Startingof15thcentury:

EuropeangeographicalknowledgelimitedtoEuropeonly.
Mendidnotquestionthefactthatearthwassphere.
ExistenceofAmericancontinentwasunsuspected.
OnlytheMediterraneanpartsofAfricawereknown.
OnlythepartsofAsiawhichtouchedEuropewereknown.Otherpartsweretalkedaboutby
talesandaccounts.Example:TheBookofSerMarcoPoloconcerningtheKingdomsandMarvels
oftheEast.
Europeanswerefascinatedbytheunknown.
ThemapbyMartinBehaimin1492wasmostlyfaulty.

Reasonsfortheageofexploration:
Mostimportantreason:thedesiretofindallwaterroutetoeast.Thiswouldcutdownonthe
middlemenandthecountriescouldmakemoreprofit.Untillate15thcenturytherewere3routesto
East:
a) Malabarcoast,IndiaIndianoceanRedseaCairoandAlexandria
b) Malabarcoast,IndiaPersianGulfBlackseaorMediterraneanSea
c) ChinaGobidesertSamarkandandBokharaCaspianSeaBlackSeaorMediterranean
throughSyriaoraroundCasplanorthroughRussia
Goodsbroughtinweremostlyprofitableonesasthehardshipsintravellingweregreat.Examples:
spices,preciousmetals,medicaments,dyes,silks,glassware,etc.MiddlemenwereMoslemswhocarried
ittotheMediterranean.Italians(almosthadmonopoly),FrenchandSpanishmerchantsboughtitfrom
themduetotheirpositionsclosetoMediterranean.
Advancestohelpnavigation:
a) Marinerscompass:
PreviouslysailorguidedbyNorthStar,butwhenweatherwouldbecloudythatwouldbetough.
Nowsailorsbecamebraverinopenseas.
Directionsofcoastlinesandpositionofcountriesinrelationtoeachotherwereindicated.
b) Astrolabe:Helpedtocalculatelatitude
c) Others:Tablesofsunsdedication,devicestomeasuretime,etc.
Alltheseenhancedbothsafetyandscopeofnavigationthroughout15thand16thcenturies.
PORTUGAL:
Leadtakerforexplorationage:PrinceHenry(1394to1460):

Portugalhadinternalpeacecomparedtothedomesticproblemsofothercountries.
Itwasthemostunifiednationatthebeginningof15thcentury.

ThecountryturnedtoseaasithadlongAtlanticseaboardswithexcellentharbors.
InitiatedbyPrinceHenry(13941460).HewasthuscalledtheNavigator.
Hegatheredpilots,mathematiciansandcartographerstobuildstouterandlargerships,
equippedwithcompassandastrolabe.
HesentthemouttoexplorewesterncoastofAfrica.
Henrysreasonsforexplorations:
a) Religious:tocrusadeagainsttheMoors.
b) Economic:HewasawareofthepossibleadvantagesofimprovingtradeforPortugal.His
menbuilttradingpostswherevertheywent.
c) Religious:TofindlandofPresterJohn(mythicalChristianruler)intheeast
Heurgedeachcaptaintooutstriphispredecessor.
BeforehisdeaththewestcoastofAfricawasexploredasfarasGulfofGuinea(2000miles)
AfterhisdeaththerewasalagperiodwhenPortuguesesailorswerentencouraged.
Explorationresumedin1481underJohnII.
1488:BartholomewDiazroundedsouthernmosttipofAfrica.NameditCapeofGoodHope.

ChristopherColumbus(sailedin1492):

Obscureoriginandearlylife:hisownwritingsaddtotheconfusion
ClaimedbySpain,PortugalandFranceandallofthemhaveevidences
ButhewasborninGenoa,Italyin1451
Nooneknowswhyhewantedtosailwest,butitissurethathebelievedlandwasthereandthat
IndiaandChinacouldbereachedthroughthatroute.
HefirstappliedtokingofPortugal.Hewasturneddown.ThenheappliedinSpanishcourt.
HethenwonsupportofFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainandleftwiththreeshipsfromportof
Palosin1492.Shipswere:SantaMaria(biggest),PintaandNina.
Hehad90sailors.
TheylandedinasmallislandofBahamasafterabout2.5monthsandthenfoundCubaandHaiti.
HethoughthefoundAsia.Hedidntrealizehefoundanothercontinent(AmerigoVespucci
figureditoutlaterandnamedthenewworldAmerica).
Afterhereturned,SpanishrulesaskedthePopetograntthemrighttoclaimthoselands.
PopeAlexanderVIthenissuedabullwhichdrewalineofdemarcationfromNorthtoSouth
Pole.FinalizedversioncalledtreatyofTordesillas,issuedin1506:
a) AfricaandAsiawouldgotoPortugalexceptPhilippines
b) AmericancontinentwouldgotoSpainexceptBrazil
SpainandPortugaltookitseriously.Othercountriesattimestookitseriouslyandattimes
ignoreditaspertheirconvenience.

VascodaGama(firstsailedin1497):

StartedhisjourneyfromPortugalwith4ships.
ReachedCalicutinMalabarCoastofIndiaafter10monthsin1498.

FacedthewrathofMoslemsthere.
Forcedtoleavetoasmallercityfromwherehecollecteditemslikespicesandpreciousstones.
StartedhisjourneybacktoEuropefromtherein1499.
HisvoyagewasregardedasatriumphwhenhereachedLisbon:
a) Financial:theitemscovered60timeshisexplorationexpense
b) Geographical:Hebroughtbacksolidinformation.
Buthisvoyagehadnegativesidestoo:scurvydisease
a) Losthalfhisships
b) Lost2/3rdofhismen
c) Losthisbrother
DreamofPrinceHenryhadcometrue.TheyhavefoundtheallsearoutetoIndia.
HissecondvoyagefollowedthefirstvoyageofCabral.
Thistimehehad15shipsandtheobjectivewastosecurePortugaldominanceinMalabarCoast.
HisfleetdestroyedMoslemfleetafterthelatterattackedfirst
Builtanumberoftradingposts

PedroAlvaresCabral(firstsailedin1500):

SentafterthefirstvoyageofVascodaGamabykingofPortugal
With13shipsand1200soldiers
Objective:toestablishcommercialstationsinIndia(succeededindoingsoinCochinandCalicut)
Thesestations,whichwereattimesheavilyfortified,werebuiltstrategically.
Theywereforbothcommercialandmilitary(onlyfordefense)purposes(theycontrolledsmall
districtsattimes).
Noharshintentiontotakecolonies.

AffonsodAlbuquerque(firstsailedinaround1508):

RealfounderofPortugaldominioninEast
BecameGovernorofIndiain1509
Veryaggressive:crusadingspiritagainstIslam
DreamttocaptureMecca,carrytheremainsofMohammedfromMedinaandtradeitfor
Jerusalem,destroyfertilityofEgyptbydivertingpathofNile.
ButrealisticallycouldonlydrivetheMoslemtradersfromIndianOcean:
a) CapturedGoain1510.ThismadethemcontrolthewholeofMalabarCoast.
b) CapturedMalaccain1511.ThismadehimbreakMoslemmonopoly.
c) BrokethetraditionaltraderoutethroughPersianGulfandRedSea(Moslemcontrolled)
FacilitatedPortuguesemonopolyinIndoEuropeantrade.

ReasonsforfallofPortuguesemonopolyintheEast:

Smallnationwithamillionpeopleandsocouldnotkeepsendingbackupstotheeast.
BattleagainstMoslemreducedtheirnumbers

Diseaseslikescurvy,choleraandmalariareducedtheirnumbers
Thisforcedthemtosendtheirconvictsandhalfgrownlads:inexperienced.
OnlysubstantialcolonyinGoa.Couldntsettleatanyotherplaceduetoclimaticreasons.
WeakPortugalwasforcedtounitewithSpainin1580sothatotherEuropeancountrieswould
notinvadethem.
From1580to1640PortugalwasapartofSpain(underPhilipII).
MoreattentionprovidedtoBrazil(sugarcaneplantationandexportfromBrazil,discoveryof
valuablereddishdyewood)afterindependencein1640.

SPAIN
SpanishandtheNewWorld

HispaniolawasthefirstSpanishsettlementintheNewWorld
ItwasanislandinHaiti,discoveredbyColumbus
Foundedin1504,cityofSanDomingointhatislandbecamethefirstcapitalofSpanishAmerica.
1509:JamaicawasconqueredandestablishmentofPuertoRicotherebyPoncedeLeon
1511:DiegoVelasquezfoundedHavanainnorthcoast
1541VelasquezextendedhisswayoverwholeofHavanaisland
AlthoughFerdinandandIsabellaaskedtheconquerorstotreatnativeskindly,theyweretreated
cruelly:forcedintoslaveryastheywerepowerlessagainstEuropeanweapons.
IntroductionofsugarcanecultivationfromHispaniola.
Explorerswantedtogofurtherinlandtofindtreasuresorwinfame.
Intheend,SpainwasthefirstexploringandcolonizingnationofAmerica.
By1574:morethan200Spanishsettlements,thewholeSpanishAmericawasdividedinto2
kingdomseachruledbyaviceroy.

PoncedeLeon(startedin1512):

MotivatedbytalesoffameandwealthbyIndians
Andalsowantedtofindthefountainofyouth
Hestartedin1512fromPuertoRicoandonlycoulddiscoverFlorida.
Secondexpeditionin1521hereachedFlorida,foughtwithIndiansanddied.

VascoNunezdeBalboa:

HesoughtafteranoceanaboutwhichtheIndianstoldhim:PacificOcean
HelaidclaimonalltheislandsandtheoceanonbehalfofSpain
ThisshowedthattheNewWorldwasntapartofAsia

DiegoVelasquez

GovernorofCuba

ReachedYucatanpeninsulain1517wherehefoundthattheinhabitantswereofamuchhigher
stateofcivilizationthananywhereencounteredintheNewWorld.
Theyhadgold,woreclothesandcultivatedmazefields
ThelandwasactuallyMexico

Cortez(startedin1518)

HavingheardofVelasquezsdiscoveryofMexico,CortezsetoutfromCubawith10ships,600
soldiersandweapons.
FoundVeraCruz:anAztecsettlementfromwherehereceivedgoldfromAztecleader,
Montezuma,lesthemovedontoMexicoCity.
Seeingthegold,hisgreedincreasedandhedestroyedhisshipssothatnoonecouldturnback
MovedtowardsMexicoCity,capitalofAztecs.
RecruitednativeshostiletoAztecsonhisway.
ReachedMexicoCityandwasinvitedinbyMontezumasothattheywouldntattack.
Butonceinside,theSpaniardstookMontezumahostageandaskedhimtogivethecitytoSpain
CowardiceofMontezumaangeredthepeopleofthecity
TheyfoughtandwardedoffCortez
WithmoresoldiersCortezattackedagainandsucceededintakingthecityin1521.
ProceededfurtherasfarasPanama.

FerdinandMagellan(startedin1519)

ExperiencedthroughhisserviceforPortugal
ConvincingKingCharlesIofSpain,hesailedfromSevillein1519.
Objective:FindpathtoSpiceIslandsthroughBrazil
HeturnedthesouthernmostpartofSouthAmericaintothePacificOcean(henamedtheocean
Pacific)
DiscoveredStraitsofMagellan
Butheandhismenwentthroughhardships:
a) nofood;ateleather,ratsandsawdust
b) drankyellowwater
ThentheyreachedwhatisnowPhilippines
Hewaskilledtherebythenativesin1521.
SurvivorswentontoSevillein1522.

ImportanceofMagellansexpedition:
Hisexpeditionwasimportanttheoretically:

Firsttimeevertheearthwascircled.Showedthatitisindeedspherical.
Gaveideaaboutthecircumferenceofearth
ShowedthatWestIndieswasnotapartofAsia

Notmuchpracticalimportance:

PacificOceanwastoofarawayandcouldnotbeusedforcommercialpurposes.
SpiceIslandwasfoundouttobeinthehalfthatwasgiventoPortugalbythePope.
OnlygainthatSpainhadoutoftheexpeditionwasPhilippines

FranciscoPizarro(startedin1524):

WantedtofindoutthefabledlandofvastwealthintheNewWorldaboutwhichtheIndians
toldBalboa.
ThenamegiventotheunknownlandwasPeru(ElDorado).
Hewasdoggedinnatureandkeptonsearchingfor3years.
FinallyfoundTumbez(whereEcuadorandPerujoins)
HewenttoSpain,gainedpermissionfromtheSpanishkingtoembarkonaconquestofthe
discoveredIncaEmpireandsucceededingainingcontrol.
TheIncanruler,AtahualpamettheSpaniardsinafriendlymanner,butwascaptured
immediately.
AfterhereceivedtreasuresfromtheIncans,hekilledthecapturedAtahualpa.
ThenenteredtheIncanempireandraidedthecities.
Foundgreaterrichesthantheyhaddreamtof.
FirstofthesePeruviangoldreachedSpainin1534andexcitedmanymoreadventurerstocome
andfindmore.
TheyforcedthenativesintoslaveryandthemissionariesstartedtoconvertthemtoChristianity.
Pizarromurderedbyconspiratorsin1541.

ENGLISH:
TheEnglishtriedtofindtraderoutesinthenorthwesternandnortheasternpartssincethesouthand
thewestwasdividedamongSpainandPortugal.
JohnCabot(startedin1497):

Venetian,butstayedinBristol
WentnorthwestbythepermissionofHenryVIIinhopestofindAsia
UltimatelyreachedNewfoundland
Notfruitfulexceptthefactthathediscoveredrichfishinggrounds
LaterhissonembarkedonthesamerouteinordertoreachAsia,butfoundnothingbutice.

SirHughWilloughbyandRichardChancellor(startedin1553):

Wentnortheast
Astormseparatedthem
WilloughbywaslaterdiscovereddeadbyRussianfishermen.
RichardfailedtoconnectwithWilloughbyandreachedArchangelthroughWhiteSea

ThenhewentoverlandandreachedMoscow
ObtainedpermissionofrulerIvantheTerribletotradewithEngland.
Whenhereturned,anewcompanywasformedtoengageintradewithRussia.
MonopolyofthecompanytodiscouragefurtherventuresgivenbyQueenMaryin1554.
Englandexportedwoolenclothandimportedfurs,timber,wax,oil,etc.

MartinFrobisher(startedin1576):

WentnorthwestagaintofindthatroutewhichwouldleadintoAsia
ReachedBaffinLand
HethoughtthiswastheroutethatwouldtakethemtoAsiathroughnorthAmerica
Hecamebacktoreportittotheauthority
Thesoilthathebroughtbackcontainedgold
Companyformedandthemainobjectivewastofindgold(shiftinobjective)
Butintheend,nothingwasfoundandthecompanywentbankrupt.

JohnDavis(startedfirstjourneyin1585):

Madethreejourneysintotal
Mainobjective:gettoAsiabysailingaroundthenorthernpartofAmerica
Founditnotnavigableduetoice
NomoreattemptsweremadetoreachAsiathroughthenorthwest

FocuschangedtobreakingSpanishmonopoly:

AdventurerswiththispurposeinmindencouragedtacitlybyEnglishgovernment
JohnHawkins(15321595):
a) HewasluredbyslavetradeinHispaniola
b) EngagedindoingbusinesswithSpanish
c) Histhirdvoyagewasdisastrous:hewasattackedbyaSpanishfleetwhenhewasaboutto
enterSanJuandeUlua.
d) Twoofhis5shipsreturnedtoEngland
TheattackhurttheEnglishego.
FrancisDrake(wasacompanionofJohnHawkins):
a) Wantedtoavengethemurderofhiscomrades
b) Resortedtopiracy
c) AttackedSpanishshipsandtooktheirtreasures
d) HewentasfarasCaliforniaafterroundingthetipofSouthAmerica
e) HereturnedtoEnglandin1579andwasknightedbyQueenElizabeth
f) Asaresultofhisconquest,thosewhotalkedaboutthedisadvantageofthesmallerEnglish
galleysweresilenced.
g) HebroughtbackinformationthatinthePortuguesecoloniesthenativeswereagainstthe
rulers.

Englishtradeprosperedthereafter.
1588:SpanishinvincibleArmadadestroyed:
1591:EnglishfirstsailedtowardsIndia,disregardingthePopesboundaries
1600:EstablishmentofEnglishEastIndiaCompany

FRENCH

Mostoftheexpeditionsintheearly1500swerefishingexpeditions
Financedbyprivateinterests,nogovernmentcooperation(maybebecausetheyweretoobusy
withhandlingwars)
FrancisI(15151547)wasthefirstrulerwhowasinterestedinthesediscoveries:particularlyto
China
HesentoutGiovanniVerrazanoin1524andthenJacquesCartierin1534westward.

JacquesCartier:

InhisfirstjourneyhereachedtheNewWorld
ButwasforcedtoturnbackatSt.Lawrenceduetobadweather
Hereturnedthenextyearalongthesameroute
FoundtheIndianvillageofHochelagaandnamedthenearbymountainMontReal.
HiseffortstoreachChinawereunsuccessful
ButhefoundfertilelandsinSt.Lawrence

POSITIVESOFTHEEXPLORATION:

Expansion of commerce outside of Mediterranean trade: The entire world opened up. The
Atlanticroutesused,theIndianOceanroutesusedafterturningaroundtheCapeofGoodHope.
MonopolyofItaliansended.
Increase in volume and variety of commerce: Some of the products are potato, maize and
tobaccofromNorthAmerica;molassesandrumfromWestIndies;chocolate,quinine,dyesfrom
SouthAmerica;ivory,slaves,ostrichfeatherfromAfrica.Whatwereluxuriesoncenowbecame
normal.Pricesweredecreasing.Influencedcapitalism.Riseofbanksandcompanies
Increase in supply of precious metals: The metals facilitated the circulation of money. They
allowedmentoholdwealthinsolidformforfutureinvestment.Goldandsilverwerebeingused
asthingsofvaluesotherthanjustmetals.Butthisrapidincreaseincirculationalsoresultedin
speculationsonvoyageswhichaffectedmarkets.Thiswasthebasisforcommercialrevolution.
Geographicalknowledgeexpansion.

NEGATIVESOFEXPLORATION:

Africanslavery
Religious: Now for the first time, Europeans ventured out for conversion. Missionaries would
comealongsidetheadventurers.
Colonialism:Europeanizationstarted.Theywereinfluencingthethoughtsofpeople.

Whenthemiddleagesendedandthemodernagestarted:
Thereseemstobevaryingexpertopinionswhenaskedwhattheapproximateboundaryis.Although
everyoneagreesthatthereisnodistinctborder(meaningthatthechangedidnothappeninoneday),
andthattheprocesswasgradual,theyinsistonformingborders.Therearethreeschoolsofthought:
i)

MiddleagesendedwiththecaptureofConstantinoplebyOttomanTurksin1453.

ii)

ModernhistorystartswiththediscoveryofAmericabyColumbusin1492.

iii)

ModernhistorystartsfromthesplitinChurch(anincidentwhichmarkedtheperiodwhen
thepeoplestartedtoquestionaboutreligion,whichwasconsideredtobeataboountil
then).ThissplitintheChurchoccurredin1517.

Featuresofmedievalperiod:
Periodsareidentifiedlesswithdaysanddates(astheprocessofchangesaregradual)andmoreby
seriesofmovementsorfeaturesthatgivesaperiodadistinctivecharacteristics.
Formedievalperiod,thedistinctivefeatureswere:
i)

Dominatedbytwoempires:ThefirstonewastheEasternByzantineempire(Greek
dominated)andtheotheronewastheRomanEmpire.Duringtheendofthemedieval
period,bothofthesewerecollapsing.TheEasternEmpirewascollapsingasConstantinople
wascapturedbytheOttomans.TheHolyRomanEmpirelingeredtillthebeginningofthe
19thcentury,butstoodnowhereclosetoitsformerglory.Theyfailedtoplayinternational
role.Nationalstateswerebeginningtoform.

ii)

Socioeconomicorder:Theorderthatdominatedthroughoutthemiddleageswas
feudalism.Inthissystem,therewerelandlordsandpeasantsandtherewereknightsto
maintainsocialorder.Butgraduallytheeconomybegantoshiftfrombeinglandorproduct
basedtomoneybased.Newequipmentswerebeinginstalled.Theknightswerebecoming
obsoleteandwerebeingreplacedbymercenariesfighterswhowouldaskformoneyto
fightonbehalfofaparty.Thesemercenarieshadnewtypesofweaponswhichtheknights
werenotcomfortableusing.Therigidsystemwasgivingway.

iii)

Craftguild:Thesesortsofassociationshadcontrolinretailtrade.Butnow,theexportswere
alsoemerging,whichwidenedthescopeoftrade.Merchantsandcapitalistsassociations
werecomingin.

iv)

RomanCatholicChurch:Duringthemiddleages,theChurchstoodforrighteousnessand
unity.Theyimposedwasrestraints,maintainedpeace,etc.Butnow,thepeoplestartedto
questionthePopetheyputpressuresandposedthreatsonCatholicChurch.TheChurch
alsoopposedtothedevelopmentofnationalstates.

v)

Newforces,motivesandfactors:Astheparadigmwasontheshift,therewerenewforces
andmotivesthatwereshapingupthemindsetofthepeople.Theircombinedeffectshad
impactsonproducingthemodernworld.

Featuresofmodernperiod:
i)

Riseofmiddleclass:Previously,theclasswasdividedintoclergy(peoplewhowerefrom
theChurch),nobilityandthirdestate(commonersandpeasants).Butwithtime,theclergies
werelosinginfluencesaspeoplestartedquestioningreligion.Alongwiththis,thepowerof
thenobilitywasalsoonthefall.Newsocialclasswasrisingbetweennobilityandthethird
estate.Thiswasthemiddleclass(artisans,craftsman,etc).Theywerecalledbourgeoisie
inFrench.ThemainreasonfortheiremergencewastomakemoneyduringtheCrusades.
Theiridealwastomakemoney.Theylatergaverisetoscholars,doctors,writers,etc.Asthis
classofpeoplestartedtomakemoney,theystartedtolookforpoliticalpower.

ii)

Emergenceofnationalstates:Withtheemergenceofcitystates,rivalriesweredeveloping.
Amongthesestates,thereweredivisionsbasedonlanguagesandstrongrulers.Balanceof
powerwasthereifarulerwastoostrong,otherswouldganguponhim.

iii)

Changingeconomicworld:Thefactorwhichbroughtthisaboutwastheexpansionof
commerceinlargescale.Routeswerebeingdiscoveredtothenewworld(America)andthe
east.Capitalismwasanecessarything.Thesupplyofraregoodsincreasedwiththeflourish
oftradeandthisreducedtheprices.Thecommonpeoplewerebeingabletopurchase
necessities.

iv)

Growthofsecularspirit:Previously,peopleweredominatedbyasceticspirit(tiedto
religion).Butnow,lifeonearthwastakinganewmeaning.Peoplestartedtoenjoytheir
lives,amindsetwhichpromotedliterature.Sciencewasalsoflourishing.Therewasa
simultaneousriseinanticlericalfeeling.Protestswereheardagainstthechurches.These
werereflectedintheirliterature.Piouspeoplewererising,whoseemedtodefinereligious
intheirownway.Thus,theyweregoingagainstthechurchaswell.

Sosixheadingthatcanbeusedtosummarizethewholechangeare:

Riseofnationalstates
Intensificationofsecularspirit
ExpansionofEuropeintoAsia/America
Riseofmoderncapitalism
FoundingofProtestantChurches
Riseofmodernscience

Andinthemidstofthemall,themostimportantpoint,whichrelatestoallsixofthemisthe
emergenceofthemiddleclass.

RENAISSANCE
Overview:
Afterthe1300s,thecharacteristicsofthemedievalagesstartedtodecay,asdiscussedinthelasttopic.
Gothiccathedralsweregone.Thesupremacyofreligiousandethicalinterpretationwasundermined
throughsecularthinking.Newinstitutionswerearising.Somecharacteristicsweredeveloping.The
traditionalnamethatisgiventothiscivilization(from1300toabout1650)isRenaissance.
Renaissanceliterallymeansrebirthanditcommonlyimpliesthatsuddenlytherewasarevivalof
peoplesinterestsintheancientlearning.However,thechangewasnotsosuddenandthisinclination
wasalsopresentinthemiddleagesamongmanyscholars.Example:Dante.But,whatmarks
Renaissanceisnotonlytherevivalofclassicallearning,butalsomaynewemergencesinthefieldsofart,
science,literature,religion,politics,education,etc.ThefoundationsforthesewereRomanandGreek
influences,butitwentbeyondthesetwo.
IdealsofRenaissance:
Renaissanceputforthdominantidealsandattitudeswhichsetstandardforthenewworld.
i)
ii)
iii)

Optimism:Willingtobelieveinpossibilities
Worldliness:Maininterestwasonthisworldandnotontheafterlife.Focuswason
enjoyment.
Individualism:Takingdecisions,comingupwithownideas.

Aboveall,theidealofRenaissancewasdominatedbyhumanism,theglorificationofthehumanself
supportingnatureandhumansratherthanthedivineandafterlife.
CausesofRenaissance:
1. InfluenceoftheByzantine(Greek)andSaracenic(Islamic)empires.
2. Developmentofflourishingcommerce,whichledtoincreaseinpatronage.
3. Growthofcities(urbancultures)andashiftfromtheruralculture(whichwasreligiousand
conservativeinnature).
4. Revivalofinterestinclassicallearning.
5. Growthofcriticalorquestioningattitudesasseeninphilosophers.
6. Gradualescapefromotherworldlythinking.
7. StudyofRomanLawwhichconnectstothinkinginasecularmanner.
8. ExpansionofintellectualinterestbyUniversities
9. Growthofnaturalisminliteratureandart(goingawayfromreligion)whichledtodeveloping
scientificthinking.
10. Patronagebywealthymerchantstosupportphilosophersandartists.Someofthepatronswere
wellconnectedtotheChurch(somewereevenPopes).Othersincludedwealthyandinfluential
rulers.Example:MedicifamilyinFlorence.

11. Crusadesandtheinventionofprintingpresshadindirectroles:TheCrusadesweakened
feudalismtosomeextentanditdiminishedtheprestigeofPapacy.Also,itgavetheItaliancities
themonopolyovertheMediterraneantrade.
TheinventionofprintingpresscameinthelaterstagesofRenaissance(1454).Thereweremany
scholarswhowereagainsttheuseofprintingpresstheywereafraidthattheywouldbe
misunderstoodbythepeople,whowerenotintellectuallyequivalenttothem.Theywereafraid
thatpeoplemightprotestastheychallengedestablishedbeliefs.Punishmentswereverysevere
andincludedbeingtermedasawitchandbeingburntalive.Moreover,theownersofprinting
pressweremoreinterestedinreligiousthingsandpopularlegendssincethesewereindemand.
Theywerentthatinterestedinscholarlypieces.Theprintingpressesonlyhelpedinthe
spreadingofRenaissancetoNorthEuropeinthelaterstages.
WhyItaly?
ThereasonwhyRenaissancetookplaceinItalyandnotinanyotherEuropeancitiesis:
i)

ii)
iii)

iv)

v)
vi)

Strongerclassicaltradition:ItaliansweredescendentsofRomansandthuswereproudof
theachievementsthatweremadebytheRomans.Asaresult,theirconnectiontothepast
waseasilysetandtheyweremoreeagertoupholdthetraditions.
Romansystemofeducation:ItstillsurvivedintheschoolsofItaly.Itservedasalinkageto
thepast.
Unmoralattitude:TheItaliansdidnothaveastrongmoralorethicalconsideration.They
werequiteliberalintheirbeliefs.TheyhadanancientPaganspirit.Anexample:Whenthe
ItaliansfoundoutthatthePopehadillegitimatechildren,theywerenotshockedatthis
unexpectedevent.ThiswasthespiritofRenaissance.
Secularculture:ThescopeofdevelopingsecularculturewasmorefavorableinItaly.
Universitiesweresetupforstudyinglawandmedicine(althoughtherestoftheEuropestill
focusedmoreontheology).InRomehowever,thereligiousstudywasstrongerthaninother
citystates.Thus,inthisrespect,theItalianswerequitefarsighted.
FullimpactofByzantineorSaraceniccivilization:Thefullimpactofthesetwocivilizations
camestronglyinItalymostlyduetoitsgeographicallocation.ItalywasclosertoGreece.
Trade:Italiancityportswerethemainlinkofrevivaloftradewiththeeast.Theseseaports
includedtheseaportsofNaples,VeniceandGenova.Theyenjoyedmonopolyofthe
Mediterraneantrade.Italianmerchantsactedasmiddlemenduringsuchtradesaswell.All
theseimprovedtheeconomicprosperityofItaly,whichisanimportantaspectof
Renaissance(itultimatelypromotedpatronage).

PoliticalBackgroundofItalianRenaissance:
i)

Presenceofchaos:Althoughitisgenerallyexpectedthatforprogresstooccur,theremust
bepeacewithinthecountry,thegovernmentmustbeorderlyandefficientandthepeople
mustbecalmandpeaceful.Butthiswasnotthecase.Renaissancedevelopedamidst
turmoil.ItalywasntastatewhenRenaissanceoccurred.Therewerefactionalrevolts,

ii)

iii)

conflictbetweenrulers,etc.Thepillarsofthemedievalworldwerebreakingdown(chivalry,
feudalism,etc.)Newmiddleclasswasemergingandmercenarieswerecomingin.
Growthofdespoticgovernments:Italyhadseveralpettycitystateswhichwereincreasingly
throwingawaythedominanceoftheHolyRomanempire.Therewasdemocraticsetupback
there.Butnow,thenewemergingrulershadlittlerespectfordemocracy.Somanycities
cameundertheruleofdespoticrulers.Enlighteneddictatorsordespoticrulersare
sometimesgoodaswellasdemocracygaverisetotoomanyopinionsfromtoomany
people.OneexampleofthisiswhentheRepublicofFlorencepassedontotheMedicifamily
in1434toberuledforthenext60years.LorenzoMediciwasadespoticruler(Lorenzothe
Magnificent).
Expansionofcitystates:Therewasatendencyoflargercitystatestocontrolthesmaller
citystates.Whateventuallydevelopedby1500wastheexistenceoffivedominantcity
states:thePapalStates(controlledbytheRomanCatholicChurch),theDuchyofMilan
(Viscontidespots),theKingdomofNaples,Venice(theGreatCouncilandthedoge)andthe
RepublicofFlorence(Medicifamily).

OverviewtableofRenaissance:

Literature

Arts

Trecento(1300s)
FrancescoPetrach
(13041374):Fatherof
ItalianRenaissanceand
humanism.Florentine.
Religious.Likedmonks.
Wrotesonnets.Loved
GreekandLatinclassics
butdidntunderstand
them.Lovedwifeof
anotherguy.
GiovanniBoccacio
(13131375):Florentine.
Illegitimateson.Sentto
Naplestoworkinbank.
Wrotepoemsand
prose.Bestwork
Decameron(100
storiesofmanytheme,
anticlerical,manyPOV).
Giotto(12761337):
Naturalism.Lifelike
painting.2Dcharacters.
Surpassedteacher,
Cimabue.WorksSt.
Francispreachingto
birds,Themassacreof
innocence.

Quattrocento(1400s)
1393:famousGreek
scholarcametoItaly
ManuelChrysaloras.
Sentfrom
Constantinopoleasan
ambassadorof
Byzantines.
1413to1423:Giovanni
Aurispaandhis250
manuscriptsofmany
famousGreeks.
Poggio,Becadelli,
Filelfo,Pontano
LorenzoValla(1406
1457).Wrotehistory.
CriticizedChurchby
provingforgeries.
Consideredof1500s.
Masaccio(14011428):
Realist.Introduced
uniformity(senseof
space).Lightshade.
Nudeart.Expulsionof
AdamandEvefrom
thegarden.

Cinquecento(1500s)
LudivicoAriosto
(14741533):Wrote
epics.Orlando
furiousobestwork.
JacopoSannazaro
(14581530):Wrote
pastoralpoetry.
Arcadiabestwork.
NiccoloMachiavelli
(14691526).Wrote
dramaandhistory.
Mandragola(drama)
bestwork.
FrancescoGuicciardini
(14831540).Wrote
history.Thehistoryof
Italyfrom1490to
1534bestwork.
Objective.
Tintoretto(1518
1594).High
Renaissance.
Venetian.
RaphaelSanti(1483
1520):Mostpopular.
Charming,not

Sculpture

emotional.Pious.
FraLippoLippi:
CopiedVincis
Memberofreligious
technicalfeatures.
brotherhood,drawing
Seekedbeauty.Glorify
normalpeopleinto
formandcolor.
saints,psychological
SchoolofAthens,
analysis.
SistineMadonna.
SandroBotticelli(1445
Michelangelo(1475
1510):Beautyofsoul.
1564).Badchildhood.
Psychological
Tempestuous
treatment.Pensive
mentality.Pessimistic.
sadness.Yearningfor
Universaltragedy
divine.Classicalmyths.
theme.Masterpiece
AllegoryofSpring,
isseriesoffrescosin
BirthofVenus.
SistineChapelceiling.
DaVinci(14521519):
TheLastjudgment,
Versatile.Patronized
Godcreatingearh,
byLorenzo,thenby
Fallofman.Pagan
SporzafamilyinMilan.
spiritinhumanshapes
Scientificstudybehind
(muscular).
art.TheVirginofthe
Rocks,TheLast
Supper,Monalisa.
Titian(14771576):
HighRenaissance.
Venetian.Venetian
lifestyle.
Giorgione(14781510):
HighRenaissance.
Venetian.
Donatello(13861466):Individualism.Chosetoshowcharacteroverbeauty.
DavidandGoliathshowednaturalismandglorificationofnude.
Gattamelatashowedequestrianmonument.
Michelangelo(14751564):Greatestofthatera.Perfectionist.Brokestatueif
notsatisfied.Pessimistic.Tragicsceneseen.Expressionofthoughtinstone.
Distortioninfigure.WorksBoundSlaveandMosesinTombofPopeJulius
II.DawnandSunsetonTombofMedici.Pietaforhisowntomb.

LiteratureofTrecento:
a) FrancescoPetrarch(13041374):PetrachwasaFlorentine.HeistermedasthefatherofItalian
Renaissance.HewasclosetothestudyofmedievalperiodsandhebelievedfirmlyinChristianity
asthewayofsalvation.Hewasaddictedtomonks.HewasafanaticoftheTuscandialect
(previouslyusedbyDante).Hisbestknownworksincludesonnetscontainingchivalrouslove
elements.Asaresult,hewascalledthefatherofhumanismaswell.Anothersideofhimshowed
greatadmirationtowardsGreekandLatinclassics.Thesadparthereisthathedidnt

understandGreek,sohejustlookedattheworks.Hefellinlovewiththewifeofanotherman,
whichwasthesourceofmanyofhisgreatestworks.
b) GiovanniBoccacio(13131375):HewasalsoaFlorentinelikePetrarch.Hewasanillegitimate
sonofarichmerchantandsohewassenttoNaplestoserveasanapprenticeinabank.But
accountingboredhim.HeinsteadfoundNaplesaestheticallybeautifulandthisservedashis
sourceofinspiration.Althoughhestartedoutwithpoems,hemovedontoprose.Hisfirstwork
ofmeritwasFiamettawhichwaslikeapsychologicalnovel.Hismostpopularworkis
DecameronwhichhewrotewhenhereturnedtoFlorence.Thewordmeans100and
contained100storiesfromPOVof7ladiesand3men.Ithadmultiplethemes(fromfarceto
tragedy)whichwereunitedbytheoverallplotthese10peopleescapingFlorenceduetoBlack
Deathandtookshelterinasafehouse,tellingstoriestoeachother.Butmanystorieswerenot
original.Therewasarecurringanticlericalcharacteristic.Thisbookwasimportantsinceitset
thepatternforItalianproseandhadanimpactonwritersfromothercountriesaswell.
Bocacciosdeathin1375somewhatmarkedtheendofTrecentoinItalianRenaissance.
LiteratureofQuattrocento:
SomeofthebestnamesofthisperiodarePoggio,Beccadelli,Filelfo,Pontano,etc.Mostofthemshow
aninherentpassionforGreekstudies.Althoughthiswasalsopresentpreviously(e.g.Petrarch),there
wasnoonetoteachGreekphilosophiesbackthen.
In1393afamousGreekscholarcomestoItalynamedManuelChrysaloras.Heservedasanambassador
fromtheByzantinesinConstantinoplesenttoswayItalianstowardsthemintheirwaragainstOttoman
Turks.TheItaliansconvincedhimtoacceptprofessorshipattheUniversityofFlorencetoteachGreek
Classics.
Atthebeginningofthe15thcentury,PlatonistphilosophersstartedtocometoItalytoteachthemtheir
ways.ThiswasfollowedbyItalianphilosophersgoingtoConstantinopletolookforGreekmanuscripts.
Oneofthem,GiovanniAurispa,broughtback250manuscriptsofmanyfamousGreekssuchas
Sophocles,Euripides,Thucidydes,etc.from1413to1423.
LiteratureofCinquecento:
Duringthisperiod,ItalianlanguagewasraisedtofullequalitywithGreekandLatinclassics.Classicaland
modernphilosophieswereblendedtocomeupwithaformandcontentthatwasoriginal.Tillnow,
literaturewasmainlycopiesfromtheclassicalLatinandGreekphilosophies.Butnow,itwasnolonger
so.
OneimportantchangethatcameaboutinthisperiodistheshiftoftheliterarycapitalfromFlorenceto
Romeinthefirsthalfof16thcentury.ThereasonbehindthiswasthepatronageoftheChurchand
Popes.OneexampleisPopeLeo10th.HewasthesonofLorenzotheMagnificentandbecameacardinal
attheageof14throughhisfathersconnections.Hewasnotthatreligiousgiventhefamilybackground.
Rather,hewantedtoenjoythePapacy.Helavishedrichgiftinaspendthriftmanneronartistsand
writersandalsofinancedsomeofthemostbeautifulChurchesinhistime.

Someofthenamesthatcomeupduringthistimeare:
a) LudovicoAriosto(14741533):Hewasbestknownforepics.HisbestworkisOrlandoFurioso
whichwasbasedonancientlegendsderivedfromclassicalsources.Thethemewaslight,
portrayedverylittleidealismandwasfilledwithlove,natureandromancetocharmthe
readers.
b) JacopoSannazaro(14581530):Hewasbestknownforpastoralpoetry,whichdealtwiththe
glorificationofthesimplerurallife.Inthesepoetries,theauthoryearnstogobacktothegolden
agetotheunspoiledruralbeauty.HisbestworkisabookcalledArcadia.
c) NiccoloMachiavelli(14691526):Hewasbestknownfordrama.TheItalianswerenotthat
successfulindramaliketheGreeks.Theywerenotthatgoodinwritingtragicdramassincethey
weremoreoptimisticthantheGreeksandthuswerementallymismatched.Theyweremore
individualisticandsowerenotinfluencedbythemesofsufferings.ThebestworkofMachiavelli
indramawasMandragola.ThisbookwasverywittyandwasbasedonlifeinFlorence.Ithad
elementsofsatireinitwhichshowedhiscynicalviewonthehumannature.Accordingtohimin
thisbook,everyonethinksthathe/sheisrightnomatterhowstupidtheyreallyare.People
wantedtocoveruptheirperspectiveswithrefinementsoflearning.Peoplewereselfish.
Machiavellishowedtheseinahumorousway.OneofthebooksthatMachiavelliisfamousfor
(althoughitisnotadrama)isThePrince.Healsowroteonhistory,ontheevolutionof
FlorenceafterthedeathofLorenzoMedici.
d) FrancescoGuicciardia(14831540):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Duringthis
period,historicalwritingsachievedacertaindegreeofcriticalaspectandobjectivity.Hewasan
ambassadorofFlorenceandagovernorofthePapalterritories.Asaresult,hesawfirsthand
howpoliciesandreactionsoperatedandwroteaccordingly.Hegaveminuteandrealistic
analyseswhichwereobjectiveandneutral.Hisaccountswerethusdispassionate.Hisbestwork
isTheHistoryofItalyfrom1490to1534.
e) LorenzoValla(14061457):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Althoughhebelongedto
thequattrocento,heisconsideredtobeahistorianfromthecinquecento.Heisconsideredto
bethefatherofhistoricalcriticism.AlthoughhewaspatronizedbytheChurch,hisbestworks
ledtodivulgingdocumentsthattheChurchforgedinordertokeepcontrol(example:donation
ofConstantinople).ThisstimulatedamuchbroaderattackontheChurch.
ArtsofTrecento:
ArtisconsideredtobetheproudestachievementsoftheRenaissanceandthedevelopmentsinthisfield
occurredparalleltotheonesinliterature.
a) Giotto(12761337):HeistopaintingwhatPetrarchandBoccacioistoliterature.Withhim,
paintingtookthestatusofindependentart.Heinauguratedthenaturalisminpainting.Although
hisartswerequitemedieval(2Dandlowallegoricalitems),hestartedthetrendtowards
naturalism.HisteacherwasCimabuewhowasalsoatoppainted,butGiottosurpassedhim.
Healsoworkedonfrescos,twoofwhichareSt.FrancispreachingtothebirdsandThe
MassacreofInnocence.

ArtsofQuattrocento:
Duringthisperiod,thefocusonpaintingwasincreasedtremendouslydueto:
i)
ii)

Increaseofwealthofthecitystates.
Partialtriumphofthesecularspirit(Artwasnowfreedfromthedomainofreligiousthinking
ithadtranscendedreligion.Thusthesubjectmatterofpaintingincreased).

Asaresultofthese,thechurchwasnotthesolepatronoftheartsandthereweremanyotherwealthy,
secularpatrons.Therewerechangesinthesubjectmatteraswell:therewasanonreligioustheme
infusedinthereligioustheme.Also,thepaintingstructurechangedaswell:portraitswerebecoming
morepopulartorevealthemysteriesofthesoul.Theywereintendedtoappealnotonlytotheeye,but
alsototheintellect.
Thenewestfeatureintroducedwastheconceptofoilpaintingwhichrevolutionizedtheindustry.This
techniquewasfirstintroducedinFlanders,Belgium.Itcontributedtotheartisticadvancementare:
i)
ii)
iii)

Oiltakeslongertodryandsopaintersgetmoretimetofinishpainting.Scopeofcorrection
ishigh.Moretimecanbespentindifficultareas.Soperfectionlevelishigher.
Moreglossypaintings.
Longlastingpaintings.

MostofthepaintersfromthisperiodwereFlorentines.
a) Masaccio(14011428):HeisconsideredtobethefirstoftherealistpaintersoftheRenaissance.
Hewasgeniusintheanalysisofspace:persons,trees,houseswereshowningeometrically
determinedplaces.Heintroduceduniformityandemotionsinthestory.Hewasalsogoodat
nudeart.HisbestworksareExpulsionofAdamandEvefromthegarden(nowintheSanta
MariaChurch,Florence)andThetributemoney.Hewasalsothefirsttohighlightthethickness
inlightandshade.Hediedat27yearsofage.
b) FraLipoLippi:Hewasthememberofareligiousbrotherhood,butyethispaintingshadhuman
appeals.HeusednormalFlorentinestodepictsaints.Hisportraitswereveryvividashecould
drawtheinnersoulverywellonapersonsface.Thus,hecommencedthepsychologicalanalysis
inthefieldofart.
c) SandroBotticelli(14451510):Hisworkscarriedpsychologicalmeasurementandanalysis
further.Moreover,hispaintingreflectedthebeautyofthesoul.Therewasayearningforthe
divineinhispaintingwhichgaverisetopensivesadness.TwoofhisbestworksareAllegoryof
SpringandBirthofVenus.Allofthesewerebaseduponclassicalmythologyandshowed
yearningforancientGreeceandRome.
d) LeonardoDaVinci(14521519):Heisthemosttalentedofthemall.Hewasaversatileperson
whoexcelledateverythinghetouched(music,science,sculptures,maths,philosophy).Hisbest
qualitywashiszealforknowledge:hepushedforwardexplorationswithunmatchedskillsand
penetrations.Hewastheillegitimatechildofalawyerandanoblewomanandwasbornin
Florence.HewasfirstsenttoVerrocchiowhowasthechiefFlorentinesculptorofthattime.But

bythetimehewas25yearsold,hecaughttheeyeofLorenzotheMagnificent,whopatronized
himforquitesometime.Butaftersometime,DaVincibecamedissatisfiedwiththeartisticview
ofLorenzoandsohewenttoMilantobepatronizedbytheSforzafamily,whereheproduced
someofhisbestworks.HisworkmarkstheHighRenaissance(late1400sandearlyyearsof
1500).
Vincisartisticapproachincluded:
Impatienceagainstclassicalmodelimitation.Hisworkswereoncloseobservationofthe
nature.
Hebelievedartshouldbebasedonscientificstudyofnature.
Hedidntwanttoconfinehisintereststothesurfaceasheknewnaturessecretswere
verywellhidden.Sohetriedtoconcealhismessages.
Hewasfascinatedbythegrotesqueandtheunusualinnatureandponderedoverthem.
Hissubjectmatterincludedexceptionsofhumantypes.Example:facesthatwould
revealterror,beauty,hypocrisy,sincerity,etc.Sotherewasahighqualityofrealism.
Realityrepresentedsymbolicallyandphilosophically.

Hismasterpieceswere:

TheVirginoftherocks:Showshistechnicalskillsandpassionforscienceandhisbelieve
inorder.Thefigureswerearrangedingeometriccomposition.
TheLastSupper:PaintedonthewallsoftheSantaMariaChurchinMilan.Thiswasa
studyofthepsychologicalreactionswhenacalmChristrevealedtohisdisciplesthat
someoneinthatroomwouldbetrayhim.Thepaintingshowsthereactionsofthe
peopletothis:surprised,guilt,horrified.
MonaLisa:ItliterallymeansmyladyLisa.Itwastheportraitofanactualwomanand
reflectsthevaryingmoodsofthewomanthroughhersmile.Itsupposedlysatisfiesall
explanations.Vinciintroducedanewstylewherehepunctuatedthedarkerareaswith
littlespotsoflighttogivethefaceapensivelook.Heplayedwithlightandshadetoo
andthusmanifestedthelawsoftheuniverse.ItisnowsituatedattheLouvreinParis.

ArtsofHighRenaissance(LateQuattracento):
Inthisperiod,therewasanewschoolofpaintingemerging:theVenetianschoolofpainting.These
paintingsappealedtothesensesratherthantheintellect.Therewasnophilosophicalorpsychological
theme.ThepaintingsshowedtheluxuriousandpleasurelovinglifestyleofVenice.Thepaintingswere
mainlyoflandscapesusingcolorstomakeitmoreattractive.ExamplesareVenetiansunsetsand
moonlights,palaces,clothes,jewelriesetc.Thesereflectedthetasteofthewealthyclass.Somefamous
nameswere:
a) Titian(14771576)
b) Giorgione(14781510)
c) Tintoretto(15181594)

ArtofCinquecento:
Bythistime,theevolutionofartwasatitspeak.ThefirstsignofdecaycomesinasRomebecomesthe
centerofart,butyettherewasFlorentineinfluence.Someofthemostfamousnamesare:
a) RaphaelSanti(14831520):HewasthemostpopularpainterofItalianRenaissanceand
consideredbymanyastheprinceofItalianpainters.HewasntdisturbedlikeVinci(withhis
mentalcomplexities)orMichelangelo(withhisemotionaltorment).Heappealedinthecharm
andsimplehumanismratherthanemotionalthinking.Ononehandhewasanardentadmirerof
DaVinciandcopiedmanytechnicalaspectsofhimandontheotherhandhestucktohis
thoughtsofsweetnessandpietyinstilledbyhisearlierteachers.Heglorifiedformandcolorfor
theirownsakesandnotforgivingthewholethingintellectualmeanings.Hewasdifferentfrom
bothVinciandMichelangelobecauseheconcentratedonlyonpaintingwhereastheotherswere
moreversatile.Hedevotedhimselftothecultivationofanidealtypeofbeauty.Hisgreatest
worksareSchoolofAthensandSistineMadonna.
b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Michelangelohadadifficultchildhoodashehadtolive
throughpovertyandwasalsoharassedbygraspingrelatives.Moreover,hehadatempestuous
mentality(selfdestructive).Hewasalsoasculptorandanarchitect.Inhisearlyyears,he
workedasaprotegeofLorenzotheMagnificent.Heisconsideredasoneofthemosttragic
figuresintheartworld.Hewantedtoshowauniversalconceptionoftragedyintheorderof
things.Hegrewupwithdarksentimentswhichshowedinhisarts.Healsoemphasizedon
intensehumanismandinanimateobjectswerenoteventhereinthebackgroundsofhis
paintings.HisbestachievementswereaseriesoffrescosontheceilingofSistineChapel.Itwas
anextremelylaboriousjobandheworkedonitfor4.5yearscovering6000squareft.with400
figuresabout10ft.instature.Theywereseriesintheepicoftheevolutionofhumanraceasper
theChristianlegends.Someofthenamesare:Godcreatingearth,Goddividinglightfrom
darkness,CreationofAdam,FallofManetc.ButhismostfamouspaintingisTheLast
Judgment(finished22yearsafterthefrescos)onthealtarsbackwall.Itisreferredtoasthe
mostfamouspaintingintheworld.AlthoughtheconceptisChristian,thespiritisPagan
(muscularChristandnudefigures).Thereweresuggestionsoftheruthlessdeity(universal
tragedy).
SculpturesofRenaissance:
Inthemedievaltimes,sculpturewasnotconsideredtobeseparatefromarchitecture.Nowin
Renaissance,itwasestablishedasaseparateartandithaditswayofreflectingsecularthinking.Twoof
thebiggestnamesinthisrespectare:
a) Donatello(13861466):HeoccupiedthatspaceinsculpturewhichMasacchioheldinpainting.
Heintroducedindividualisminsculptures.SomeofhisbestworksareDavidandGoliath
showingthestatueofDavidstandingoverslainGoliath.Thisshowednaturalismand
glorificationofthenude.Healsoproducedthefirstmonumentalequestrianstatuewhichacted

asthesymbolofpower,successandglory.ThestatueofGattamelataisanexample,which
waswroughtinbronze.
b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Heisconsideredtobethegreatestsculptorofthat
period.Hispersonalpreferencewasalsomakingsculpturesoverpainting.Hewasa
perfectionist:wheneverhewasnotsatisfiedwithasculpture,hebrokeit.Thisshowedasense
ofhopelesspessimism.Hisworksshowaprogressioninhisstylefromhisearlylife(wherehis
stylewascopiedfromclassicalobservations)tohismaturestage(blendofnaturalisticand
classicalmodels).Hefocusedontragicthemeshereaswell.Hismotivatingfactorwasto
expressthoughtsinstone.Heuseddistortion(abnormalityinthehumanfigure)togivepowerful
effects.Mostofbestworkswereforthetombsofleaders.
Forexample,thetombofPopeJulius2ndhadtwofigures:boundslave(showingpowerand
talentrestrainedbyfate)andMoses(showstherageoftheprophetonthechildrenofIsrael).
AnotheroneisthetombofMediciwhereheproducedacoupleofallegoricalfigures:Dawn(a
womanawakenedfromdreamlesssleepintosuffering,showingthesorrow)andSunset(a
powerfulmanwhoseemstobesinkingundertheloadofhumandespairandmisery).Buthis
intendedmasterpiecewasPietawhichwasastatuedoneinmarble.ItshowsVirginMary
holdingthedeadbodyofChristinanexpressionofpitytowardsthepeoplewholosthim.This
wasintendedpossiblyforhisowntomb.
ArchitectureofRenaissance:
ThearchitectureofRenaissancewasmorerelatedtothepastthatthepaintingsandsculptures.Dueto
thestrongrevivaloftheLatinculture,theRomanandRomanesquestyleshadactedasinspirations.The
greatestarchitectstookideasfromthemonasteriesandchurchesofthatera.OneexampleisFilippo
Brunellecschi,aFlorentinewhojourneyedtoRometostudytheancientbuildings(theirsecrets,beauty
andgrandeur).
Someofthetechniqueswere:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Squarefloorplans
Domes(whichwereattimesusedasbelltowers)
Columns(withalotofheight)
Archesandstairs

FinestexampleofthisisSt.PetersChurchinRome,whichwasbuiltunderthepatronageofPopeJulius
2ndandPopeLeo10th.Itwasdesignedbythemostcelebratedarchitects:Michelangelo,Raphael,
Bramante,etc.Itwasdecoratedwiththemostexpensivepaintingsandsculpturesandremainsasthe
mostmagnificentchurchofalltime.
WhydidRenaissanceend?
Therearenoclearanswerstothis.Butthemostprobablereasonisthefactorthatgaveititsplaceinthe
veryfirst(economicsupremacy).Thiswasbroughtaboutby:

i)

ii)

iii)

Ageofexploration:Bynow,thediscoveryofthenewworldhadcomeintoplay.Anew
worldisdiscoveredintheearly16thcentury(America).Thisledtoashiftinthecentreof
tradefromtheMediterraneantotheAtlanticcities.SoeconomicsupremacyoftheItalians
startedtogodown.TheItalianmoney,whichactedasthelifeandbloodoftheculture,was
drainedawaybythisshiftasthismeantlesspatronage.
Politicalinstability:Renaissancewasbroughtaboutamidstpoliticalinstability.Now,this
broughtaboutitsdownfall.Jealouslyamongcitystatesbroughtaboutdespotsanddictators
whoattimesusedgangsterstocontrolthepublic.Someofthefirstrulersbackatthestart
ofRenaissancewerestrongandcompetentandsotheyroseaboveallthepoliticalturmoil.
Buttheirsuccessorswereweakastheyweremoreinterestedinenjoyinglife.Sotheylost
control.AnexampleisPiero,Lorenzossuccessor,whobecomesthedictatorofFlorence.He
wascharming,butstupid.
SelfishmiddleclassandSavonarolasrole:Renaissancemadepeopleacquirewealth
throughprovidingthemwithopportunities.Previously,theyhadtobelinkedtothechurch
ofnobility.ButinRenaissance,businessflourishedandcreatedthemiddleclass.However,
percentagewisethismiddleclasswassmallinnumber.Sothefewwhobecamerichwere
notinterestedinfurtherpatronizingotherpoor,talentedpeople.Theydidnotlookback
andthusthesystemofuniversaleducationwasabsent.Sothemasspeoplewerestill
ignorantandsusceptibletosuperstitions.ThiswaswhenamancalledSavonarolacomesto
play.Hewasbornin1452andwasthesonofaspendthriftperson.Borninthecityof
Ferrara,hisearlyeducationwasmorefocusedonreligionthankstohismotherand
grandmother.At19,hefallsinlovewithhisneighborsdaughterfromanaristocraticfamily
andaftergettingturneddown,hebecomesamonkinamonastery.Duringthepolitical
turmoil,heactedasapreacherandwasbrilliantatit.Heattractedpeopletohissermons
andpreachedabouttheotherworldlygoods.Heestablishedstrictrulesandthusbeginsto
controlthecity.Hetookawayluxuryitemslikebooks,paintings,etc.termingthemasworks
ofdevil.HewaslatercondemnedandputtodeathbytheChurch.

COMMERCIALREVOLUTION
Timeperiod:13thcenturytoearly18thcentury
Place:Europe
Priortorevolution:
Theeconomywaslandbasedandwasrunbymanorialsystem(estatesystem).InEnglandforexample,
farmerswouldworkunderknights.Notonlywouldthesefarmersworkonland,theywouldalsobe
summonedwhentheknightshadtofightfortheroyalties.Therewasbartersystemwhichwas
predominant.Thissystemcollapseddueto:
a) Riseofcapitalism
b) Blackdeath
FeudalismwasbeinggraduallyreplacedbysecularismandcapitalisminEurope.Secularismmeant:
a) Separationofreligionfrompolitics
b) Separationofreligionfromstates
OverviewofCommercialRevolution:
CommerceinEuropeincreasedinthestartoflatemiddleage.Thestimulusinthiscasewasvoyagesof
explorationbyEngland,Spain,etctoAsia,AmericaandAfrica.Onefeatureofthisperiodwaschartered
companywhichpromotedmercantilism(promotionofbusinessinordertogetricherinanationalway
believingthatthericheranationis,themorepowerfulitis.ThisledtheEuropeanstogooverseasfor
trade).Mercantilismwasasignificantdriverofcolonialism(colonyexistsforthebenefitofthemother
country).Bubbleswerecreatedtomonopolizethecompanyoftheparentcountry.Also,economic
specializationincreasedasnewinstitutionssuchasstatebanksandinsurancecompanieswerebeing
established.
Thecommercialrevolutionwasthensucceededbyindustrialrevolution.
CausesofCommercialRevolution:
a) Falloffeudalismandmanorialsystem
b) Gradualdemiseofthetradeguilds:Previously,businessusedtobecarriedoutthroughthese
tradeguildswiththepermissionoftheknights.Theywereassociationofmerchants,artisans,
blacksmiths,winemakers,bakers,etc.thatwouldcontrolthepracticeofthecraftsinaparticular
town.Themainfeatureofthemwasthattheyweremonopolisticinnatureandthattheirmain
objectivewasoftentoimprovetheeconomicandsocialconditionsofthemembers.Theguild
usedtocontrolhoursworkedandwagesandusedtotrainapprentices.Tobeapartoftheguild,
onehadtostartasapprentice,thengetpromotedtojourneymanandfinallybecomeguild
master.Guildsflourishedinbetween11thand16thcentury.Butnow,guildswerebeingreplaced

throughtheentryofnewmarketsandcapitalresources.Merchantsoftheguildswerebecoming
entrepreneurs.
c) Transformation:Technologicalinnovationopenedupnewopportunitiesfortrade.Themasters
werebecomingentrepreneurswhereasthejourneymanandtheapprenticeswerebecoming
laborers.Also,therewasincreasedemergenceofregulatedcompaniesandotherassociationsof
wealthymerchants.Capitalistswereleavingtheguildsisolatedtogainpowerthemselves.
EffectsofCommercialRevolution:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Increasedcapitalism
Riseofbanking:BankofSwedenin1657,BankofEnglandin1694.
Expansionofcreditfacilities
Riseofcompanies:Jointstockcompanies(DutchUnitedEastIndianCompanyin1602)and
Charteredcompanies(BritishEastIndiaCompanyandFrenchEastIndiaCompany).Theyoften
hiredlocalmercenariestoprotectthemselves.

FeaturesofCommercialRevolution:
a) Partnershipbetweenstateandcommerce
b) Amoneybasedeconomy.InflationcausedbyavailabilityofsilverthankstoSpainwhospent
theirmoneyinacashstarvedEuropetofinancewarsandarts.Causedriseinthedemandof
people.
c) Bubbles:SouthSeabubbleandMississippibubblecrashin1720.Bubbleswerepublicprivate
jointstockcompanieswhichwereformedtoreducethecostofnationaldebt.Thefirstonewas
EnglishandthesecondonewasFrench.Bothweregrantedrightstocompletemonopolyin
colonialtrades.Thecompanystocksvaluerosegreatlyduetoexpansionbeforecollapsingin
1720aftertheissuanceoftheBubbleActwhichwas,ironically,introducedtofurtherexpand
theBubbles.

Emergenceoftotalitarianism,nazismandfascism:

Interwarperiod
FailureofWWIandpeacetreatiestoresolvetheproblemsthatcausedthewarinthefirstplace
Unjusttreatiesledtopoliticalinstabilityandextremism
Emergenceofthethreeideologies

Totalitarianism:
Itisapoliticalsysteminwhichnearlyeveryaspectofpublicandprivatelifeisregulatedbythestate.
Someofitsfeaturesinclude:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Unlimitedpowerofstate
Rulebyasinglepoliticalparty
Rulingpartycontrolledbyoneperson(personalitycult)
Suspensionoffreedomanddemocraticrights
Violentsuppressionofallopposition

Itcanbeofthreetypes:fascism,nazismandbolshevism.
Fascism:

Representsextremeright
IntroducedfirstinItalyunderMussolini
ReactionofItalianrightistsagainstriseofsocialism
Weaknessofdemocraticforces
RisingpopularityofFascistpartyamongupperandmiddleclasses
ControlledItalyforover20years
Containsallthefeaturesoftotalitarianism
Creationofacorporatestateinanattempttomergeeconomicandsocialinterestsof
differentclassesandgroupswiththeinterestsofthestate.

RiseofNazism:

DefeatinWWIandhumiliationbyVersaillestreaty
Failureofparliamentarydemocracy
Economicdifficultiesduetothewarandthegreatdepression
RiseofsocialismwasafearheldbytheGermanupperandmiddleclass
NazipartyunderHitlertookpowerin1933

FeaturesofNazism:

Allthefeaturesoftotalitarianism
Racialpride(pureAryans)
Claimingtobethebestrace(Germans)

Jewscondemnedasinferiorpeople:theywerehatedandweretobephysicallyeliminated
GenocideofJews(Holocaust):5.6millionto5.9millionofthemkilledincluding1.5million
children

Differencebetweenfascismandnazism:

BothwereessentiallyFascistideologies
Nazismwasamoredevelopedandextremeversion

Militarism:

Adoptionofmilitarismasstatepolicybytotalitarianismideologies:warisseenasthesolutionto
allproblems
Militarypowergiventhehighestprioritysuppressionofliberty

Chauvinism:

Extremeformofnationalism
PromotedbytheNazis:ClaimofGermanracialsupremacy
Usedasadangerousweaponfordominatingothernations

CausesofWWII:

Unresolvedconflictbetweenoldandnewimperialistcountries
FailureofthetreatyofVersailles
AggressivepoliciesfollowedbyGermanyandItalyrapidincreaseofmilitarystrength
Lackoftrustandcooperationamongantifascistforces
Policyofappeasement

WWII:

GermanyattackedPolandonSep1,1939
BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyonSep3,1939
GermanyattackedUSSRinJune,1941

Conclusion:

Totalitarianism:extremelyharmfultohumancivilization,violenceandsufferingfrompeopleall
aroundtheworld
WWII:55millionpeoplekilledandover1000billionUSDofeconomiclosses
Explosionoftwoatomicbombs
Broughtinnewphaseofcivilization

Reformation: Breakup of the Church

At the open of the 16th century, Roman Catholic Church was the most important organization of the
Western Europe. Every person was born in the church. The language was Latin and the churches were
conducted by this language. The pope was the Head of the Church. He was the supreme lawgiver, the
supreme judge and the supreme administrator. He gave edicts/bulls/decrees. He could give exemption
from religious rules. He was the ultimate judge of religious lawsuits. He was the supreme administrator
of the church.
Under his supreme authority, there was an elaborate organization for administration. Under the pope,
there were cardinals (selected by the pope). Together they were called Sacred College of Cardinals. They
elected the next Pope. Before 1586, the number of cardinals was 53. In 1586, the Pope decreed that the
number of cardinals should not exceed 70. In this hierarchy, the arch bishop was after the cardinal. He
used to be the head of the province and the head of a cathedral of a large city. His duty was to establish
religious laws.
After this, the bishops headed the sub-division of a province. They were also appointed by the pope.
After them, the heads of the village-level churches were called priests. The clergy used to do their work
through sacraments. It is a power to clean up wrongdoings, given by the God/
There were seven Sacraments. These were:
I.

Baptism

II.

Confirmation

III.

Penance

IV.

Marriage

V.

Ordination

VI.

Eucharist

VII.

Extreme Unction

Baptism is done to clean the previous sins. Through confirmation, you are confirmed as a member of the
church. You are freed from the sins that you have done after Baptism this process is called penance.
Extreme Unction is when death is confirmed for a person, a soul is prepared for the next life through
cleansing.

Marriage and ordination were optional, the other five were mandatory for every Christian. There priest
is rendering a religious tie in the marital bond through a marriage. Ordination is the process of entering
into a church and becoming a priest.
The people who disobeyed the laws of the church were excommunicated from the church. He would be
deprived of the benefits of Sacraments. At times they were caught and killed by burning. They didnt
have protection against the Church.
Age of Reformation:
At later stages, renaissance was followed by another movement called reformation.
1st Phase: Protestant Revolution (started 1517)
2nd Phase: Catholic/Counter Reformation (around 1560)
Between these two phases, there was reformation. These two together are called reformation.
There is a relationship between renaissance and reformation. There were certain areas where
renaissance and reformation were working together. But the statement that reformation is a part
(religious aspect) of renaissance would be historically inappropriate.
There were economic causes like capitalism, the rise of the middle class, etc. in both these movements.
In both the movements, people tried to go back to the original roots. Despite these resemblances, the
reformation was not merely a religious aspect of the renaissance. The essence of renaissance was to
enjoy this life. The essence of reformation was to think about the spiritual life, rather than the content
of the flesh. During reformation, they thought human nature is generally corrupt. But the renaissance
people thought human nature is good. The renaissance people emphasized on reasoning, tolerance, etc.
but the reformers emphasized on faith and conformity. In this aspect, we can say that reformation was
not a part of renaissance.
How it started:
In reality, there were more to reformation rather than only religious aspects. There were new political
and economic aspects related to the reformation.

Religious causes:
The thing that triggered this movement was the abuses that were going on in the catholic churches.
Nobody would even question this fact and people knew that massive abuses were going on in the
churches. For example, people appointed as clergy people were not eligible for those posts; they were
ignorant about what they had to do, they didnt even know the Latin language and the Gods prayer.
Moreover, a large number of the church people lead a scandalous life.
The popes were leading grand lives. The cardinals were keeping taverns, gaming horses, etc. After the
renaissance, people started questioning these. There were also a vow of Chastity that had to be taken
by the church people. Pope Alexander the Sixth had 8 illegitimate children.
Pope used to sell religious offices to other people. These people try to earn back this money after
getting into these posts through corruption. Another thing was dispensation this is a kind of
exemption from the law of church. This had to be taken from the local religious leaders. The church
people used this exemption for their economic benefits. Example: exemption from fasting, having an
illegitimate marriage, etc. Sale of dispensations, abuses from the church, all of these led to a terrible
situation.
The Sale of Indulgences:
It was the most vicious abuse. Indulgence is remission of all or part of your sins. After getting
indulgence, you can get exemption from the punishment of your sins.
Treasure of merit was drawn up in the 13th century. Jesus and the other saints did many good works ad
earned excess merits from God. The pope could draw from these merits and use it for the people who
contributed for the betterment of the church, for strengthening the church.
The renaissance pope had moved forward from the core and they had insatiable greed. They saw that
sale of indulgences could be a profitable business. Leo X almost gave this right to banking/financing
houses to sell these indulgences. They presented this indulgences to the ignorant people as if it were a
passport to heaven.
By the 16th century, this became a nefarious and gigantic abuse of the common people. Some people
realized that what the popes were doing was not right. The churches also misused the Veneration of
Sacred Relics.

It was an important material of Catholic Worship. Objects used by Virgin Mary, Jesus, etc. had
miraculous power this was believed by the catholic people. Some people wanted to earn benefit from
these. People were easily convinced into these and thus were cheated. These people who were cheating
the common gullible people, were somehow connected to the church. Therefore, the rage was against
the church.
But these abuses didnt lead to the split of the church, some pious Catholics were already taking
measured against these abuses. The main reason behind the split was the clash between the main 2
theologies. One was Augustinian Theology the main idea of it was there is an omnipotent God.
Nothing happens without the divine decree. Human nature is depraved, he is dependent on God. So
the main idea of this theology was you are helpless. You cant do anything to change your fate that is
pre-determined by God. Whatever we are doing, we are doing it for the other world. It was prevalent in
countries like Germany, where progress was little bit slower. Gradually, in the abundant cities of Europe,
this theory was replaced by a more modern theory. With the progress, this pessimistic philosophy was
replaced. This Augustinian theory made the presence of organized church unnecessary as there wont
be any urge of the people to go to church. No sinner would go to the priest to confess his sins.
So, there was a new way of thinking, by Peter Lombard and St Thomas Aquinas. It said, Man was given
by God, a freedom of reasoning to choose good or evil. Man cannot do this unaided. They need some
support from heavenly grace. Sacraments were means of communication of the grace of God. Except
for Baptism, you need a priest for all other sacraments.
Protestant Reformation was a rebellion against the second set of theology. The misuse of power
affected the conscience of common people. This 2nd theology was never accepted officially. Reformers
wanted to go back to the old system (Augustinian Theology)
Political Causes of Protestant Revolution:
There were 2 causes: Growth of nationalism, and Rise of Despotic Government.
There was a growing sense of independence among the people outside Italy. Pope now increasingly
came to be viewed upon as a foreigner. They started to feel that the pope was interfering. Statute of
Provisors and Praemunire. was passed in the parliament in the middle of the 14th century in England.
For this growth of nationalism, there was better control of the churches of their own country.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourgeoisie was passed by the King of France. He thus abolished all the Papal
powers in his country and this power was transferred to civil magistrates.
For a despotic ruler, it was in his gain if the power of church got weakened. These rulers were
supporting the Protestants and the national sentiments. These rulers were willing to work to cut down
the power of the church.
Economic Causes:
The foremost cause was the possession of the wealth of the churches. They also wanted to tax the
wealth of the Pope. At the time, the church was the largest land owner of Western Europe. One-third of
the land of Germany and one-fifth in France were owned by the church. These lands were granted to
church by the kings, nobles, etc. and also came as a gift from common pious people.
Legacy hunting was also a favorite work of the church. Pope Alexander passed a decree that No Will
will be accepted if it is not made with the presence of a priest. These wills were made at the most
vulnerable time (at the death bed). This accumulation of wealth became a great possession of the
church.
Under the rules of despotic rulers, there were more wars and they needed a lot of money to maintain
the huge defense force. The church used to enjoy the wealth without any tax. It transmitted to the
common people and their tax burden increased. So the negative feeling continue to develop in the
minds of the common people.
There were some papal taxes as well. One tax was called Peters pence and it was imposed on all
Christian population. There was another tax called Tithe it means 1/10th of the income of the
Christian people needed to be to the local church for maintenance. There were numerous taxes other
than these two. These taxes were collected from different countries and were sent to Italy. This was
spent behind the lavish lives of the pope and the church people of Italy.
Why did the Protestant revolution begin in Germany?
I.

Germany was somewhat backward during the time. Renaissance touched it lightly. So, the
legacy of the dark ages remained stronger in Germany. Therefore the dependence on religion
was also high. So, the society was more conservative.

II.

The Catholic practices were very high, and so were the abuses.

III.

Germany didnt have a strong ruler back then and it was divided as well. Therefore they couldnt
protest against those abuses.

IV.

Church in Germany had the largest amount of land and it constituted the best agricultural land.
During this time the issue of transition (money economy, wage economy, etc.) was coming up.

The lower classes and the upper middle classes were suffering. But nobody could protest against it. By
the dawn of the 16th century, Germany was right for a religious revolution. All they needed was a leader
to guide them. Then Martin Luther came up as the leader.
Martin Luther was born in 1483. His parents were peasants. His upbringing was not ideal. He was
whipped at home for trivial mistakes. He was at times whipped until blood came out. There was a
picture of demons and witches in his mind. Some of the superstitions stayed until the end of his life.
At the age of 18, he went to University of Erfurt to study law. He was a hard working student. In 1505,
an incident changed his life. He was overtaken by a storm. He thought that God was going to strike him
dead. He vowed that he would spend his life as a monk if he were alive. Then he joined an Augustinian
Church. Then he started to meditate about his life. He thought that he had done numerous sins and then
tried to engage his spiritual activities.
He spent his days without food and tortured himself. But these increased his aguish. He found that faith
and faith alone, was more important than the salvation of soul. In 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Friar,
appeared in Germany as the hawker indulgence. He sold indulgences as tickets to heaven. Luther was
appalled at the brazen fraud. At a statement; he hung a notice against sale of indulgence on October 21,
1517. He also sent them some of his friends. Now all over Germany he was considered to be a leader
sent by God against these clergy.
At the time, Pope decided to take action and ordered the head of Augustinian Church to make Luther
withdraw his statement in 1518. Luther refused to do so. More and more people asked different
questions to Luther and thus different statements came up which was against the current practices of
Church.
Now the church wanted to persecute Luther but it didnt happen for 2 reasons. Pope was busy with the
elections within the church and the upper middle class was supporting Martin Luther. Luther was
excommunicated from the church.

Ultimately, a different church was set up. It was called Lutherian Church/Protestant Church. Luther
replaced Latin with German as the Church Language. He removed the celestial hierarchy. He removed all
the sacraments except for Baptism and Eucharist. He gave the priest permission to marry. Luther
emphasized on faith rather than good work for salvation. Theory of Transubstantiation was replaces
with Theory of Onsubstantiation. In Old Catholic belief, it was said that church would be supreme over
state. Luther abandoned this theory.
This particular form of Protestantism was not very famous outside its native land. It spread in Norway,
Denmark, Switzerland, etc.
After Luther, the famous leader of Protestantism was Ulrich Zwingli. He took the holy order at the age of
22. He entered there for his literary interests. In 1519, he went through a change. The Black
Death/Plague in Europe and the impacts of Luther had an effect on him. Ultimately, he was killed in
1529. He was considered the father of Protestantism in Switzerland.

CALVINISM
Ulrich Zwingli
-

An independent reform in Switzerland by Ulrich Zwingli.

Born on New Years Day, 1484 in a village of Toggenburg.
Ulrich had no childhood problems like Luther rather he was free from grinding poverty and
spiritual struggles.
He took a masters degree from the University if Basel in 1506.
His deep interest in the classics caused him to become a priest as he would be able to continue
his humanistic studies.
Was in charge of Glarus for ten years, then Einsiedeln.
He didnt attack indulgences and pilgrimages with the impetuosity of Luther, however, but
rather sought to ridicule them out of existence.
1518 he became the vicar at the cathedral church of Zurich.
Obtaining immense power and influence from his position, in 1519 he forced Bernard Samson (a
seller of indulgence) to leave Zurich.
While he probably would have denied any influence from Luthers work, Ulrichs work of reform
bears the impress of Luthers ideas.
In 1523 he debated with the city council over sixty-seven points of reform: asserted the sole
authority of the Bible and affirmed the doctrine of salvation by faith, rejected all characteristics
peculiarities of the catholic creed such as the papacy, mass, invocation of saints, fasts, festivals,
pilgrimages, monastic orders, the priesthood, auricular confession, absolution, indulgences,
penances, and purgatory.
He won over the councils support and major changes were brought to Zurich.
Zwingli and Luther were in agreement over all doctrines except Lords Supper.
Luther believed in the literal meaning of the statement This is my body.
Zwingli believed it as only a relic of Catholicism.
The both never agreed even after a discussion in Marburg (1529) after which Luther said that
they were of different spirit even when Zwingli extended a hand of fellowship.
There has always been hostility between the Protestants and Catholics, while a treaty was made
in 1529, the imminent war broke out in 1531, and Zwingli was defeated on October 11 same
year. Ulrich died in the war.

John Calvin
-

Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, in Noyon, France, where his father Gerald Calvin held the
posts of secretary of Noyon bishopric and attorney for the cathedral chapter.
Calvin was destined to be a priest by his father.
Calvins clerical education was funded by two incomes granted to him until his father decided he
should study law.
Though legal studies was uncongenial to him, it left a mark on his mind which could be seen in
form and content of his theology.
After the death of his father in 1531, he started studying humanism. He published a
commentary on Senecas Da Clementia in 1532.

After the study Calvin had a sudden conversion after which he severed his connections with
the church in 1534.
He shifted to Switzerland and spent early month of 1536 in Basel publishing The institutes of
the Christian religion, which helped him rank among reformers.
The first edition had only 6 chapters but contained the basic foundation of Calvinism, in 1559, a
later edition had 80 chapters. For materials, Calvin was indebted to Luther.
1541 Calvin even translated the book from Latin to French in order to win over Francis I,
however it failed and the book was declared as heretical and burned in Paris in 1542.
Calvin and Luther both insisted upon the sole authority of the Bible in matters of faith and
conduct, upon sinfulness of man and his impotence to save himself, and upon doctrine of
justification by faith.
They differed in, Calvin sought to suppress everything not directly sanctioned in the Bible, and
Luther permitted everything not specifically forbidden in it.
Calvin followed the Old Testament and concept of Gods majesty while Luther followed the New
Testament and the concept of love for God.
Calvin took a midway interpretation of Lords Supper, teaching a spiritual presence.
The central and peculiar dogma of Calvinism is the doctrine of predestination. This doctrine
states that some people are predestined to be in salvation while the rest was to suffer for their
sins.
Calvin determined that those who are predestined for salvation would be those who zealously
endeavor to fulfill to the last iota of moral laws as in the Bible.
However their duty doesnt stop there but they are supposed to reform others around. Thus a
Calvinist has a divine mission.
Calvin went to Geneva in 1536, where a reformer named William Farel induced him to stay and
create a protestant community (a model Christian community).
Together they were so severe that a rebellion in 1538 caused both to leave Geneva. However in
1541 Calvin was requested to come back as Geneva was filled with disorder.
In September 1541, Calvin entered Geneva again and under his supervision the famous
Ecclesiastical Ordinances were prepared consisting of 6 (later 12) clergyman and twelve elders
to supervise the moral of the citizens of Geneva.
Geneva became a theocracy under Calvins rule, who formulated the laws, founded entirely on
the Bible to regulate the life of every citizen in its minutest details. The Bible was the final
authority not only in religion but also politics.
Activities such as church attendance, behavior, dress, amusements, and luxuries were all
regulated by the law.
Women were imprisoned for wearing an exaggerated headdress, dancing was prohibited,
musicians were permitted to stay if they dont play dance music, and plays were to only be of
subjects related to the Bible. Parents were forbidden from giving names of saints and legendary
heroes.
Geneva became outwardly a city if God.

LUTHERANISM

MartinLutherwasnotinitiallyareformerbutratheraconservativeChristian,withthefearof
Godinstilledinhimdeeply.
BorninEisleben(villageinSaxony),in10thNovember,1483,sonofpeasantminer.
Hischildhoodwasnthappybecauseofseveritybothathomeandschool.Mainreasonthat
strictChristianlawswerethere(legallaws)
HencehewascontinuouslytorturedbyaneverpresentfearofGod,whomheconceivedasthe
implacablejudgewhoinexorablypunisheseveryinfractionofHislaws.
Hisfatherwantedhimtobealawyerinordertoincreasetheirsocialstatus.
At18,hewenttoErfurtandtookadegreeofMasterofArtsin1505andthenpursuelaw.
ButsincehestillwantedtopleaseGod,hewentandjoinedAugustinianFriars,amendicant
orderofmonks.
AtthemonasteryhedevotedhimselftoGodbytheactivitiesoffasting,prayers,andscourging.
Howeverhewasstillnotatpeace.PeacefinallycametohimasaresultofhisstudyoftheBible
andwritingsofSt.Augustine.
WhenhelearnedthatmanissavedfromthewrathofGodnotbyfaithandgoodworks,but
solelybyfaithinGodsmercyandgrace.
Howeverthisdidntbringamonumentalchangeinhislifeandhekeptonhisway.
1n1508,MartinwascalledtoUniversityofWittenberg,wherehetaughtfirstlyphilosophyand
latertheBible.
1511hewenttoRomewherehewasdisturbedbytheabuseshesawintheHolyCity.Although
hisfaithwasntshaken,butthevisitlateronrousedhimtolaunchavigorousattackontheevils
henoticed.
InRomehepursuedtheusualcourseofvisitingthemostcelebratedshrinesinordertotake
advantageoftheindulgencesgrantedtopiouspilgrims.(Talkabouttheparentdeadthing).
1515appointedtotheofficeofdistrictvicarandplacedinchargeof11monasteries.Hewould
havelivedalifeofapiousCatholichaditnotbeenforsomeprovocations.
Provocation1:JohnTetzel,aDominicanFriar,nearWittenbergwassellingindulgenceswithout
penitenceofthebuyer.
IndulgencesaccordingtotheChurcharegrantedtothosewhoparticipateinacrusadeorfor
actsofpersonalpiety.Howeverlateronitwasbeingsoldformoney.
ForLutherthissaleofpromiseofforgiveness,grace,andheavenwithoutinsistenceupon
penitence,wasanunmitigatedevilagainstwhichhehadtoact.
Sohevoicedhisconcernsbythe95thesesandhepostedonthedoorofCastleChurchin
WittenbergonNovember31,1517.
The95theseshadanelectriceffectonthemasspublicandwasprintedanddistributed
throughoutGermanywithunprecedentedspeed.
Aheateddisputearousedasonepartyfeltsympathywhileotherwerefaithfulchurchmen.
Consequences:ThepopewouldhaveignoredthisasmonkishquarrelbutlatercalledLutherto
Rometoanswerforhisarrogance.
ThroughmediationbyFredericktheWise(electorofSaxony),thetrialwassetonGermansoil
andLutherhadtogotoAugsburgin1518.
HemetwithCardinalCarjetanwhotoldhimtoretracthisopinionsandLutherrefused.
ThencamecardinalMiltitzwhomadeadealofkeepingbothpartiesquiet.

Provocation2:Dr.EckchallengedLuthertoadebate(famousLeipzigDisputationof1519).
ThedebatelastedforaweekinwhichDr.EckgotLuthertoadmitthatburningHuss(burnedby
theCouncilofConstancein1415)waswrong.
TheadmissionexposedLuthertochargeofheresy.
EckappliedforabullofexcommunicationwhichwasansweredbytheChurch.
June16,1520theChurchcondemnedfortytwopropositionstakenfromLutherswritings,
orderedtoburnallofhisbooks,forbadehimtopreach,anddemandedrecantationofhiserrors
within60daysunderpainofexcommunication.
LutherburnedthebullpubliclyandseveredtieswiththeChurch(indicationofhowstrongthe
resistancetoPopewasinsomepartsofGermany).
Throughthemeansoftheprintingpresshewrotemanythesesbutthreeofthemstoodout
publishedin1520.
Theses1:AddresstotheNobilityoftheGermanNation.AcallforGermanstouniteand
demolishthepowerofthepope.PoliticalandsocialmanifestationofLutheranReformation.
CreationofGermanNationalChurch,abolitionofmendicantorders,theimprovementofmoral
conditionsamongstpriests,reductioninnumberofholydays.
Theses2:OntheBabylonianCaptivityoftheChurch.Tosearchcriticism.Rejectedallsacraments
butbaptismandLordsSupper.AttackedthreeabusesofLordsSupper1)withdrawalofthecup
fromthelaity2)doctrineoftransubstantiation3)teachingthatmassissacrifice.
Theses3:TheFreedomofaChristianMan.Expoundedtheideaofpriesthoodofallbelievers.
Conditionswerefavorableforthemovement.CharlesVwhocouldhavestoppeditwastoobusy
withaffairsofhisvastempire.
Bythetimehedid(1521),Luthercouldnolongerbecondemnedwithoutahearing.Hewas
summonedtotheDietofWormsthesameyear.
ThejourneytoWormswasinnatureofatriumphaseveryoneacclaimedandencouragedhim.
AtWormshewasaskedtwoquestions;didyouwritethesebooks?Willyouretractthem?
Heansweredtofirstoneandthenwasgiven24hrsforthesecondanswerinwhichhesaidno.
OnhisreturnhewastakentoWartburgcastlebyFredericktheWiseforhissafetyandstayed
thereforayear.
Therehewrotelettersofadviceandencouragement,commentaryonthePsalms,andOn
MonasticVows.HealsowrotetheGermanversionoftheBible.
HereturnedtoWittenbergtocalmdownaviolentmovementtakingplace.
1525LuthergotmarriedtoKatharinevonBora,anexnunwhohadrunawayfromaconvent
afterreadingOnMonasticVows.
LutherreturnedtohisoldlifeinWittenbergintheAugustinianMonastery.
HemadechangessuchasserviceswerenowinGerman(notLatin).Wrotetwosummariesofthe
Lutherandoctrinesforreligiouseducationofcommonpeople.
Till1524LutheranmovementgainedstrengthinGermanybutlaterlostalotofitssupportdue
to:
ThePeasantsWar:inwhichpeasantswerechallengingthenobilities,thoughtLutherwasgoing
tobetheirhero,triedtopassa12articledemand,thingsgotviolentandLutherleft,Luther
encouragedthenobilitiestokillpeasants,Lutherlostsupportofpeasantsandnobilityafterthe
war.

Humanists:whilemanythoughtreformersandhumanistsweregoingtogohandinhand,but
latertheirideologiesclashed,humanistsleadbyErasmusdidntsupportLutheranymore,
Humanistsdidntbelieveinattackonthechurch.
TheSchmalkaldicWarstartedduetoCharlesVsattemptatattackingLutheransandlaterended
inacompromiseinwhicheachregionchoseitsreligion.

Counter Reformation:
By the year 1560, Protestantism had spread across Europe, Northern and Western Germany,
Scandinavian Countries, Scotland, Switzerland, Poland, etc. even in Italy and Spain, where Catholicism
was prevalent.
To regenerate Church and Attract people to Catholicism, the counter/catholic reformation started. And
it was very successful. Catholicism was again prevalent in northern and western Germany, Spain, Italy,
etc.
This reformation was started by the Pope through 3 agencies:
1. The Council of Trent:
it was a religious council for the priests. It was called in 1542 and sat after 21 years. It came up
with some concrete solutions in 1563. It had 2 streams of thinking. One was of the Popes he
was against any kind of compromise in issues of religion. It should provide specific answers to
Protestant questions. The rulers beliefs were different. These rulers didnt wasnt any
interruption in their ruling, there was political factors related with it. At the end, the Popes
beliefs prevailed. Church asserted that faith and also churchs practices were very important,
Opposed to protestant emphasis on faith. Without authorization of church, writings could not
be circulated. The seven sacraments were re-established. Only the church could interpret the
meaning of verses.
They gave some concessions against the abuses of church. They gave a new definition of
monastery life. No weak people were not considered by church. They also felt a need of better
educated clergy. The clergy must preach frequently. By these, they tried to make the council of
Trent a success. It achieved 3 thingsa. It formulated the faith and practices of church in a clear, authoritative and compact
statement.
b. It strengthened the organization and governance of church
c. They drew up a program of Reform to eliminate the abuses that evoke Protestant
Revolution.

2. Index of the Inquisition:

Pope was supposed to prepare a list of books that were forbidden to read. In the beginning, the
idea was not so complicated. With the advent of the printing press, it became tough. So Pope
decreed that you cannot publish books without the help of the Arch Bishops. But this didnt
stop the Protestant Press owners. Afterwards, they invented new methods to prevent this.
Many indexes of forbidden books were published. Francis Bacon, Alexander Duma, Victor Hugo,
Descartes, Reasseue, Voltaire, etc. all these writers books were banned. This method was
initially successful, but it didnt have any long term, permanent impact.
Heresy was very harsh. Spanish inquisitions were notorious. Around 1584, 2000 people were
burnt in Spain because of religious reasons. They tortured people in confession, slow burning
was also there to kill people.
3. Society of Jesus:
It played the strongest role in Catholic Reformation. The founder was Ignatius Loyola. He
started studying religious books after meeting an accident. While he was in recovery, he set up
this society which got a sanction from the Pope. He published his book named Spiritual
Exercises. He was a very tough disciplinarian. He gave a lot of emphasis on the formation of
the church. He appointed people from different levels. Not all the people will go in the upper
level and become scholastic. They used 2 important means:
a. Preaching He ensured that the people who can articulate better, would go on
preaching and achieve. They would use brilliant music for preaching Catholicism.
b. Confession The priests were trained to counsel people and bring them back to the
religious path.
c. Education Catholic schools were set up and they introduced practical education along
with the theoretical one. Even protestant children came to these schools for education.
After their completion of study, some of the protestant children became catholic.
d. Missionary Activities The priests risked their lives to spread Catholicism across the
world. They did different missionary activities.

Results of Reformation:

Promoted religious toleration

Protestant revolution liberalized men from medieval eclecticism (scope)

Individualism was also developed

It helped promote education among the masses. Jesuit schools were strong promoters of
education for commoners

Limitation of power of the rulers

Negatives of Reformation:

The resulting Religious Wars

Peace of Augsburg (1555) said, the official religion will be what the rulers region was. It was a
political picture.

Serious punishment of witchcraft

Prosecution

Attacks upon reasoning and science. Many important scientists were burnt at the stake

Negative impact on art. Nudity was compared to be bad.

FrenchRevolution:Gatewaytomoderncivilization
1789to1799(ruleofKingLouisXVI)
Motherofallrevolutions
TransformationofFrenchsocietyandpoliticalsystem
Importantmilestoneinthehistoryofcivilization
Itwasastruggleandrevolutionofclasslesspeopleagainstthekingship.Itwasthefirsttime
Francehadseenpeoplespower.Ithadimplicationsontherestofthepeopletoo.
Constructionofmodernnation,nationalsymbol,nationalfeelingetc.wasbornthroughthis
FrenchRevolution.
CoveredallthepeopleofFrance
ItwasthepeakofenlightenmentofEurope,ItisthestartingperiodofEuropeanmodernity.
Marxistrepresentationofsociety:ithadageneralizingeffect.
MentionedbyDickensinATaleofTwoCities:afightbetweenthehavenotsandhaves;it
wasthebestoftime,itwastheworstoftime.
Frenchrevolutionhasgivensomethingthatisbeyondtime,civilizationandclass.
BackgroundandcomparisonwithEnglishpolitics:
Absolutemonarchy:Bourbondynastyfrom16thto18thcentury.
Societydividedintothreeestatesorclasses:
a) 1stestate:clergy
b) 2ndestate:aristocracyornobility
c) 3rdestate:middleclass(Bourgeoisie)andtherestofthepeople
Bourgeoisiewasfirstusedin1707anddenotedtherichmenandwomenwhoweremembers
oftheurbanandruralthirdestate.
Peopleinthebottomoftheclasshadtosufferalot(e.g.fromfamines)
Thethirdestateswantedtohaverecognitioninthesociety.
Gloriousrevolutionin1688England:DuringthisrevolutionintheEnglishsociety,theEnglish
monarchunderstoodthatitwastimethattheyshiftedtheirpowertotheHouseofCommons.
HouseofCommonscoulddoanythingexceptformakingamantowomanorawomantoman.
HouseofCommonscouldevenremovetheking.ButtheychosetokeeptheMonarchyasa
nationalsymbol.Themonarchsstoppedtheagitationevenbeforeitstarted.
InFrance,thekingusedtosaywhatisstate?Iamthestate;whatislaw?Iamthelaw.
Sufferingofcommonpeople
AwatershedeventinmodernEuropeanhistory,theFrenchRevolutionbeganin1789andendedin
thelate1790swiththeascentofNapoleonBonaparte.Duringthisperiod,Frenchcitizensrazedand
redesignedtheircountryspoliticallandscape,uprootingcenturiesoldinstitutionssuchasabsolute
monarchyandthefeudalsystem.LiketheAmericanRevolutionbeforeit,theFrenchRevolutionwas
influencedbyEnlightenmentideals,particularlytheconceptsofpopularsovereigntyandinalienable
rights.Althoughitfailedtoachieveallofitsgoalsandattimesdegeneratedintoachaotic
bloodbath,themovementplayedacriticalroleinshapingmodernnationsbyshowingtheworldthe
powerinherentinthewillofthepeople.

CausesofFrenchRevolution:

Socialinequality:Thefrustrationsofthepeasantsmirroredthoseofthemostdynamicelement
withinFrencheighteenthcenturysociety,themiddleclass.Thisgroupwasbynomeans
homogeneous;therewerewithinitmanyranks,gradedaccordingtobothoccupationand
income.Professionalsrangedthroughouttheranksofthemiddleclass:doctorsandlawyers,
manyofthelattertoplayrolescentraltotherevolution.Whilethesemenacknowledgedthe
gradationsthatseparatedthemfromeachother,theyresentedtheprivilegesthatexcluded
themfromanyconsequentialparticipationintheaffairsofstate.Nomatterhowmuchmoneya
merchant,manufacturer,banker,orlawyermightacquire,hewasstillexcludedfrompolitical
privileges.Hehadalmostnoinfluenceatthecourt;hecouldnotshareinthehighesthonors;
and,exceptinthechoiceofafewpettylocalofficers,hecouldnotevenvote.Hewaslooked
downuponasaninferiorbythenobility.ThereemergedtheBourgeoisieclassfromtheThird
estatewhoaspiredtohavepoliticalequalityequaltothatofaristocracy.
Excessiveandunequaltaxation:TheChurchrulersclaimedthemedievalrighttoevadetaxeson
theirpropertiesbythepaymentofaperiodic"freegift"tothestate,invariablyfarlessthan
mighthavebeenobtainedfromdirecttaxationofchurchproperty.Theclergyescapedpayment
ofboththetailleandtheincometax.Thenobles,especiallythoseofhigherrank,madeuseof
theirinfluencewiththekingtoobtainexemptionfrompracticallyalldirectlevies.Asaresult,
themaintaskofprovidingfundsforthegovernmentfelluponthecommonpeople,ormembers
ofthethirdestate.Moreover,peasantswererequiredtopay10%oftheirincomeorproduceto
thechurch.Nobilityhadimmunityfromthetaxes.
CrisisofFrenchStateEnglandandFrancehadbeeninconflictformostoftheeighteenth
century.Inallbutoneofthewarsbetweenthem,Francehademergedtheloserandhadpaid
forthoselosseswithsurrenderedcolonies.Ironically,itwasthewarwhichtheFrenchhad
helpedtowintheAmericanWarofthatwasnowcausingthemthemostimmediateproblems.
TheexpenseofmaintainingfleetsandarmiesintheWesternHemispherehadbeenparticularly
heavyandhaddemandedextensiveborrowing.Theresultwasanationaldebtwhichthe
inefficientandoverlybureaucraticFrenchgovernmentfounditcouldnotsustain,althoughit
wasnogreaterthanthatleftbyLouisXIVin1714,andnomorethanhalfthatincurredbythe
British.Louispressedhisadvisorstodevisenewmethodsofretrenchmentandtaxationtokeep
thegovernmentafloat.
Intellectualrevolt:Althoughideasmaynothave"caused"therevolution,theyplayedamost
importantroleingivingshapeandsubstancetothediscontentexperiencedbysomany,
particularlyamongthemiddleclass.Theseideasderivedfromthethoughtofthe
Enlightenment.Twotheories,inparticular,expressedtheconcernsandaspirationsofthe
revolutionaries.ThefirstwastheliberaltheoryofsuchwritersasLocke,Voltaire,and
Montesquieu;andthesecondwasthedemocratictheoryofRousseaubothwerepredicated
upontheassumptionthatthestateisanecessaryevilandthatgovernmentrestsupona
contractualbasis.Eachhaditsdoctrineofpopularsovereignty,althoughwithcontrasting
interpretations.Bothupheldinsomemeasurethefundamentalrightsoftheindividual.

Andbothcontainedelementsappealingtothosewho,forvariousreasons,weredissatisfied
withthingsastheywere.
Inadequatereform:Especiallyinthetaxsystems.Theprovincialcourtsdidnotallowlawswhich
includednobilitytopaytaxestobepassed.Theministersthemselveswerecorrupt.
Foodcrisis:Therewasaseriousscarcityoffoodin1780s.Cropfailuresdecreasedthesupplyof
grainsandsoincreasedtheprice(inflation)ofbread.Thisledtostarvation.Addedtothis,1788
89sawveryharshwinterandmeagerharvests.LouisXVIratherencouragedthepeasantsto
producepotatointhecoldweather,butitwasntpopularinFrance.Thepriceofbreadrose67%
in1789alone.50%ofincomespentonbreadin1787whichroseto80%in1788.

Franceontheeveofrevolutionwasthusacountrydividedagainstitself.Monarchystruggledtoexact
moneyfromanaristocracyincreasinglydeterminednottopayandincreasinglyanxiousinturntoexact
whatitcouldfromasullenpeasantry.Themiddleclassesresentedagovernmentthatappearedatbest
ananachronismandatworstatyranny,frustratedandfuriousthatacountryasprosperousasFrance
shouldfinditimpossibletopayitsdebts.Francedidnotfalltorevolutionbecauseitwaspoor.It
succumbedbecausethosewhoknewbesthowrichitwasweredissatisfiedwiththeslowrateofits
commercialprogress.

Riseofthethirdstate
Francespopulationhadchangedconsiderablysince1614.ThenonaristocraticmembersoftheThird
Estatenowrepresented98percentofthepeoplebutcouldstillbeoutvotedbytheothertwobodies.In
theleaduptotheMay5meeting,theThirdEstatebegantomobilizesupportforequalrepresentation
andtheabolishmentofthenoblevetoinotherwords,theywantedvotingbyheadandnotbystatus.
BythetimetheEstatesGeneralconvenedatVersailles,thehighlypublicdebateoveritsvotingprocess
haderuptedintohostilitybetweenthethreeorders,eclipsingtheoriginalpurposeofthemeetingand
theauthorityofthemanwhohadconvenedit.OnJune17,withtalksoverprocedurestalled,theThird
EstatemetaloneandformallyadoptedthetitleofNationalAssembly;threedayslater,theymetina
nearbyindoortenniscourtandtookthesocalledTennisCourt.OnJune27LouisXVIgrudgingly
absorbedallthreeordersintothenewassembly.

ThreegreatFrenchphilosophers:
a) Montesquieu:Montesquieuwasauniquefigureamongthepoliticalphilosophersofthe
eighteenthcentury.InhiscelebratedSpiritofLawshebroughtnewmethodsandnew
conceptionstothetheoryofthestate.Hedeniedthatthereisanyoneperfectformof
governmentsuitableforallpeoplesunderallconditions.Hemaintained,onthecontrary,that
politicalinstitutionsinordertobesuccessfulmustharmonizewiththephysicalconditionsand
thelevelofsocialadvancementofthenationstheyareintendedtoserve.Thushedeclaredthat
despotismisbestsuitedtocountriesofvastdomain;limitedmonarchytothoseofmoderate
size;andrepublicangovernmenttothoseofsmallextent.Forhisowncountry,France,hewas
disposedtothinkthatalimitedmonarchywouldbethemostappropriateform,sincehe
regardedthenationastoolargetobemadeintoarepublicunlessonsomekindoffederalplan.

Montesquieuisespeciallyfamousforhistheoryoftheseparationofpowers.Heavowedthatit
isanaturalhumantendencytoabuseanypower,andthatconsequentlyeverygovernment,
regardlessofitsform,isliabletodegenerateintodespotism.Topreventsucharesultheargued
thattheauthorityofgovernmentshouldbebrokenupintoitsthreenaturaldivisionsof
legislative,executive,andjudicial.Wheneveranytwoormoreoftheseareallowedtoremain
unitedinthesamehands,liberty,hedeclared,isatanend.Theonlyeffectivewaytoavoid
tyrannyistoenableeachbranchofthegovernmenttoactasacheckupontheothertwo
b) Rousseau:TheforemosttheoreticianofdemocracyineighteenthcenturyEuropewasJean
JacquesRousseau(17121778).Themostsignificantofhiswritingsonpoliticaltheorywerehis
SocialContractandhisDiscourseontheOriginofInequality.Inbothoftheseheupheldthe
popularthesisthathumanshadoriginallyexistedinastateofnature.Rousseaucontended
thatsovereigntyisindivisible,andthatallofitbecamevestedinthecommunitywhencivil
societywasformed.Heinsistedfurtherthateachindividualinbecomingapartytothesocial
contractgaveupallrightstothepeoplecollectivelyandagreedtosubmitabsolutelytothe
generalwill.Itfollowsthatthesovereignpowerofthestateissubjecttonolimitations
whatever.HispublishedworksincludeTheSocialContractin1762wherehesaidmanisborn
free,andeverywhereheisinchains.Healsodefinedstateasasocialcontract.
c) Voltaire:VoltaireconsideredorthodoxChristianitytobetheworstoftheenemies
ofhumanity;hereservedcontemptfortyrannicalgovernmentaswell.Heconceivedof
governmentasanecessaryevil,withpowerswhichoughttobelimitedtotheenforcementof
naturalrights.Hemaintainedthatallareendowedbynaturewithequalrightstoliberty,
property,andtheprotectionofthelaws.ButVoltairewasnodemocrat.Hewasinclinedtothink
oftheidealformofgovernmentaseitheranenlightenedmonarchyorarepublicdominatedby
themiddleclass.
Fordoingthesetreasonousworks,theintellectualslosttheirpatronagefromthemonarchs.Theyalso
facedsomerepressionsfromtheKinginitially.Butwhensituationbecameworse,nothingcouldbedone
tothemsincetheybelongedtotheuppermiddleclass(Bourgeoisie)families.
Natureoftherevolution:
Thethreebasicprincipleswere:

Liberty
Equality
Fraternity

Therewasaspiritofequalityamongthepeople,thoughtheywerenotequal.
GoalsoftheRevolution:

Uprootingthefeudalsystemanddespoticrule
Abolishingallformsofdiscrimination

Establishingarepublicoffreecitizens

ComingoftheRevolution:

ProprietaryWealthwasmisused
Frencheconomywasailingandinahorriblestate(extremelyhighpriceofbread)
Peasantshadtogivetaxestothechurch,tothelandlord(banalitiesfeesforlandlordsfacilities)
andtothestate(speciallygabelleorsalttaxthatneededtobegiventothegovernment),so
thefinancialwoesofthepeasantswereeverincreasing
Inefficienttaxcollectionandtaxsystemprovidedtaxexemptionstothewealthyandthe
gabellevaluewasdifferentindifferentregionscausingmoreinequality.Therewasnosingular
taxcollectionbodywhichmadetheentiresystemchaotic
Kingwasafeggitakaweakadministrativestructure

The3stagesoftheFrenchRevolution
TheFirstStageofRevolution:June1789August1792
ThiswasbasicallythestagewheretheestatesgeneralmeetinghappenedseeMajorEventsforfarther
explanation.
MAJOREVENTSOFFIRSTSTAGE:

FallofBastilleBastillewasafortresswhichservedasapoliticalprison.Itwasasymbolof
Louissregime.Angry,unemployedandhungryParisianssawitasaplacetoventfrustrations
andattackedit.ItfellandLouisXVIcommandedhisroyaltroopstoretreatfromParis.
TheGreatFearPeasantsburntdownManorialhousestodethronethefeudalsystem,this
createdaflurryoffearamongthemanorownersandtheotherpeasantsfearingretribution
TheOctoberDaysWomenwenttomarket,gotpissedatthehighpriceofbread,marchedto
VersailleswherethekingwasstayinganddemandedhimtoreturntoParisandcooperatewith
theAssembly.Itworkedbecauseahordeofangrywomencandoanything:P,andtheking
returnedtoParis.ThesewomenwerelaternamedheroinesofParis_

ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHEFIRSTSTAGE

Thedestructionofprivilege:Huntingprivilegesofnobleswereabolished,exemptionsfromtax
wasremoved,thesaleofofficeswasalsostopped
TheDeclarationofRightsofMan:Freedomofspeech,religioustoleranceandlibertyofpress
wasdeclaredinviolable.
Thesecularizationofchurch
Constitutionof1971wasfinallypublishedallcitizenshadthesamecivilrights,butonlythose
citizenswhopaidacertainamountoftaxeswereallowedtovote_.TheKingeffectively
becamepowerless,andonlyhadthepowerofveto

EconomicandGovernmentalChangessoldofchurchlandstoraisemoney,tradeunionsand
guildswereabolishedtoencouragegrowth.Francewasdividedinto83municipalitiesand
conceptoflocalgovernmentcameforward.

MAJORPOINTSFROMTHESECONDSTAGE:

Disappointmentofcommonpeople:thecommonpeoplewereidiotsandtheydidntunderstand
howthepoliticalreformwouldhelpthem,theincreasinginflationdidnthelpmatterseitherso
theystartedrevoltingagain
Lackofeffectivenationalleadership
ReignofTerror:Robespierre,discussedlaterinMajorEventssection

ACHIEVEMENTSOFTHECOMMITTEEANDSECONDSTAGE:

PopularculturewascreatedthatshowedthatFrancenowhadliberty_
Centralizationofgovernmentthroughformationofcommittee
Smallbusinesseswereencouragedmoreandsoindustrialtransformationsloweddown
FrancewassavedfromdefeatbyenemiesofthestatebytheruthlessruleofReignofTerror

MAJORPOINTSFROMTHIRDSTAGE:

Robespierrekilled:3
The1795constitutionwascreatedwhichallowedforadirectoryof5mentobecreated(see
majoreventssection)
TheReignofDirectory
NapoleonBonapartecalledupon

MajorEvents:

MeetingofEstateGenerals(May1789):LouisXVIcalledrepresentativesfromthethreeestates
tosolvethefinancialcrisis.Butthethirdestatewouldalwaysbeoverpoweredbytheothertwo.
Sotheyrebelledthere,formedtheirownnationalassemblyandwantednewconstitutionwith
changesregardingthetaxes.
FallofBastille(July14,1789):Bastillewasafortresswhichservedasapoliticalprison.Itwasa
symbolofLouissregime.Angry,unemployedandhungryParisianssawitasaplacetovent
frustrationsandattackedit.ItfellandLouisXVIcommandedhisroyaltroopstoretreatfrom
Paris.TheStormingoftheBastilleoccurredinParis,Franceonthemorningof14July1789.The
medievalfortressandprisoninParisknownastheBastillerepresentedroyalauthorityinthe
centerofParis.ThedemonstratorsoftheThirdEstateinFranceweremainlyseekingtoacquire
thelargequantitiesofarmsandammunitionstoredattheBastille.
Therewereonlysevenprisonersthereatthattime.Negotiationsprovedfutileandtheguards
openfiredonthedemonstrators,killing98ofthem.RiotersstormedtheBastillefortressand
managedtocaptureit.Manyconsiderthisthebeginningoftherevolution.Thewaveof
revolutionaryfervorandwidespreadhysteriaquicklysweptthecountryside.

Revoltingagainstyearsofexploitation,peasantslootedandburnedthehomesoftaxcollectors,
landlordsandtheseigniorialelite.KnownastheGreatFear,theagrarianinsurrectionhastened
thegrowingexodusofnoblesfromthecountryandinspiredtheNationalConstituentAssembly
toabolishfeudalismonAugust4,1789.
Constitutionin1791:FrancewasproclaimedasaconstitutionalassemblyandaLegislative
Assemblywasformedasanewpoliticalbody.Thereweremanyvariationsinthepeopleforming
thenewparliament.
OnAugust4,theAssemblyadoptedtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizen,a
statementofdemocraticprinciplesgroundedinthephilosophicalandpoliticalideasof
EnlightenmentthinkerslikeJeanJacquesRousseau(17121778).Thedocumentproclaimedthe
Assemblyscommitmenttoreplacetheancientrgimewithasystembasedonequal
opportunity,freedomofspeech,popularsovereigntyandrepresentativegovernment.Draftinga
formalconstitutionprovedmuchmoreofachallengefortheNationalConstituentAssembly,
whichhadtheaddedburdenoffunctioningasalegislatureduringharsheconomictimes.
AdoptedonSeptember3,1791,Francesfirstwrittenconstitutionechoedthemoremoderate
voicesintheAssembly,establishingaconstitutionalmonarchyinwhichthekingenjoyedroyal
vetopowerandtheabilitytoappointministers.Thiscompromisedidnotsitwellwithinfluential
radicalslikeMaximiliendeRobespierre(17581794),CamilleDesmoulins(17601794)and
GeorgesDanton(17591794),whobegandrumminguppopularsupportforamorerepublican
formofgovernmentandthetrialofLouisXVI.
Reignofterror(17921795):MonarchiesofEuropestartedfearingFrance.Maximilien
RobespierretookpoweroftheLegislativecommitteeandestablishedhimselfasleaderofthe
reignofterror.Thousandsofpeopleguillotined.LeftistsledbyRobespierreweresupportedby
theworkingclass.Theystartedredterroragainstthewhiteterror.Otherradicalsincluded
DantonandMarat.
InApril1792,thenewlyelectedLegislativeAssemblydeclaredwaronAustriaandPrussia,where
itbelievedthatFrenchmigrswerebuildingcounterrevolutionaryalliances;italsohopedto
spreaditsrevolutionaryidealsacrossEuropethroughwarfare.ThePrussiancommander
threatenedtodestroyParisifthekingwereharmed.TheParismob,ledbyGeorgesDanton,an
extremistwhowantedthemonarchyabolished,reactedangrilytothePrussianthreat.
Suspectingasecretagreementbetweenthekingandtheforeignrulers,themobstormedthe
Tuileriesandtooktheroyalfamilyprisoner.Thefollowingmonth,encouragedbytheParis
CommuneandJeanPaulMarat,aradicaljournalist,mobsstormedthejailsandmassacred
thousandsofroyalistprisoners.AmidawaveofviolenceinwhichParisianinsurrectionists
massacredhundredsofaccusedcounterrevolutionaries,theLegislativeAssemblywasreplaced
bytheNationalConvention,whichproclaimedtheabolitionofthemonarchyandthe
establishmentoftheFrenchrepublic.OnJanuary21,1793,itsentKingLouisXVI,condemnedto
deathforhightreasonandcrimesagainstthestate,totheguillotine;hiswifeMarieAntoinette
(17551793)sufferedthesamefateninemonthslater.Followingthekingsexecution,warwith
variousEuropeanpowersandintensedivisionswithintheNationalConventionusheredthe
FrenchRevolutionintoitsmostviolentandturbulentphase.

IntheNationalConventionastruggleamongfactionsendedinvictoryfortheJacobins,ledby
MaximilienRobespierre,Marat,andDanton.Girondists(moderates)wereexpelled.They
unleashedthebloodyReignofTerror(laTerreur),a10monthperiodinwhichsuspected
enemiesoftherevolutionwereguillotinedbythethousands.Manyofthekillingswerecarried
outunderordersfromRobespierre,whodominatedthedraconianCommitteeofPublicSafety
untilhisownexecutiononJuly28,1794.HisdeathmarkedthebeginningoftheThermidorian
Reaction,amoderatephaseinwhichtheFrenchpeoplerevoltedagainsttheReignofTerrors
excesses.
Ruleofdirectory(17951799):AfterfallofRobespierre(hewasarrestedandkilledforbeingtoo
ferocious)anewconstitutionimplementedandthenewgovernmentconsistedofanexecutive
offivemembers.Theywerequitecorruptedanddependedonthearmytostayinpower.
Inareactionagainstbloodshedanddictatorship,theNationalConventionwroteanew
constitution,underwhichexecutivepowerwouldbeheldbyagroupoffiveknownasthe
Directory.WhentheconstitutionwentintoeffectinSeptember,1795,anuprisingbrokeoutin
Paris.ItwasputdownbytroopsunderNapoleonBonaparte,andelectionswereheld.The
Directorysfouryearsinpowerwereriddledwithfinancialcrises,populardiscontent,
inefficiency,andaboveall,politicalcorruption.Bythelate1790s,thedirectorsreliedalmost
entirelyonthemilitarytomaintaintheirauthorityandhadcededmuchoftheirpowertothe
generalsinthefield.OnNovember9,1799,asfrustrationwiththeirleadershipreachedafever
pitch,Bonapartestagedacoupdtat,abolishingtheDirectoryandappointinghimselfFrances
firstconsul.TheeventmarkedtheendoftheFrenchRevolutionandthebeginningofthe
Napoleonicera,inwhichFrancewouldcometodominatemuchofcontinentalEurope.
RiseofNapoleon:In1799hereturnedfromhismilitaryexpedition,oustedthedirectorythrough
acoupdtatandnamedhimselfastheFirstConsul.Thatmarkedtheendoftherevolution.

RiseofNapoleon:

Boththesidesdestroyedthroughthisrevolution.
Franceinvolvedinmanywar(Austria,RussiaandBritain)andhadmanydefeatsagainst
countries.
NapoleonBonaparteemerged.Hewasoneofthefewbenevolentdictatorsintheworld.
ConsideredoneofthegreatestheroesofFrance.
Someofthegoodthingsthathedidwereimprovingfemaleeducation,makingeducational
reform,establishingtheFrenchCentralBank,etc.
Born:15August1769inCorsica.
In1798heconqueredOttomanruledEgypttostrikeatBritishtraderouteswithIndia.
1799:Hebecamethefirstconsulthroughacoupdtat
1800:DefeatedAustriansatMarengo
1802:Hewasmadeconsulforlife
1803:BritainresumedwarwithFrancealongwithAustriaandRussia.
1804:HewasmadeemperorofFrance.
1805:AtTrafalgarNapoleonsarmydefeatedtheBritishnavy

ReformsofNapoleon:

Centralizationofgovernment:Heestablishedhegemony(dominance)overmostofcontinental
EuropeandsoughttospreadidealsofFrenchrevolution.
ReinstatementofRomanCatholicismasthestatereligion
LawreformwiththeCodeNapoleon.
ThecreationofBaquedeFrance(centralbank)andcreatingapropertaxsystembycentralizing
taxcollectionsystem
Alleducationwasbroughtunderstaterule,highschoolsanduniversitieswereproperlystated
Officialintroductionnewstandardmetricsystemin1799.

SignificanceofFrenchRevolution:

FinaldeparturefrommedievalEurope
Marksthebeginningofmoderncivilization
Sovereigntyofpeopleoverdespotism
Feelingsofnationalism,unitingentirenation
Inspiredpeoplewithspiritofliberty,equalityandfraternity
Modelofrebellionagainstdespotism

FrenchRevolution:Goalsvs.Outcomes
Likemanyradicalupheavals,theFrenchRevolutionresultedinsomesuccessesaswellasmanyfailures.
Eventheoutcomesthatwereviewedaspositive,however,cameataveryhighprice.Differentgroups
ofFrenchmenhadvaryingideasofwhattheRevolutionshouldaccomplish.Theruralpeasantsand
urbansansculottesweremoreinterestedinhavingenoughfoodtoeatthanthereformingidealsof
revolutionaryleaders.ManydelegatestothefirstNationalAssemblywereinfavorofreplacingthe
absolutemonarchywithaconstitutionalmonarchy.Theyalsobelievedthesystemoftaxationshouldbe
revisedandthatallmenshouldbetreatedequallybeforethelaw.Withtheseandothercompeting
interestsallplayingmajorroles,especiallyastheRevolutionbecamemoreradical,theresultswere
decidedlyamixedbag.OneofthemostobviousfailuresoftheFrenchRevolutionwastheReignof
Terrorfrom179394.TheTerror,whichwasorchestratedbyRobespierreandhisfollowers,was
ostensiblyawaytoprovideforthesecurityoftheRepublicbyexposingtraitorstothepeople.Inreality,
itwasusedbyRobespierreasameanstoconsolidateandstrengthenhisholdonpower.Insteadof
puttingintopracticethedemocraticidealsoflibertyandequalitythathespokeofinpublic,Robespierre
usedtheTerrortoexecuteorimprisonthousandsofpeoplewhoheviewedasathreat.TheTerror
cametoanendonlyafterRobespierrehimselfwassenttotheguillotine.Violenceandchaosweretwo
ofthemaincharacteristicsoftheRevolution.BesidestheReignofTerror,therewererevoltsbyrural
peasantsagainsttheirlords;breadriotsbythesansculottesinthecities;theSeptemberMassacres...
andthebrutalhandlingoftheinsurrectionintheVendeandepartment.Ontopofallthis,Francewasat
warwithmostofEuropeforallbuttheearlyyearsoftheRevolution.TheFrenchRevolutionalsofailed
toestablishaconstitutionalmonarchyorarepresentativegovernment.Francebeganin1789withthe
absolutemonarchofLouisXVIandendedwiththemilitarydictatorshipofNapoleonBonaparte.

Inbetweentherewerevariouselectedlegislativebodies,butthesegroupsbecamemoreradicaland
dogmaticastheRevolutionprogressed.TheleadersoftheseAssembliescaredforthepeopleonlyto
theextentthattheycouldhelpthemholdontopower.MensuchasRobespierre,andlaterthe
membersoftheDirectory,usedtheNationalAssemblyfortheirownpersonalgain.Thereweresome
gainsmadebytheRevolutioninFrance.SomehavesuggestedthattheendoftheMiddleAgesin
EuropecanbecontributedtotheFrenchRevolutionduetothefactthatiteffectivelyendedfeudalismin
Europe.Someofthiswasrevolutionary,butmuchofitsuchasinGermanywasduetothefactthat
aristocracyrealisedthatiftheythemselvesdidnotacceleratechange,thepeasantswouldbringabout
theirownchangeinarevolutionthatwouldleavethemworseoff.Consequently,theypreemptedany
inimicalchangeinpreferencetobringingabouttheirownrevolution,topdown.Arguably,oneofthe
greatestinfluencesoftheFrenchRevolutionwasitsimpactonnationalisticthought.Francesovert
maintenanceoftheformationofarepublicduringtheAmericanRevolutionwithtroopsandfinancial
supportwashypocriticallyironic;Francewassupportingofaformofmodernsocietybasedonthe
principleofselfdetermination.TheRevolutionlatersetaprecedentthatonlythosestateswere
legitimateinwhichapeopleofcommoncultureruledforthemselvesacommonterritory.Foreignrule,
orrulebyanalienelite,asintheOttomanandHabsburgempires,wasunnatural.Onlynationstates
werenaturalpoliticalentities;onlytheywerelegitimate."Nationalselfdetermination"becameoneof
themostpowerfulcatchphrasesoftheliberalandradicalideologiesthatlargelyshapedthemodern
statesofthe19thand20thcenturies.TheFrenchRevolutiongeneratedtheconceptofallegiancetoa
nationandtherighttoselfdetermination.Sovereigntywasnolongertorestwiththemonarchasa
DivineRight,anappointmentfromGodbutratherwiththepeople.Popularsovereigntynowrestedwith
thepeopleandtheideaofaNationStatewasconceivedwhilethesansculottesofPariswerenotmuch
betteroffbytheendof1799,thepeasantsofruralFrancehadmadesomeprogress.Theoldfeudal
rightsofthelordshadbeenabolishedin1789,andmuchofthechurchlandthathadbeenseizedbythe
governmentandsoldtoinvestorseventuallyendedupinthehandsofthepeasants.Thesystemof
taxationhadalsobeenrevisedsotheburdendidnotfallsoheavilyonthepeasantsandothermembers
oftheThirdEstate.TheNationalAssemblyalsoissuedtheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan,whichsaid
thatmenarebornfreeandareequalbeforethelaw.HowwellthisDeclarationwasobserved,however,
isdebatable.PerhapsoneofthemostimportantoutcomesoftheFrenchRevolutionisthatitgavemany
citizensatasteofliberty,equality,andpower,howeverbrieflyitlasted.Italsostirredfeelingsof
nationalpridethathadnotexistedbefore.TheRevolutionalsosawthebeginningsofsocialisttheory,
suchasthenecessityofeconomicplanningandagreaterequalitybetweentherichandthepoor.These
theories,alongwithagrowingnationalism,wouldplayasignificantroleinEuropeanpoliticsinthe
nineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.

IndustrialRevolution:

Mid18thand19thcenturies
UnprecedenteddevelopmentoftechnologyinEurope
Replacementofmanuallaborbymachines
Radicaltransformationofcivilization
MostvitalchangeincivilizationafterNeolithicrevolution(at10,000BCwhenpeoplestartedto
cultivatecropsanddomesticateanimals).
Shiftfrompeasantculturetoindustrialculture
Firsteffectonagricultureandthenontextile
Migrationofruralpeoplefromvillagestocitiestoworkastheworkingclass

BackgroundofIndustrialrevolution:

Developmentofagriculture
Developmentofscience
Developmentoftradeandbanking
Developmentofnewregionsandsearoutes
Domesticmanufacturingsystem
Emergenceofmiddleclass

StartedinBritain:Why?
a) Politicalreasons:
Britainwasunderrelativepoliticalstability(becausethepowerwasheldbytheHouseof
Commonswhichwasbourgeoisieclassandnottheroyalty)
Itcontrolledthelargestempireinthehistoryoftheworld(throughthecoloniesinIndiaand
Americawhichwereveryrichinresources)
Thecountryhadaprettygoodruleoflawandpropertyrights.
SomeotherEnglishrevolutions:
Civilwarandrestoration(16401660):Duringthistime,theparliamentwaschallengedand
KingCharlesIbecameengagedinacivilconflictagainsthisforces.Hewasexecutedbyhis
forcesin1649.
Gloriousrevolution(1688):ThiswastherevolutionwhichbroughtBritainunder
constitutionalmonarchyandgavealongtermpoliticalstability.
b) Economicreasons:
BritainhadaLaissezFaireeconomy
Richincoalandiron
Rawmaterialswereobtainedfromthecolonies
Hadcentralbanks,stockmarkets,jointstockcompanies
FromBritaintherevolutionspreadtoFrance,USAandGermanyinrespectivesuccessionandultimately
throughouttheworld.

InventionsofIndustrialRevolution:
a) Textilemachineries:
SpinningJennyinventedin1764byJamesHargreaveswhichhad8spindlesandthe
productivitywasincreasedeighttimeswhatanormalpersoncouldproduce.
Waterframeinventedin1769byRichardArkwrighthookedupaspinningmachinetoa
waterwheelandthuswaspoweredbyanenergysourcemoreefficientandpowerfulthan
humanmuscle.
Powerloominventedin1785byEdmundCartwrightincorporatedsteampowerinthe
spinningmachines.
Sewingmachinewasfinallyinventedin1846.
b) Transportandcommunication:
Steamengine:JamesWattin1763
Propellingshipsandrailwayengines
Hardsurfacedroads,highways,canalsandrailroads
Pennypost(letterscanbepostedinexchangeof1penny).Beforeitwaslimitedwithinthe
richclassandwasveryexpensive.Onceitbecamecheap,thismechanismcouldreachthis
continent.
Telegraph,telephone(Withthese,BritishcouldgainpowerfromtheIndiansoldiersbackin
1857.TheIndiansdidnothaveanymoderncommunicationdevices)
Journeysfromagrarianculturetoindustrialcultureandfromruralculturetourbanculture
madeeasier
Effectsofindustrialrevolution:

Unprecedenteddevelopmentofproduction
Modernizationofagriculture
Growthofpopulationandurbanization(previously80%peoplelivedinruralareas)
Developmentofmoderncities
Emergenceofnewsocialclasses(workersandcapitalists)
Emergenceofmiddleclass:familyoriented,homeseparatefromwork,womendiscouraged
fromworking,familyplanning.
Usingtheupperhandintechnology,theBritishcoulddominatetheworld.

Negativeimpacts:

Sufferingoftheworkers(lowwages,longworkinghours,poorlivingandworkingconditions)
Preferenceforfemaleandchildlabor(cheapersourcesoflabor):maleswereunemployed
Poornutrition,disease,lackofsanitation,andharmfulmedicalcareintheseurbanareashada
devastatingeffectontheaveragelifeexpectancy
Spreadoftradeunionsansocialistideas
Urgeforcolonialexpansion

Conclusion:

Agreatleapforward
Developmentoftechnologyleadingtorapideconomicgrowth
Transformationofhumanculture
Unequaldistributionofwealth
Deprivationofmajorityandexploitationofworkers
Promotingsocialisticideasofsocialwelfareandexploitationofthefreesociety.
Gandhiwasagainstindustrialrevolution.

BackgroundFirstWorldWar:

RapideconomicdevelopmentofmajorEuropeanPowers
Desperatecompetitionamongthosecountries
Resultedindevastatingwar

Maincausesofthewar:

Colonialimperialism:

Imperialismisasystemwhereapowerfulnationrulesandexploitsoneormorecolonies,collective
knownasanempire.Mostofthecases,coercionisusedtoestablishcontrol.Colonieswereusedto
sourceinresources,preciousmetals,cheaplabor,etc.Britainwastheworldsdominantimperialpower
attheturnofthe20thcentury.SomeothercountrieswereFrance,Russia,Germany,TheOttoman
Empire,etc.Ascrambleoccurredbetweentheleadingcountriesinordertoacquirethelastterritories
openforcolonization.MuchofthescrambleoccurredinAfricawhereBritain,FranceandGermany
competed.Thisfuelledrivalry.Also,thedeteriorationofOttomanEmpireattractedtheattentionof
Europeanpowers.

Blockpolitics:

Twomajorblockswereformed:TripleEntente(England,FranceandRussia)andTripleAlliance
(Germany,AustriaHungaryandItaly).
In1873,Bismarck,theChancellorofGermanyformedablockcalledThreeEmperorsLeague(Germany,
AustriaHungaryandRussia),butthenRussiawithdrewin1879.ADualAllianceremainedwhich
promisedeachotherthattheywouldbackeachotherifRussiaattacked.In1881,Italyenteredasthe
thirdcountryandmadeitaTripleAlliance.There,theysignedthatifanycountrywasattackedby
France,theothertwowouldbackthatcountryup.Anotherclausesaidthatifanymemberfounditself
atwarwithmorethanonecountry,thealliancewouldcometoaid.
In1892,RussiasoughtalliesfearingtheGermans.TheywentintoanagreementwithFrance.Itwas
designedtocountertheTripleEntenteandifanyofthetwomembercountrieswereattacked,they
wouldaidthemselves.ThisthreatenedGermanybecausetheyhadrivalsonboththeirwesternand
easternfronts.in1907,BritainsignedtheEntenteCordialeandenteredtheblock,especiallybecause
theywerefearingtheadvancesthatGermanywasmakingintheirnavy,whichwasstartingtochallenge
Britishsupremacyonthewaters.

Armsraceandmilitarism:

Thisreferstothecompetitionbetweenthecountriestobuilduptheirmilitarystrength.Militarism
referstothedominationofmilitarymanovercivilian.Thewayinwhichmajorpowerscompetedin
ordertobuilduptheirmilitarystrengthledtothepossibilityofwar.Theengagementofthecountriesin
thepreWW1wars(exampleFrancoPrussianWar,CrimeanWar,BoerWar,RussiaJapanwar,etc.)
heightenedthecallsformilitaryreformsandincreasedspending.ThenewlycrownedKaiserWilhelmII

orGermanyendorsedarmsexpansion.TheBritishpublicwantedexpansionintheirarmsaswell,asthey
viewedBritaintobeunpreparedforwars(navaldefenseespecially).Thenavywantedmore
Dreadnoughts(battleships)torivaltheGermanUBoats.In1870,thecombinedmilitaryspendingofthe
countriesofthetwoblockswere94millionpounds.By1914,ithadincreasedfourtimesto398million
pounds.Germandefensespendingincreasedby73%.Also,havinglostawarwithJapan,Russias
governmentincreasedproportionspentondefensefrom5%to45%by1910.

Chauvinism

Chauvinismreferstoextremeformofnationalism.IntheyearspriortotheWW1,manyEuropean
countriesnurturedafirmbeliefinthecultural,economicandmilitarysupremacyoftheirnation.This
wasworsenedbythenewspaperswhichoftencontainedexaggeratedstoriesaboutrivalnations.
Nationalismconvincedthecitizensthatevenwhenwhattheirnationwasdoingmightbemorallywrong,
itwasactuallyrightandthattheirnationwasblameless.Othernationsweredemonizedasaggressive,
scheming,deceitful,etc.ThenationalismwasfuelledbythepreWW1wars,imperialconquestsand
rivalries,novelists,media,etc.Examples:
a) GermannationalismwasspurredbythebeliefthatBritainsoughttodeprivedGermanyofher
placeinthesunwaspropagatedbyKaiserWilhelmII.
b) IntheBalkans,chauvinismwasspurredbytherighttoindependence:Serbiaandotherssought
independenceandautonomyfromAustriaHungary.Thisspurredtheformationofradical
nationalistgroupssuchastheBlackHand(thegroupthatwasresponsibleforthemurderof
ArchdukeFranzFerdinand).

Immediatecause:AssassinationofArchdukeFranzFerdinand:
a) HewastheheirtothethroneofAustriaHungary
b) MurderedalongwithhiswifeSophie
c) June28,1914
d) InSarajevo,capitalofBosnia
e) ByGavriloPrincip,whowasthememberofBlackHand
f) Reasonforassassination:TheSouthSlavprovincesofAustriaHungarywantedindependenceso
thattheycouldcombinewiththeotherSlavcountries(whichwereformingduetothebreaking
downoftheOttomanEmpire)toformYugoslavia.
g) FranzFerdinandwantedreformsthatwouldnotallowsuchathing.

BeginningoftheWar

28thJuly:AustriadeclaredwaronSerbia
31stJuly:Russiastartedmobilizingtroops
1stAugust:GermanydeclaredwaronRussia
3rdAugust:GermanydeclaredwaronFrance
4thAugust:EnglanddeclaredwaronGermany

Outcomeofthewar

Warcontinuedfor4years
involved32countriesand65millionsoldiers
10milliondead
21millionwounded
Directcost:US$186billion
Victoryofalliedpowersovercentralpowers

TreatyofVersailles:
Itwassignedon28June1919inHallofmirror,PalaceofVersailles,Parisandwastobeeffectivefrom
January1920.GermanywastoacceptfullresponsibilityforallthelosscausedbyWW1.
a) Territorialprovisions:
Germanylostabout71,000sqkmofland(13%ofitsEuropeanterritories)
LandtakenoverbyFrance,Belgium,Denmark,Poland,Czechoslovakia
ConfiscationandredistributionofGermanysentirecolonialempire
SovereigntyofBelgium,Poland,CzechoslovakiaandAustriarecognizedbyGermany
b) Militaryprovisions:
StrengthofGermanarmylimitedto100,000men
Noheavyartilleryortanks
Navywithonly24shipsandnosubmarine
Nomilitaryaircraft
c) Penalty:
Germanyaloneresponsibleforwar
Kaiser,Germanleaders,militarycommandersweretobetriedandpunished
Germanytopayreparationsforalldamages
CriticismsoftheTreaty:

Dictatedpeace
Imposedbywinnersontheloser
UnjustpeacethatputsallblamesonGermany
CrippledGermaneconomybyforcingthemtopayhugeamountofreparations
Strongresentment,hatredandfeelingofrevengeamongGermanpeoplecausedbythetreaty
LeadingtotheriseofHitlerandtheSecondWorldWar

EffectsofFirstWorldWar:

Radicalchangeinpoliticalsituation:changedbalanceofpower
Hugeeconomiccostofwar:weakeningofEuropeandriseofUSA:Europewasingreatdebtto
itsneighborsduetothewarsdevastation,owingthemasmuchas$10billion.Inflation

occurredwhensomecountriesstartedtoradicallyprintmoney(example:Germanmarkjumped
from4.2million:$1to4.2trillion:$1.Amidstallthis,theeconomyofUSAfostered,especially
duetohugetechnologicalboostthroughproductionofautomobiles,airplanes,radios,etc.
Empowermentofwomen(especiallybecausealotofmendiedinthewar)
Strengtheningofworkingclass
Improvementofhumanrightssituation
Triumphofnationalismoverdemocracy:Thetypeofgovernmentthatbecamepopularafterthe
warwasrepublic.Priortothewar,Europehad19monarchiesand3republicsandafterthe
war,therewere13monarchies,14republicsand2regencies.
Gradualdrifttowardsfurtherviolenceandpoliticalextremism(Germanywasunhappyandrise
ofHitler)

Hitler was responsible for the outbreak of World War 2(1939) to a significant extent. The many things
that he did, like going against the Treaty of Versailles which included the rearmament of Germany, his
Lebensraum policy where he wanted to take over neighboring lands and gain more territory for
Germany and his disrespect to the treaties he made were major reasons for the war. While Hitler was a
great cause for World War 2, he was not the sole reason as explained below.
ARGUMENT ONE
1. Ideological polarization
Liberal Democracy, Communism, and Fascism were raging a worldwide and often violent struggle to
become the dominant model for the future of mankind. We can see this in proxy wars throughout the
1920's and 1930's like Spain and China. Furthermore, Fascist nations like Romania, Italy, Germany and
Nationalist Spain had strained relations with nations like the Soviet Union and the British Empire. These
tensions dominated the decade before 1939 and many could see the writing on the wall.
2. Imperialism
The British Empire controlled 1/4th of the world and intended on keeping it. Mussolini aimed to seize
Greece and North Africa to build a Fascist Roman Empire. Monopoly rule by one empire or autocratic
rule over the whole empire was not met by agreeability by most people. Japanese militarists and Shinto
fundamentalists dreamed of creating a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" free of Western ideals
and materialism. That would have required the liberation and consolidation of the entire Far-East. The
Soviet Union still very much believed in the international revolution of Communism and Stalin himself
was very keen on expanding his reach of power.
All of these goals along with Hitler's goal of building the Greater Reich inevitably lead the world on the
path towards war. Even if Hitler had not launched the invasion into Poland, Mussolini and the Japanese
Empire were still going to expand and eventually spark grander conflict. While Hitler certainly had a very
large role in causing the World War, there were many paths on the road to war and Hitler was not solely
responsible.
ARGUMENT TWO
Hitler wasn't solely responsible for the war. The victors of the First World War played more than a minor
role in the Second World War through the Treaty of Versailles. France was bitter again at having been
invaded and large reparation in terms of coal and money was imposed on Germany, who was forced to
accept all blame for the First World War. The treatment led to feelings of betrayal amongst the German
people who felt that the Weimar Republic had stabbed them in the back by allowing the nation to fall
into such disgrace. Resentment against France led to passive resistance movement against paying
reparations, due to which Germany fell behind in paying. France reiterated by invading and occupying
Ruhr, which has a lot of coal. Due to this, German people felt insecure and enraged. They put most of
the blame on the Weimer Republic. Hitler attempted and failed a coup dtat. Although he failed, his
popularity increased.

To pay the reparation Germany took out massive loans from the US. When the banks collapsed in 1929,
the US lenders called in the loans landing Germany in hot water. In an effort to repay the debt, the
Germans began rapidly printing money resulting in high levels of inflation which often rose several times
a day making money worthless and leading to increased poverty. Hitler capitalised on the inflation and
unemployment and promised to restore Germany to greatness, and so he managed to win enough seats
in the elections to get him appointed chancellor. He capitalised further on attacks on the state which
were organised by the Nazis to cause fear. He created emergency legislation to prevent him being
removed and when president Hindenberg died, he fused the roles of Chancellor and President to
become Reichsfuhrer.
Neville Chamberlain was also responsible for the war because he gave in to Hitler's demands for
Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain believed if he appeased Hitler he could avoid another war, which no one in
Britain was in favour of despite Germany's growing military strength. Hitler didn't anticipate that Britain
would care much for Poland after it had given way over Czechoslovakia so went ahead and made plans
to take Poland. But Britain had an alliance with Poland ensuring its protection so when Hitler invaded,
Chamberlain reluctantly declared war.
It was mostly the Treaty of Versailles which led to the war, Hitler was an opportunist. He merely took
advantage of whatever situations came his way. If the victors had not been so vengeful and greedy in
1919, Hitler may never have come to power. If Germans and indeed Europeans were not so paralyzed by
fear of Communism, Hitler may not have remained in power. And if Britain had not yielded to Hitler's
demands, a long and protracted world war may have been avoided. However, there would by that point
definitely have been at least a European war as Hitler vied for power.
ARGUMENT THREE
Hitler would not have even have happened but for the Treaty of Versailles. As the victors sowed in 1919,
they reaped in 1939.
The Pacific war started long before Hitler and the National Socialists started to reclaim German lands
and German status for the German people. The Manchurian Invasion dates back to 1931 and the Marco
Polo Bridge incident took place 2 years before Hitler and Stalin decided to carve up Poland, Eastern
Europe and Scandinavia.
US policy in both theaters pretty much dictated that the US would be involved at some point. One can
give lip service to claims of self-professed "neutrality", but one's actions will be judged by the world by
their effect and consequence, not by the self-serving propaganda spewed by the politicians. The war
mongering and saber rattling of FDR was met by German, Japanese and Italian bullets.
Had the French and British accepted the German overtures of peace during the 'Sitzkrieg' following the
Polish invasion, perhaps the European war would have been limited to the inevitable conflict between
the Third Reich and the USSR. The Soviets would still have won but perhaps Western Europe would have
been spared. On the other hand, given the incompetent leadership rampant in Europe at the time, that
is only slightly probable. In any case, the war in Asia was in full swing and the Japanese were making
FDR's wish that the British Empire be broken up come true.

Another major cause of the war is tension between the US and Japan. The US would still have continued
its provocations against the Japanese without Hitler in Europe and the Japanese response at Pearl
Harbor (from their perspective, justified and a matter of self-defense) would have still have been
necessary. Japan had few mineral resources. As a result it tried (and succeeded) in holding off the
Russian Empire expansion in East Asia. After 1931, Japanese goal was to dominate East Asia, which was
then under USA and major European powers influence. To this end, Japan started war with China in
1937. This led to tension in USA regarding Japan, and Japanese assets in USA were seized, cutting off
80% of Japanese oil imports. The Netherlands and Britain followed suit. Japan was forced to either
comply or go to war. They chose the latter. Had the US actually been sincere in claims of neutrality in
Europe, perhaps Hitler and the US would have remained allies of China in the Second Sino-Japanese
War. US actions drove the National Socialists, the Italian Fascists and the Imperial Japanese into one
another's arms. France and Great Britain helped push them together.
ARGUMENT FOUR
After numerous notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League of Nations
ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The reliance upon
unanimous decisions, the lack of an armed force, the absence of the USA, and the continued selfinterest of its leading members meant that this failure was arguably inevitable.
To sum it up, these are the reasons Adolf Hitler was not responsible for World War II:
1. The Treaty of Versailles gave Germany an indefensible eastern border.
2. Germany had to be concerned about the military threat posed by its eastern neighbors,
especially the Soviet Union.
3. Germany's efforts to reach an accommodation with Poland, so that the indefensible border
would no longer be a problem, were thwarted, largely as a result of British meddling.
4. Worse than that, there were some positively jingoistic Poles. It seems to have fallen down the
memory-hole that Poland occupied part of Czechoslovakia simultaneously as Germany occupied
the western part. And indeed there were some atrocities against ethnic Germans in Poland.
5. While Germany's effort to make a defensive arrangement with Poland had been foiled, Britain
began sabre-rattling over the German occupation of western Czechoslovakia* (but not over the
Polish occupation of another part of Czechoslovakia).
6. Under the circumstances, with the looming threat of a war in the west, it made very good
geopolitical sense for Germany to cultivate good relations with the USSR and to partition Poland
with the USSR so as to create a short and defensible eastern frontier far from Berlin, while
eliminating Britain's ally from Germany's rear.
7. The cross-border Polish attacks of 31 August 1939, which constituted the immediate
provocation for the German invasion of Poland, were probably not an elaborate hoax as alleged
at Nuremberg. There were cross-border attacks at many locations, and the only evidence that
any of them was fraudulently staged was the post-war Nuremberg testimony of one man, the
mysterious Alfred Naujocks.

8. It was irrational for Britain and France to declare war on Germany because of Poland. Neville
Chamberlain complained to Joseph Kennedy that he had been pushed into it by the USA and the
International Jews. (This was then related by Kennedy to Admiral James Forrestal, who wrote it
in his diary). The continuation of the war by Britain after the fall of France, which facilitated the
European war's development into another World War with American involvement, was even
more irrational.

Historian Stephen Ambrose said: "The British had as many problems, if not more, in recovering from
victory, as the Germans did in recovering from defeat. What did Britain get out of the war? Not very
much. Not very much. She lost a very great deal. I suppose that if you want to look at it positively, she
got a moral claim on the world as the nation that had stood against Hitler alone for a year."