51 1 42
220 301 1 367

170
27
34
227

'01

4')

Table

3.3: WOS Article Count for TQM, BPR, LO and KM from

January 199G-July 2003

No of Articles per Year

'90
TOM 14
BPR 0
LO 3
KM 3

'91
40
0
6
8

'92
128
0
5
2

'93
187
2
9
8

94
198
30
17
9

'95 96 '97
251 206 179
43
49 57
24
21 22
16 12_ 37

98
187
70
36
69

99 00 01
157 149 143
48 45 30
25 35 40
121 151 249

'02
115
29
31
274

03
104
26
16
254

ThL' .rrnclc c ounr- lor I::B~( 't) .uul Wl)\ are gr,lphlcally represented III Figure.
.\.2 .md 3.3. rl'\I'L'L'tivl'l~.l he-c Iitecyc lc ccunp.nison gr,ll'h, nt'TQM. IWR.. LO
.md KM rl'\l'lllhlL' the bell-shaped p.utern ronvrsrcnt
with the previou
lirer.irurc (Abrah.un-on. 11)1)(1:Ponzi and KOl'I)1g, 2002: Wilvon, ~002), The bell
\11.Ip<;,\ .lpl'e,ll \111.1I1<;'r (although thl'~ arc nor). \IIKI.' couur- .rre pinned
Ing,IJ'1thll1lC,dly to rt'pre~elH all data dg.tilht .1 \illgk 'lode, The rcvulting plot
provide ,I proportional rcpresentarion 01' rhe dltli.'rl'lIt r.ue-, 01' II11Tl',hl' ,1l1J
dccrc.rvc Itl publication- tor the tour discour-c-. figurl' J ,2 vhow-, the
companvon

between .ill four m.magcnicnr rechruque-,

Oil

the E13~CO Buvinc

Source Premier It)r pl't'r reviewed article ..,

Figure 3.2: Comparison of Peer Reviewed Article Counts on the
EBSCO Database for TQM, BPR, LO and KM from January 1990July 2003
1000

100

It-- It{

"a--a_

.....

...

I
,. _

10

r
r

"

--1t- BPR Peer

- .-.& -

LO Peer
TOM Peer

-.-

KM Peer

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1995 1996 1997 1998 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

The d.ua depicted ill Fll,!,tlreJ.3 i, consivtcnr with previous tillding' ill the .irc.r.
TQM reached ,I peal.. of wild ;1CCepWICLi'n 11)1)3 with .I count of 3 q
articles, Thi-, was followed hy .1 long digestion sr.ige with .irnclc couuts ri\ing
,lg,1I11to
30)'1 ill I '.NX. Thcu followed the disillusionment mg.:. A.. TQM reached it)
pe.ik. 13PR entered the discovery ~(Jge .1I1d reached wild ,ICl"l'pt<1l1cien
1I)l)X with 75 articles. lu 2002 BPR \\.I~ ill the disilluvionmenr st,lge otthe lite
cycle. The LO came to prominence ill I'N3. had .1 ~I11<1p1e1ak ill 11)l)5 and
reached till' height of"wild acceptance ill 2000 with 54 artirlcv. By 2002 the
LO \\",I~in the digestion \tage. KM eutercd (he discovery ,t.lgL III I (jl)(, and
began to rise cxponeunally trom 1t)l)7 reaching 3('7 articles In 2002.TI1t'
tigures tor 2003 art' consistent with the trend but it would be llli,k.ldil1g to
di,cm, actual tigure\. since it W.lS not ~I complete annual count.

Figure 3.3: Comparison of Article Counts on Web of Science

Database for TQM, BPR, LO and KM from January 199G-July2003

~BPR

---LO
---6-

TOM

-+-KM
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1995 1996 1997 1998 1996 19992000 2001 20022003

The results of the article counts 011 the Web of Science database are similar to
the EBSCO results. TQM \\"a~at the height of the wild acceptance stage in I!)l))
with .2 S I articles. while BPR entered irs discovery stage and peaked ill I YlJ~ with
70 artie-b. the lO peaked ill 200 I with +0 articles. Similar to the article trends
on the EBSCO database KM reached a total of 27-J.articles in 2002.

DISCUS'SIl1N

These results indicate that the life cycle, ofTQM. BPR. LO and KM follow
the bell-shaped pattern of frds and fashions (Abrahamson. I~9(j). The rise and

I1II

II\I~II

I(ll

I~'" \1

"1

51

\1 \t" \C,I \11 1\.1

t:dl ot till' 1II.IIlolgl'llll'll( lechllllJlIl'~ arc. till' the Illll'!

irh prcviou-, filldillg' by Sl.lrhroligh and S\\'.11l (2001),

p.rrt. c ou-r-rcm \\
.md Kocnu;

IjOllll

(2002)

.ind Wd'OII (2002). I IO"'L'\'l'I ....r. .irhrough .md S\\ .m (20(11) touud th,u the I 0
detillll'd ,lItl'l I ')1) 'i , whcrc.iv ill the pre-cur 'tlItiy till' U) ,ho\\'ed .1n'l' In
I')'):i (rhe LO .ilvo ,howed .1 ,('coml ,111.111pc.ik OIl WO\
III II)I)X) and rheu
rose to ncxv Iwight, III zooo (l:.BSC()) .md 2001 (WOS). A I'm'lhk rcavou for
rim rl'iatl'\ to the rhcorcric.rl ongll1' of the COI1C('Pl'. The LO .uul KM

both
till' org.lIl1\,nioll development movement which lll~ly h~IW led
to conluviou .ind owr],l]' ill ddinitioll\. with J<M cOll1ing under rhc ,,1IllL'
heading
~I' t11L' L () (Sc1rbrough cr .11.. I 1)')1): Wil~()ll. 1002). Another
vimilar

l'lllcrgl'd trom

p.irrcrn Colli he 'l'ell ill the r ive .md decline ofT(~M .md l3PR.. which both
origin,Hl' III rhc qu.iliry 1ll0V('IllL'IHT.(~M declined .ificr I ')')3 hut nN' ,Ig.lin
in

till' same )'l'.lr BPR rc.nhcd it, pC'.I]..A. g.lill rhi. 1\ proh,lbly due ro the
.uid overlap in the dcfinitionv of the t\VO l onccpr-, (Valcnrinc .md
Kmght-, II)')X), /\ -ccoud reason tor rhcvc tilldlllg~ reflt'l,t, .m IIlht'rCIH problem
with lI'lllg the hibhomctric technique: ju-t because .1 m.m.igcmcnr rcchnique
apl'L',lr, ti't'qut,lltly III the hrer.uure it doc nor t()lIo\\ rh.ir it i, bL'LIU'l' It is
helJlg .rdvoc.ircd.
I he fin' ~l.lgl'\ of the litl' cycle proposed by Lrtorre (I ')(}7) seem .II'[
in Lk~crlblllg ho c.ich uidividual t.id l'nH.'rgt' .md t()IIO\\\ ,I bcll-vh.ipcd
p.ltterll. TIlt' rcxult-, of the prl"l'll( bibhomcrrir .Imly\1\ vhow rh,n c.ich new t:ld
replaces the 1,I't but nor .1\ Ltrorrcs Lit;', cycle indicarcs. New t:ld, do not
emerge at the disilluvronmcnr \t.lgl', hur begin to appear c.ulicr. BPR entered
rill' discovery
\tage at till' height of the wild acceptance ,t.1ge' for Tl~M .. ind KM began to
1')')1'1.

contuvion

t'111L'Q.!
i;llt'

I ')SI7. which

followcd the initial wild

,ICL'l'pt.IIlClp' eak

in the LO

literature.
1>('rh,II" the 1l1O,t notable ,1\PCL't of rhi, -rlldy i\ th.ir the peak count ill KM
exceed, rhc pc.ik COUll( of .111) of the other management imri.rtives Oil both
d,lt.lh,I\t". The article counts in this srudv arc \I11Jlkr rh.m ill previous studie-,
(for ex.unple I'ollzi and Koenig, 2002), because 01111 peer reviewed article,
were counted and these h.rvc ,\ -lower rate or' publication than indusrrv articles.
The rcvulr-, illusrr.ire that fld\ and t:lshiolh follow .1 prcdicrable i1fe cycle: as
one t:ld enter- the wild accept.lIlce stage .1 ncvv one emcrgcv. All of the tour
man.igcmcur techniques arc <till in existence, upheld by.1 h,lrd CorL'.with TQM
still h,l\'ill~ ,I \ub\[Jllti.ll body of suppon. If tht' trt'llLl, t(HIIlJ III thi, study
COlltIIlUt" thell rllt' LO IS ,Ibollt to enter disillmiolllllL'ilt \tolge with KM
reachlllg the pe,lk of wild acceJ1t.llJce alld lllovin~ illto the digt'\tioll \rage of
EttolTL'\ lift' cyck. Howevt'f, rhert' appt'.Jr\ to be cOllCusioll and overlap of
detinitJoll betwl'l'1l the LO ,1I1d KM which h,l\'e l'lller~t'd ti'OIl} tht:'
org~lIll~atioll devdopllll..'llt lireramre dlld ht,t\\'t't'll TQM ,1Ild BPIt which have
emerged li'olll till' tjualiry III O\'t'll I t'nt ,

Has KM Replaced TQM, BPR and LO?

TIll' rhree lllJIl,lgl'll1t'Ilt illiriatiVt's

TQM,

[3PR ,llld rhe LO dll til'dilled

in

I1II
II\I~II
I(ll I~'" \1 "1
\1 \t" \C,I \11 1\.1
51
populJrity. lllo~t likely for the \'ery same rL',I\OIh they hecame popular (Miller

.iud Hartwick. 2002). Thev were siuiphscir .uid ditliculr ro unplemenr Jill' to

their 'llllhlglllfy. which bl W imrial wide inrcrprcr.irionv bur failed ro lkhwr

prumi-,c. Irnplemcnrcrv ot'TQM and BPR 1111[1,1(1\'(.', did nor 'ICC a return
Oil their mve-rment (Kc.rrnev. 1')1)2: RIgb). I 'JVX). Parr of rhe rc.rson tor
the decline III mrercst ill till' LO 'IlKI.' I 'JlJ ~ \\';1' It' lack of l'l11ph.l,i, 011
011

pr.irticc

.md till' JI'P,II'l'll[ disn'g,tnl of .rdv.uice

'y'>tL'I11~

III

IT ,H1d ruanagcmeur intorm.inon

(Scarbrough er ,II.. IlJl)'J). C onvcr-elv, It

\VJ'

(ill p.irr) till' ovcremphasrv

011 IT rh,ir c.iused BrR to decline (Valentine and Knights. I<)<)X).

KM " currentlv at rill' torefronr of 111.11I,lgl'lllCltl[heory. wirh .1
public.inon r:HI' that I, rrsing t'xpollt'ntl.dly,i\, KPM C \urw)' conducted ll1 I 'J!
r found rh.it of the .1.00Lll'gC US rir111' ..;rudil'(1. xo per ccnr of corporations
h.id knowledge
inirianve
(KPMc.;, 2000). KM appcar-, to h.ive uicorpor.ired tilt' to .urd
overtaken TQM and IWR III prouuuence III rhe literature. Although the
hrerature 011 KM I~ rt'lI1g. manv article, now are beguunng ro ,Ippear which
are cnncal of the concept. lc.idiug rhi-, researcher to conclude th.ir KM j~ 110\\
cnrcr ing che digestion ph.ivc .md will ulnm.rrelv reach the 'r,lge where there
are only h.ird core followcr-,
Two problematic themes .ire rcpearcdlv ,hl)\\'ll1g up 111rhe KM literature:

the confu ..ion 0\'1.'1' knowledge and intormanou. and the "conversion" ot' t,1(1[
knowledge into explicit J.n. ow leJge, According to Wll~OI1. l[ i.. necess.irv to
distinguish between iurormanon and J..110\\ledge: "Failure (0 do 'In results
111
one or other of these terms xr.mding .1' .1 'Yllon)111 tor rhe other, thereby
confusing ,I1IYOllewho wishes CO undervt.md wh.u each term \Iglllfie~" (3002:

~). Knowledge Involve, the mental proccwc-, II) .111 individu.ilv nund whereas
information i, codifiablc and easily COIl1J111111icilreIdt. ha-, been argued
by Smohar (2003) that we do not manage the knowledge that j, in peoples
heads. we 1ll,11I,Igl.'the people
rhemcelves.
and ;1 more
useful term
would be "inter.icnon mauagernent". KM Ill,l)' therefore be seen .1,
object ,I~ III managing information .md alvo ,1' subject .1' ill lllJJl.lging
people and the two
..hould nor he contused.
The conversion of racit knowledge to explicit knowledge I~ .1 major theme
in the KM literature (Noruka and Takeuchi. Il)Y5), However, [.KIt knowledge
i., personal and IS defined .1~"WI;' know more that we' c.m [(.'11" (Polarryi, I y(l():
..j.). and means simply th,rr. We C,1l1110l make exphcit that which I'
"inarnculable", what we c.m do I, expres, previouslv unexpressed or implicir
knowledge (Wikon. lOO:!). These problem' have led to most of the confusion
in the Iirer.iture. and are mdic.irors of fad-like' qualities in KM.

CONCLU\ltlN\
ANI> PIU\( rn Al IMP1ICA1Il)NS
TQM. BPR, LO ,1I1dKM t'tlUO\\, rhe [lrdlcc.lble bdl-shdped ltti: cycle of tad,
and t:bhJ()nc:., \\'hen OIle t:ld n:Khe> a peak .11IJ a new tad heglll~ to t'1lll'rgt'.
Although rhc\e nlJnagemellt prJccices Illay hl' comldered tJShlOlb. rhle:.need nor
necessarily h.we lIegatJ\'l' llllpiJc.Hiom.

KM h,IS tdken over rht' lll<lnrie ,h the J.1tl'Srt:l~hIOliln 1ll.l11Jgl'lllt'llt pracrice.

III1

lit

I'll

1111 I( N \1

III

\I

\'\11\101

\11 "I

though dl'llli""I~ "M ,I' '"11l'ly ,I 1ll,111,lgt'111t'lil I.rd could Iw ,I Iml opportunity
to under-tand 110\\ k nov, Il'dgl' " developed, g,1llwd .md used III 0q':,IIlI,.lttOIl\.
.md ulruu.irclv III 'O(il'~' (Bouthillier .uid Shearer. 2002). It rhc c ontuvron
vurrouudnu; rhe epl,rclllOlogy I' nor clc.ircd up, then It \\'111surel, go "our 01
t:l,hlOll" like il' predecessor- ollly to lw replaced by ,I 1Il'\\' t:ld.
lilt' problcmv 01' O\'l'rLlppillg dctimnon-, and blurred boundanc , hctwccn
rill' couc cpi-, uuk rhL'1I1 t!lfticult to rl"t cmpir ic.illv and L'.I'Y to dismiss,
[)1\I11i"illg ,Iny of the management discour-es. not jll,t KM. ,1\ mere tilth
could
11<'premature. The consequence', of m.uiagcmcnr t:l,hiOI1\ c.in be t:lI' reaching
.md pcrrn.uicut: they focus .utcntion 011ncglccrcd .IrCa, .ind identity g,lp' ill
the man.rgcmcnt lucr.uurc. WithourTQM
there would be k." l'1l111h,l,i,Oil
quality, without 1l1)1~we would haw paid ks~ .ureuriou to our buvinc
I'I'OCL'\"L', and without
rhe I O we 111<1)not h.tve highlighrt'd the importance
of culture and learning. Each t:ld provide. an incremenr to our body of
knowledge of how best co IlI.lll,lge. .md these mrrcrncnr-, (:111 be incorporated
into I1l'\\' theory; Insrc.ul otlookurg tor ,I p.lll,lll"l or ,I best \\",IYto
lll,tll,lge.l'l'rh,ll" lye on learn troru the hc,r 1',lrr, of each miti.itive.
III order rh.ir the potential benefits or he-r p.irrs rlur m.m.rgcmcnr t:"hion,
.uul t:IJ, h,11'L' to otli..'r arc not lo-r. businc vchool rcsc.ur hcr-, need to rest new
idc.iv .md 1ll,1Il.lgl'llIl'llr practice cmpirrc.rlly not jll\r .mccdor.illv Ir would .ilso
be usctu] it' m.m.rgcmcnc innovations were viewed with the long-term
COll\eLJllt'llL't'~
in mind. The contusion .ind .unhiguirv
surrounding
rn.in.urcmcu; rhcoric-, need to be cl.uiticd: this 111,1)' lc.id to ,I slower uptake
of the idea bur will allow time for digestion and resting. I f an organisation
were couvidering adopting ,I uexv management technique, then perhaps it
would be helpful to avoid bandwagon effects. especially the cuiouonal drives
to relieve
.mxierv .md to be lip to date. It i., better to be ;J little unfavhionahle .md (heck
tor empir icnl evidence. than ro jump on the bandwagon at great cost,

The .uuhor- gr.iretullv acknowledge [he ti nan ('I,II 'UppOI'[ 01 DCU HUlme" '>chool III
cnnductmg tluv research

Rt:HRfNC[<'

Aln.ih.nnson. E, (11)')6) "Management

NO.1.

Fashion" ..

1(11"1'11/)'

1'( \ Idllll.~l'llll'III

RCI'll'I/(

Vol. .11.

1'1'. 2;Q-X5

Argym. C. ,1IlL! Srhon, D.A. (1I)7X) O/:~d//l'::rllI'lI/111 LI',ml/lI.~. Rc.idmg, MA: Addivou-Weslcy,
Banks.}. (aooo) Tuc /:.,.,l'lIrc oj'Till,i/ (,2111I1il).,l/rlll<I~(,II/('II( (.1I1t1 cdn). London: Prentice Han.
Beckman. T.). (I \)\IV)"The Current S[J[e of Knowledg Man.rgcmeut". 111J. LJd10\\'IlZ (ed.)
f(11"/l'lcl(~1' .\Id'/d.~ellltlll J ]IllIdbMk. New York: eRe Pre". PI' 1-2.:!.
Blake. R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (I \)(,~)The .1111/1I(~mdl Grid. Houston. TX: Gulf Pu bLi,hll1g.
Bouthillier. E ,lnt1 She,lrer. K. (l002) "Ullder~tJndlllg
Knowledge M,1I1,Igt' 11lt'llt Jnd
IntOl'IlI.moll M,IIl.1g<'lllem: The Need tor Jll Emplru:.ll Per~penl\'e". J,!/i>WI,III,)J1

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Pn'I":< IJ\'<' un 1-,1.1 '\d"I'IIIHI \h.llldnllllll'lI!. Ul"\dl'plIl~ Theorv trout d,( 1\lI.IIl.I~':1ll':1l1
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( ro-l. p, [I')~')I ()II,dll)' " J 1'1'(N'. ew York Ml'(,r.l\\ Hill.
f),i1':.B,l,. .uul COOpt'[. ( L II'I').!) 1.'1,11 (,2I1,tlll)' '"I1/I/IIIt,"1 Rr','''',. .., III !-.\(,IIIIII' (;111.1 ..
Oxtord 11I.1d.,wt'll.
Davcnpon, T H .. uul Short. J L 'I'J')O) "The '\J,,\\ Illdu,cn,tl EIl~lIlt"'nll~ lntorru.mon
T"l'ilnolll!!\ .llId Bu-mc Pr.ll'I.''' Rt'dl"I!::Il". \/,.,111 I/,'I/"~fIIlt'l11 Rn'lfll -uuuucr. PI',
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fI/lCI/I.
Boston MA. Harvard BU'lIll'" '><'IHhllPre.
Er nst. B.. 111.1 KII:\('r. A. (.!;){o.!J "{ .on-ulr.uu- ,l\ '\~"Ilh
III '\l1~JL'r~
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