Review of Thermodynamics

Mechanical Engineering:

Mechanics

Systems

Design

Energy
- Thermodynamics: governs all energy
consuming/transforming devices and systems
- Main goal:

increase product output

decrease input of a scarce resource
reduce total cost
reduce environmental impact

Some Applications of Thermodynamics

1. Define the system

Q
W

2. Identify relevant
interactions with
surroundings

3. Apply one or more basic laws:

- Mass conservation
- Energy conservation (1st law)
- Entropy (2nd law)
4. Properties of substances
Solve for unknowns
Others:
- No info about the heat transfer (ME 3525)
- Newtons 2nd law of motion (F = ma): Momentum eq. (ME 3131)

General operating principle of power systems:

Inequilibrium between two systems opportunity to develop work

T
Heat
transfer

Power systems benefit

from natural processes
with restricted directions
due to 2nd law.

Reversing the natural processes require external means as

transferring heat from low T to high T is not spontaneous.
Refrigerator

Heat pump

System: device(s) containing

a quantity of matter
Steady system: no change with time

Property: anything that can be measured/observed about a system

Thermodynamic properties:
- intensive (independent of mass): P, T, v, h
- extensive (varies with mass): V, H
Intensive property = Extensive property/mass, e.g., v = V/m

Pure substance: homogeneous and invariable chemical composition,

e.g., water, air, etc.
State: the condition of a system as determined
by the values of it properties
State principle: The state of a system at equilibrium is described by
two independent thermodynamic properties, e.g.,
P = P (T, v)

Compressed liquid

Saturated liquid

Saturated vapor

Superheated vapor

P and T are NOT

independent for saturated
(two phase) state.

To determine the thermodynamic properties of a substance, first

compare the given state to the reference one (saturated state),
and then use the appropriate tables.
For example, at P = constant:
T < Tsat compressed liquid
T = Tsat mixture (saturated phase)
T > Tsat superheated vapor

(i) Compressed liquid Incompressible model

For liquids, v constant vf, u u(T)
cp = cv = c = c(T) = du/dt, h(T,P) = u(T) + Pv
(ii) Mixture:
P and T are not independent define quality, x = mvapor/mmixture
Saturated liquid x = 0
Saturated vapor x = 1
v = vf + x(vg vf), h = hf + x(hg hf), etc.

vapor

(iii) Superheated vapor Ideal gas model (at high T and/or low P)
No need to use tables as the P-v-T relation is simple.
PV = mRT
Pv = RT
R
where R 8.314 kJ/kmol.K (universal gas constant)
M
M : molecular weight (kg/kmol)
R

u = u(T) h = u + Pv = u(T) + RT = h(T)

du = cv(T)dT, dh = cp(T)dT
cp cv = R, cp = kR/k-1, k = cp/cv

First Law of Thermodynamics

Conservation of energy:
Net energy crossing a system boundary = change in energy inside the system

Transferable energy:
Energy interactions of a system with its surroundings: work, heat transfer

Storable energy:
Change in the energy of a system: kinetic (V2/2), potential (gz), internal (u), flow (Pv)

Work: a means of transferring energy

- W = PdV = area under P-V diagram

- Path dependent

Heat transfer: energy transfer due to T

Mass and Energy Balances for Closed Systems:

m = constant
Q W = E = KE + PE + U
q w = e (per unit mass)
q w = de (differential form)

Thermodynamic cycles = a system that goes through a

sequence of processes and returns to its original state
Ecycle = 0 Qcycle = Wcycle

Mass and Energy Balances for Open Systems:

rate of change = +in out
dmcv
m i m e where m Vn dA
dt
i
e
A
2
2

dEcv
V
V

Qcv Wcv m h
gz m h
gz
dt
2
2
i
i e
e

Steady systems d( )/dt 0

Special Cases of Steady-State Energy Conservation

Nozzles and Diffusers: Devices to alter the characteristics of a flow by varying the cross-sectional area of a duct

PE 0, Q cv 0, Wcv 0

e
Nozzle
Ve > Vi
Pe < Pi

e
Diffuser
Ve < Vi
Pe > Pi

Vi 2
Ve2
hi
he
2
2

Turbines: Devices to develop work by passing a liquid (superheated steam in power plants)
or a gas (air in aircraft engines) through a set of blades attached to a shaft that is free to rotate

KE PE 0, Q cv 0 W cv m
( hi he )

Special Cases of Steady-State Energy Conservation

Compressors and Pumps: Devices to raise the pressure of a fluid by using a work input

W
KE PE 0, Q cv 0 he hi cv
m

Heat Exchangers: Devices to transport heat between fluids at different temperatures

Q cv 0 for the entire HX as the CV,

W cv

= 0, PE KE 0, negligible pressure drop

m 1 (h1i h1e ) m 2 (h2 e h2i )

Throttling Valves: Devices to abruptly drop the fluid pressure with a restriction in the flow passage

KE PE 0, Wcv 0, Q cv 0 hi = he

Concept of Entropy
Analogy between work and heat: Heat reacts to T at
the system boundary in exactly the same manner as
work reacts to P: Wrev = PdV, Qrev = TdS
A measure of irreversibility, that is, a measure of the
dissipation of energy into forms that are difficult to
utilize in the production of work
Higher efficiency smaller increase in entropy
A measure of molecular disorder (Sgas > Sliquid > Ssolid)
Restricts direction of spontaneous process (e.g.,
combustion, cooling coffee, falling rock, etc.)

Entropy Balance
entropy change = entropy transfer + entropy generation
For a closed system: S Q S gen
T

Irreversibility, S gen 0
Heat transfer

Wirrev PdV T S gen

Scm

0 but S net 0
0

For an open system:

Lost work

dScv
Q
m i si m e se Sgen
dt
T
i
e

Entropy Change
Liquid (or solid):

s2 s1 c ln

T2
T1

Ideal gas with constant specific heats:

T2
P2
T2
v2
s2 s1 c p ln R ln cv ln R ln
T1
P1
T1
v1

Isentropic process of an ideal gas with constant specific heats:

T2 P2
s2 s1 0
T1 P1

k 1
k

v1

v2

k 1

 Exergy: useful work potential (maximum work obtainable)

Energy is conserved but not exergy, i.e., energy is not
destroyed but converted to a less useful form.
First law deals with the quantity of energy.
1st law efficiency = accomplishment relative to the effort put in
Second law deals with the quality of energy.
2nd law efficiency = performance relative to the best possible case
What is the best possible performance for thermodynamic cycles?

Carnot Cycle (Gas Power)

Four internally reversible processes

Carnot cycle efficiency = max. efficiency operating between two specified temperatures

th ,Carnot

Wnet Area (1-2-3-4-1) (TH TL )( S2 S1 )

TL

1
Qin Area (1-2-B-A-1)
TH ( S2 S1 )
TH

TH

and/or th , Carnot
T L

TH

and/or th ,R eal cycles

TL

TH = Tmax is limited by the max. temperature components can withstand.

TL = Tmin is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium used (air, lake, etc).

Question 1: Why cant we use Carnot cycle for all engines?

Answer 1: Because reversible isothermal heat transfer is impossible
to achieve in reality as it would require infinitely large heat
exchanger and time.
Question 2: If it is not practical, why do we study Carnot cycle?
Answer 2: Because it is a standard against which the actual or other
ideal cycles can be compared.