Hints On Drawing

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HINTS ON DRAWING
DESIGNED FOR
SELP-INSTRUCTION
BS
J.
LATTA
TORONTO
Entered accorditiR to Act of the Parliament of Canada, In the year one thousand nine hunby The Kuucational Publishing Company, at the Department of Agriculture.
dred,
PREFACE
This book
intended for the student of Drawing as well as for the teacher*

a desire for a deeper study of this fascinating subject.
Although it is impossible to present a full treatment of the subject in the
space at our disposal, we have endeavoured to briefly outline the full course
expected to be covered by an average Public School student. We have endeavoured
also to treat the subject in a practical way and according to sound psychological
is
Its object is to intensify
principles.
It is fully illustrated with fac-similes of pen and ink drawings by the author.
These are presented for the purpose of fully illustrating the text rather than to
present copy. The student should draw much for himself, encourage personal
effort, learn to do by doing, using the illustrations for the purpose of reference
and comparison.
For convenient classification and to facilitate the proper development of the
course outlined we have divided the book into four parts
Part I.
Freehand and Practical Design ;
Part II. Mechanical Drawing and Illustration ;
Part III. Object Drawing.
Part IV. Applied Perspective, Grouping, Shade and Shadow.
We desire to acknowledge our obligations for valuable suggestions to Mr.
Alex. McQueen, Principal of Victoria Public School, and to the Assistants of
Colborne Street Public School.
We desire also to acknowledge very valuable assistance and criticism from

Mr. R. M. Graham, Principal of the Model School, whose characteristics as a
successful student of child nature are well known.
S. Jt liATTA.
London, February, 1900.
^.
Di<
Coj
CONTENTS
Introductory.
Matorial and How to
Use
".".
ft.
Page
7
12
iôsition.
.^'
"""--."
..'"--..
.
"
Eye and Hand.
"
Practice.
.
Sticks and Angles.
Symmetry.
"
"
"
Straight Line Designs
"
'
"
'
13
13
13
'
"
20
23
Simple Curve Desiins."

-
fet\?r"f'*'^^^^^>Î^-i'Con.bi;.^^^^^^
^nd Space Filling.
Tabll^r"^^
Compound
"
Curves.
Tlio
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
'
3()
2<)
2H
30
32
..""--..
Double Loop.
Leaf Forms.
The Spiral.
Borders.
"
43
4(5
47
52
5'j
G-m^cdI'';"*''"""'""''" "''^^"~ ^"^ ILLUSTRATION.

A
-.'""--.
.'"--.
Point.
Lines.
Surfaces.
Angles.
.
Triangles.
Quadrilaterals.
'
The Circle.
.
ProblemsGeometric
"
Constructive Drawing
Object.
The Scale.
"
"
"
"
"
The Plan.
ProblemsConstructiVe.
"
82
83
"
'
"
"
75
77
'
.
.
63
04
64
do
65
60
67
08
73
73
Problems
*"
Problems-Scale.
'
^'^''''''
"
'
"
'
"
"
"
Degrees
.
Pioblem8.-Degree8. Dictation Drawino
Preliminary Exercise.".
Problems.
.
Descriptive Outlines
Answers to Dictation
"
"
"
'
"
85
86
86
87
89
CONTENTS
Illustration.
Page
Practicul.
95
97
106
Lettering.
Picture Storioa.
PART
-'-----....
-..-.-..
----------......
-----..-.
........
-----------.....,
-------.---....
........
.....
--.-...
.---....
........
---.--....
.......
........
........
.......
---....
.......
.........
.....
.........
.......
-----....
........
.........
......
--------
The Drawing Book.

Outlines.
Models
Sticks and Tablets.
III.OBJECT
-
DRAWING.
-
-118
Making Models.
Models Solids.
The Cube.
The Sphere.
The Ellipsoid.
The Ovoid.
Memory
Exercise.
Repose.
Effect of Distance.
Effect of Position.
Foreshortening.
Insects and Animals.
Leaves, Flowers and Plants.
The Circular Tablet, Cylinder and Cone.
The Circular Tablet.

The Cylinder.
The Cone.
The Hemisphere.
Handles.
Trees.
Drawing from the
flat.
120
121
129
133
134
1:^5
133
139
139
14Q
142
143
145
152
1,59
1(55
105
167
172
173
J74
177
jgl
PART IV.APPLIED PERSPECTIVE, GROUPING, SHADE AND SHADOW

The Horizon.
Parallel Perspective.
The Cube.
Problems.
The Square Pyramid.
The Triangular Prisjn.
Angular Perspective.
Problems.
Shade and Shadow.
Blending.
Direction of Lines.
The Model.
Problems.
Grouping.
Position of the Picture Plane.

Figure.
The Human
jgy
189
jjj9
199
260
207
2O8
214
2I8
223
223
224
226
227
236
239
INTRODUCTION
A proper understnnding of the process by
which the knowledge of an object

the mind is an aid to success in following the proper method of developing
the study of drawing.
grows
in
Wlien we look at an object an image appears in the mind as soon as we cease

it.
We think of two things (1) The image in the mind (2) The
to look at
object outside of the
mind that gave
rise to this
image.
Examinations of the drawings of children who have not previously had any
acquaintance with the object drawn will help to estimate in how far this mental
image corresponds with the original object that gave rise to it. We have found
that although they show the influence of ability to represent the image by means
of a drawing, the drawing will vary according to the ability to receive and
interpret impressions received through the sense of eight.
we are open
Our experiments, and
have led us to conclude that the drawing
is accurate
only so far as the image in the mind is accurate.
On the other hand, if an object with which children are already acquainted is
])laced before them and they are asked to draw it, the result is quite different.
We hold before a class, in the first grade, an ordinary inflated foot-ball rubber
to criticism,
and received something
That it was
like the following facts concerning it
brown, provided with a thing through which to blow the wind, and
that this thing was tied with a piece of string. After this discussion a drawing
was requested, the object being still before the class. Some at first hesitated, and
took a long look at the object some moved their heads to one side and tried to
see the "thing to blow the wind through" wliich by the way was kept carefully
round,
soft,
INTRODUCTION
out of
flight
thirty
made drawings
others went to
work at once.
Out of about
thirty-five pupils ove

er
like these
Flg.l
We then put away the rubber and a short conversation

and
The
took plaoe about
men
was again requested to draw, but this time a man riding a

horse. Tlie great majority went immediately to work with great glee, exhibiting
a decided air of " tbafs easy." The result was invariably something like these
horses.
class
Fig. 2
INTRODUCTION
In the
case the previous knowledge of the object overcame the power to

appeared, and in the second the object was immediately referred
choose to term conventional drawings either designed by themselves or
first
perceive
it
to wliat
we
given to
them by some one
as
it
else.
experiments undoubtedly proves that the principal

elements that constitute the chief source of error in drawing are: (1) a previous
knowledge of the object and (2) the possession of a conventional image of it.
The
result of these
Without extended discussion we desire to outline briefly a few hints resulting

from our experience.
1. At the beginning avoid the drawing of objects of which a conventional
representation lias been learned.
This
2. Avoid too, at first, the drawing of an object in a familiar position.
familiarity may be the result of frequently seeing it thus or a picture of it.
3. Do not practice the copying of drawings, except as a means of becoming
acquainted with good methods of representation. Even here there is a tendency
for the copy to become so impressed as to interfere materially with actual mental
images formed by contemplating the object itself, thus preventing attention to
This danger may
special characteristics not suggested in this particular drawing.
be partially overcome by copying drawings of the same object in different
positions.
AVe do not
not necessary.
mean
to say that a knowledge of the object to be represented is

Great speakers are great speakers not only becauae they have
attained great power in the word method of expression, but because in addition
to this they possess a clear understanding of the subject in hand. The eye reveals
to us surfaces only.
Rooper says, " A baby stretches out its hand for the moon
how is it that what seems so near to him looks so far from us? Because in our
case the impressions conveyed by the eye are supplemented by the impressions
received through the touch, and *he two distinct sets of impressions combined
together in the mind furnish us with a conception of a third dimension, besides
length and breadth viz., depth. The child who has not yet got so far as to have
sufficiently often united the impressions derived from looking with those derived
from touching and moving, cannot rightly interpret the impressions which he
receives.
The moon seems quite close to him.
The process of assimilation then,
if care is not constantly
exercised, misleads, and familiarity with an object
may, as wo have said, interfere with the actual observation of it. To overcome
this difficulty we have advocated the drawing not only from objects, but from the
same object in many different positions. Follow this plan as closely as possible ;
the proper result will follow and you will be benefited by the process.
;
'
'
INTRODUCTION
Objects coming before the eye are reflected upon the retina from which the
image
is
conveyed through the optic nerve to the brain, the seat of the under-
The longer the object remains or the oftener it is presented to the vision
the more perfect is the impression it leaves, and the more familiar its form
standing.
This faculty of perceiving, or the powsr of the mind to receive and

may be cultivated and strengthenededucated by proper
exercise properly directed. If an object remains before the mind long enough to
mak<; the impression strong, it becomes associated with the feeling and the will
Conies into play. We determine to remember the impressions thus received, and
to this end the mind seeks to compare the new with the old, rejecting the unlike
and retaining the like, until finally the new impression finds a place in the mind.
A child, for example, has seen cubical blocks. A trunk is presented. The
irregularities of tlie trunk present new impressions and he says it is not cubical.
Had there been no irregularity the trunk and the blocks would have coincided,
but the difference causes an obstruction. True, the new and the old coincide to
a certain extent. They do not however, coincide exactly. The old impressions,
say length, breath and heightthe like elements, being firmly established,
strengthen each other and unite to form a clear image. The unlike, smoothness
and irregularity, become gradually obscured, till finally the two are recognized as
one in the mind and he says the trunk is cubical. The classification and study of
objects according to what are commonly termed type forms is the proper method,
beginning with sticks and proceeding to the tablet, then the solid.
becomes.
interpret impressioua,
William James, Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University, in his talks

"No reception without reaction, no impression without
correlative expression." An impression that flows in at the e3'es is incomplete
and fails to produce the proper effect upon the memory. The most durable
impressions are those on account ot which we act. You notice for example, that
when a circular tablet is held in an oblique position it appears as an ellipse. This
impression as we have said is incomplete and will fail to produce the proper effect
upon the memory unless there is reaction. You may say that it appears as an
ellipse and still the conception corresponding to this verbal reaction may be
inaccurate but if the tablet is drawn as it actually appears, there is no room for
ambiguity. This expression comes back again in the form of a further impression
of what you have done. News of your having acted is received and you see the
success or failure of your conduct. This return impression is the completion of the
whole experience. The niauy illustrations that follow will, after you have done
your iuest, by comparing your efforts with ours, better enable you to judge the
result of your having acted.
on Psycl;ology says:
INTRODUCTION
The sense of sight is accurate enough, but the perception of the whole object
a mental act ; the judgment of what is seen is made in the mind. This power
An apple for example, is presented.
to judge, drawing seeks to develop.
Impressions come crowding in upon the mind to such an extent that it is
impossible to fix attention upon any one of them. The impressions made by the
characteristics of roundness, smoothness, color, etc., are so massed and grouped
together as to form an indefinite, unanalyzed whole ; but after some concentration
this indefinite whole is analyzed, broken up into its constituent elements.
Certain of these stand out more prominently and consequently arrest attention,
thug forming a foundation upon which the understanding of others is built. In
this manner the indefinite mass becomes simplified and brought within the circle
In representing an object the boundary of the whole should first be
of the mind.
defined. The definition may be only mental, but as we have before intimated the
impression will be more complete if expressed by an outline.
The characteristics
of detail should be expressed next, beginning with the most prominent. Just
here, again, care must be exercised to avoid the common error of exaggerating
those characteristics which absorb the most mental activity.
is
Some are gifted with a peculiar aptitude for this method of expression
drawing. In such cases intuitive effort results in the rendering of truth in many
respects, but at the same time a close scrutiny of the work done will reveal many
imperfections which might be avoided if the underlying principles governing
such expression were understood. Genius and talent may be widely different,
Knowledge will discover the latent
yet in the rough they are slightly so.
powers of both and cause each to develop to the fullest extent. Knowledge of
the principles of drawing we say is absolutely necessary in order that the best
results
may
follow.
The mechanical work apart from its practical value will develop the proper
use of tools and encourage accuracy. Picture stories will aid the imagination.
A little
work
add interest and further aid in the development of

Freehand and Design will develop manual dexterity, and
together with the use of sticks, tablets and solids, aa advocated, will foster constructiveness. Symmetry will be of practical value in any walk of life, alike useful
to the gardener and the dressmaker.
color
will
the aesthetic nature.
We deplore the too prevalent neglect of proper method in the teaching

and important subject. We believe that the particular side
fascinating
child's nature it should seek to develop
monly employed, retarded rather than
is,
in
many
fostered.
respects,
( f
this
of the
by (he means com-
INTRODUCTION
Drawing,
if
properly directed, will develop observation, concentration, persev-
erance, accuracy, dexterity, constructive ness, imagination, patience, perception of
form, love of the beautiful, love of nature and nature's God.
It will help to fit a

and appreciate life and thus aid in the preparation for the life to come.
In conclusion we desire to say by way of encouragement that however unsuc-
man
to enjoy
cessful
your best attempts
physical, intellectual, moral
may
appear to be, honest
effort will
and religious being, the truest aim of
all
develop your
true education.
NOTEThe pupils referred to at the beginning of tliis chapter had done but little drawing two
had attended the Iciudergarteu.
;
Material and
1.
Ttvo pencils,
an
How
H H for sketching
to
outlines
Use
and an
It.
HB
for lining in
and
shading.
A trying sqwvre which can be easily made out of
an ordinary piece of pastethe form of a triangle having one right angle. This will be very useful
in testing square corners and perpendicular lines.
3. A pencil compass for testing circles.
4. Pen and ink if it is to be used for lining in and shading instead of the
B pencil. Use good black ink. India ink is preferable.
5. A knife and piece of sand paper for sharpening pencils.
If drawings are to be made
6. Paper which should be of the best quality.
with pencil use the best drawing paper. It should have a hard, rough surface ; if
pen and ink use a hard, smooth surface paper.
7. An eraser of good rubber, one end of which should be pointed and the other
2.
board cut
in
wedge-shaped.
The
8. A drawing board, light and smoothly finished, about 12x18 inches.
paper may be tacked to this board. This will enable it to be held in proper
position before the eye. If a drawing book is used it may be held to the board
by two elastic bands.
PART
I.
FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL DESIGN

1.
What
Freehand Drawingr?
is
Freehand Drawing
done with the free hand.
is
only be unassisted by ruler, compass,to
move
etc.,
but
it
any direction with perfect freedom.
in
The hand
should not
should have plenty of room
Tracing
is
not freehand
drawing.
2 Position.
Seek to
in
sit
a comfortable position.
slightly inclined forward,
but
the work to enable
it
left
hand.
To
Give any
keeping the paper
squarely
The paper may be turned
form the centre.
Many recommend
in front.
As a rule, we believe this is
draw certain curves, so that the hand may
prove the correctness of the work, it is a good plan
always in the same position

best.
the body fairly straight,
be seen to the greatest advantage.
to
support necessary with the
Keep
so that the eyes are at the proper distance from
to
sometimes to view the drawing with the paper
in
a different position.
bher
3.
Eye and Hand.
The eye, especially in drawing, plays a very important part in directing

movement of the hand. Hence it is of the greatest importance that the
eye as well as the hand be well trained.
The eye (a) to judge d stance,
{b) to distinguish form, (f) to see proportion, and the hand to obey promptly
the
and
Training the eye should precede training the hand, but at
accurately.
the same time
we should
strive persistently to train both to act in unison.

During the whole of a course in drawing, we strongly recommend constant
practice such as
we have
outlined.
Id
14
4. Practice.
The
following exercises are for the purpose of acquiring facility
power to make the hand obey.

write
You ought
to a certain extent automat'cally.
should be able to perfOrm perfectly
any
further.
We
all
to learn to
We
the
draw as you learn to
do not mean
to say that you
the exercises here given before going
merely submit them as sort of dumb-bell exercise to be
taken frequently, in order to keep the hand and eye in proper condition.
Straight Lines.
lines
from
left
Vertical lines are
drawn from the top down, horizontal
to right, left oblique lines from
left
to right, right oblique lines
There is no reason, however,

why good muscular training is not obtained by drawing lines either way.
I. A carpenter in driving a nail keeps his eye on the nail
the objective
point.
Can you apply the principle involved to the drawing of a straight
line ?
Place the pencil at a point from which you desire the line to
commence. Fix the eye on the point at which you desire
to end and at
either way, according to the degree of slant.
i*.
move
Make a number
the same time

t.
the hand freely towards that point.
of straight lines, say three or four, on an unruled
Lay
piece of paper as a sample of work you are able to do.

follow carefully the lines
on a ruled piece of foolscap.
the unruled piece of paper.
improved
Compare
these with
these aside
Make a
the others.
and
few more on
Have you
Fig. 3.
^.
Draw a
rectangle 6 in. long
and
in.
wide.
By
vertical lines divide
PRACTICE
15
obt te:'"""'
ty the
0/.
earn to
liat
re
..
Make
'"^
-*
-^"^^
P^-'H
vertical.
>he circle free.y.

i.hou, sketching
you
hori.o,aUd
the diae.e.
going
e to be
ion.
Drizontal
jue lines
tiowever,
way.
abjective
,
straight
line to
d and at
unruled
and
more on
[ave you
Fig. 4.
side
Do
a
not attempt any definite

size at
free circular
2.
the
The
^^^^^^4.
Sketch the radius of some

definite length.
Sketch an equilateral triangle.
Dra
inside':
Outside'
point!;
';t^:.r z:;ir^-
as
nh;.f
v,
,^ .
^^^^ '^"^^
^^ * obtain
Sketch the diameter of

some aennite
definite length,
l*-no-tK
circle.
3.
les divide
first
movement.
J as
thaltThe
.
i
m., 2 m., etc.
Draw
the circle
large a
"'''"'' '^'^ ^"^^^^

^^ ^^^^^'^ ^"-g^-
mT^' ^7^^'
paper on the drawing
^"^
'
'''
Draw
c"
cTe^
you
Draw a
en
circle
^^^^ ^ '-'- ^-^-^ ^^-^^ ^^-e

''''''
^^ -
""'''' ^" ^"^'^ ^^^

''^""^^ ^' ^^^ ^^^^ by laying
the
16
2.
size.
Bend a piece of wire to form an angle. Draw an angle of the same

Test the accuracy of the work as before. Change the size and try
again.
Measuring.
It is not only good training but it is very necessary that
you be able to measure accurately. Not only definite measurements as an
inch, an inch and a half, etc., but proportionate measurements as well.
Ruler and compass should be used only to test the accuracy of the work.
1.
Draw a
straight line 2 in. long, 3 in.,
2.
Draw a curve the ends of which
3.
Draw a
are 2
in., etc.
in. apart,
of any length.
straight line
another line of the same length.
Draw a
4^
in.,
Twice as
Half as long.
4^^
in., etc.
few inches from
it
draw
long.
same length.
Twice as long.
Draw another in some other position the
5. Draw an oblique line.
same length. Half as long. One and a half times as long.
6. Draw a square with sides vertical.
Oblique.
Draw
a
right
positions.
angle
different
triangle in
7.
Draw
in
some other position of the
an angle. Draw another angle
8.
same size. Twice as large. Half as large.
9. Draw a rectangle twice as long as it is wide.
10. Draw two lines of different lengths.
Draw a rectangle having its
4.
Half as
Draw a
vertical line.
horizontal line of the
long.
sides equal to these lines.

11.
Draw two
lines of
unequal length.
Draw a
rectangle having
its
sides one-half as long as the lines drawn.

12.
13.
Draw a line. Bisect it. Use this point

Draw a circle. Draw another circle
one-half of the diameter of the
Draw a
as centre
and draw a
circle.
the diameter of which
is
first circle.
on the black-board about two feet by three feet.

on paper the sides of which are in proportion to the sides
of the rectangle on the board.
Draw a line the length of
15. Make two dots a short distance apart.
which is the same as the distance between the dots.
14.
Draw a
rectangle
rectangle
STICKS
1 6.
17.
paper.
AND ANGLES
17
Draw a line. Divide it into two equal parts. Three. Four. Five.
Draw a line. Examine it carefully. Cover it with a piece ol
Draw from memory a line the same length. Half as long. Twice
as long.
18.
19.
Draw a rectangle. From memory draw another the same size.

Draw a rectangle.
Draw another of different size but having
proportionate sides.
20.
Draw a
rectangle.
Draw a
straight line the
same length as the
diagonal of the rectangle.
5 Sticks
and Angles.
As models, use
many
these to form as
sticks of
a dark
color,
represent these designs.
Commence by
Draw
using two sticks.
the line will represent the position of the stick.
i-
about 2 Inches long.
different designs as possible.
The
DN TIAV
With three
lich
is
1
1
position of
Here are a few samples
Fig. 5.
circle.
Lay
straight lines to
sticks
something
like the following
may be
ma'ê
18
EM\A/n n
Fig.
By
By
after
7.
number of sticks, a greater variety may be made.

number of sticks, very nice borders may be constructed,
increasing the
using a large
which they should be drawn.
Fig.
For
this exercise,
8.
use pieces of wire bent to form angles.
Commence
STICKS AND ANGLES

by using one piece to form a right angle. Lay
Draw it in these positions. Next use two, three or
the
number of designs
will increase
with the
19
it
in different positions.
As with the
four.
number of angles used.
sticks
V//////////,
EEH
rLrLru
Fig. 9.
some practice in drawing right angles, use acute and then obtuse
Very pretty designs may be made by combining the three.
After
angles.
nimence
20
are
6*
There are advantages in drawing from models in this way. The designs
more easily made, and only those which are pleasing may be drawn.
Ssmunctry.
Symmetrical about an axis.
By symmetry
design
is
in drawing is meant that whatever

done to every other correspondmg part.
is
done to one part of
u^
Fig. 10.
In the design shown in
two
parts,
the right and the
left,
fig.
lo,
notice that
it
may be
paper were folded at this line the right side would exactly
coincide with the
two symmetrical
about an axis.
left.
divided into
separated as shown by a dotted line.
It is therefore
parts, separated
symmetrical.
by a straight line,
fit
Because
it is
If the
upon, or would
it
consists of
said to be symmetrical
SYMMETRY
Our
illustration
ai
shows the proper method of drawing such designs.
Sketch the axis and build up the design part by part, bringing both sides
along together.
commencing
This
is
a much better way than by finishing one side before
the other.
mind when making the examination, many

seem very complex will turn out to be quite easily made*
Examine the following carefully, sketch the axis, and draw as we have
recommended.
If these facts are kept in
designs which at
first
Fig. 11.
FREEHAND AND
92
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
Symmetrica/ about a
The
design in
fig.
metrical about an axis,
about an
12
is
viz.,
The whole
axis.
which these axes
made up of
AB
or
four similar parts.
Each
D.
part also
figure therefore is symmetrical

It is said to
intersect.
centre.
It is also
is
sym-
symmetrical
about a point
be symmetrical about a
at
centre.
Fig. 12
To draw
different parts
such figures
first
and proceed
indicate the centre, sketch lines to define the
to build
Other examples are given in
up
fig.
in the
same manner as
before.
13.
Problems.
1.
Sketch a vertical line and using
consisting of four straight lines

2.
on each
it
as
an axis construct a design
side.
Draw a design, symmetrical about an

made up of simple curves.
axis
which
is
three inches long,
the design to be
3.
Sketch a square about 2
in.
a side.
Indicate the centre by a dot.
Construct a design of simple curves symmetrical about this centre.
STRAIGHT LINE DESIGNS

4 Draw four
About a
5.
straight lines to
is
form a design symmetrical about an
axis.
centre.
Draw a
triangle.
Divide
the equal triangles construct
whole
it
In each of
into three equal triangles.
a design, symmetrical about an
axis,
so that the
symmetrical about the centre of the original triangle.
Fig. 13
7.
Straight Line Designs.

After being able to
practise placing
The
draw
them together
straight
lines
fairly well
following examples illustrate the principle of
centre of a square.
Keep
in
any
position,
to form a design.
this in
view in
makmg
all
symmetry about the
drawings of this Vind.
24
FREEHAND AND
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
7"
STRAIGHT LINE DESIGNS
as
26
FREEHAND AND PRACTICAL

DESIGN
The pentagon and hexagon

may be
of many very pretty
designs.
SeHg. x6
8.
ii.;pH
'"'"^" '^ ^ ^^^'^
Simple Curve Designs.
A simple curve is par,
of the circumfe^nce
of a cirde.
Fig. 17
Combine a number
of simple curves to form , ^

are symmetrical
"^'^
about the centre of
a '^"'^'^"'"k
other
given
in
sire
fig.
13,
page
23.
M
^^"X
''""^"^
examples are
SIMPLK CURVieS
-
as
27
basis
wn below.
^^
J^
Fig. 18
figure being symmetrical
about a centre may be composed of any

are symmetrical about the
number of parts, as the following examples which

centre of a circle will show. See also fig. 24.
lowing
les
are
Fig. 19
FREEHAND AND
38
Any
of these designs
if
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
made
smaller
may be used
as a unit for
repetition in a border.
Fig. 20
9.
Simple Curves and Straierht Lines in Combination.

Next attempt combining
The
straight lines
and simple curves.
following examples are symmetrical about the centre of a triangle.
SIMPLE CURVES AND STRAIGHT LINES
89
Fig. 21
Designs
are
for
many
such as butter dishes, pitchers, vases,

lines and simple curves.
articles
composed of straight
etc.,
Problems.
Make
following
designs,
using only straight
lines
and simple
curves,
of the
30
A teacup.
2. A flower pot.
V A \asf
1.
4.
5.
6.
An
ink bottle.
A lamp.
A stair post.
<k.^_^
Fig. 22
10.
Ornament.
The purpose
of ornament is to add interest.

discuss fully the principles of
ornament
be impossible. The following hints
To
would
1.
All
mtended.
2.
in a work of this kind

should be carefully observed
ornament should be appropriate to the

purpose
Examine the designs submitted
in Ba,J(:ôuuds
All units should be pleasingly

repeated
for
which
it is
or Spacefilling.
and balanced.
There should be a feeling of restfulness.
4- Avoid excess.
Too much drawing will destroy the
only what is necessary to produce the
desired
3.
effect.
result.
5.
Strive to obtain variety.
6.
Be
original.
Do
not be content with making mere

copies.
Draw
ORNAMENT
UNIT
Fig. 23
7.
Design and ornament for a purpose.
31
BBBai
33
Problems.
1.
an
for
Ornament it to make a unit suitable

Repeat the ornament to show the method of proposed
Sketch the outline of a square.

oilcloth.
repetition.
2.
Draw
Show
a straight line design suitable for a border.
the
method
of repetition.
4.
Make a carpet
Draw a design
5.
Construct a design based on the square to be used on a window
3.
design and show the method of repetition.

suitable for the border
on a
table cloth.
blind.
Fig. 24
11.
Backgrounds or Spaoe-fillinflr.
A very pleasing effect

use of an
artistic
the design
itself
is
produced especially
and appropriate background.
in
ornamental work by the
It will serve to
emphasize
as well as to produce a finished appearance.
It is
unnecessary to give any specific direction as to the manner of making the
background.
suggestions,
may be
few examples appropriately used
and by exercising a
invented.
little
will
be
mgenuity a large
sufficient to give
number of designs
BACKGROUNDS
suitable
)roposcd
method
window
^k
by the
iphasize
It is
liking
the
It
to give
If
designs
33
d4
In addition to the examples of what may be made for background we

submit the following simple designs to show
how such backgrounds may be
used.
Fig. 25
Various other applications

follow.
For others examine
may be
noticed in
oilcloths, carpets, etc.
many of the
designs that
BACKGROUNDS
35
kground we
inds may be
WBtik
Fig. 26
I.
Sketch the following designs, print a suitable motto and
background.
designs that
fill
in the
3
2.
Make
designs for the months.
3.
Draw
a rectangle about 6
WELCOME.
Fill in
in.
x 2
in.
Within the rectangle print
the background.
4.
Use an ornamented square
5.
Draw a
in
an oilcloth design.
circular design similar to
fig.
24 suitable for a ceiling centre
piece.
Tablets.
By
and triangular tablets, many pleasing

Commence by using four or five squares. Arrange
these and draw them in as many ways as possible.
By increasing the number of tablets of course a greater variety of combinations may be obtained.
designs
using the square,
circular,
may be made.
The
circle
Fig. 27
TABLETS
angle print
iling
centre
iny pleasing
s.
ig
Arrange
the
num-
obtained.
Fig. 28
37
FREEHAND AND
38
The
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
triangle
tm
Fig. 29
Sticks
and tablets may also be used
Fig. 30
in
combination with good effect.
TABLETS
39
Here are two examples suited for linoleum. They show what may be
done with the square, triangle and circle in combination.
Fig. 31
Very nice borders may be constructed by using the square as a
unit.
At
D D D OOOOOO
DCOCOO
m
Fig 32
first
sketch horizontal lines as axes upon which to lay the models and
the drawing.
guide.
After
some
practice, however, the eye should be
make
the only
FREEHAND AND
40
PRACTlCAIv DESIGN
nxxo^DxEMnx
Fig. 33
The
triangle
^^::z:^ r^ r^ f^
V
ÎK
Fig.
34
TABLETS
The
circle will give
examples something
41
like the following
OODDOOO
Fig. 35
The appearance of
repeated unit or
ihese
filling in
may be much improved by ornamenting
the background.
the
4a
COMPOUND CURVES
43
Fig. 37
design, but
endeavor to make
all
drawings
for a
purpose and as pleasing
as possible.
13.
Compound
A
It
simple
therefore
point.
Curves.
cun
ci
as before stated
bends regularly
is
in other
A simple curve if continued
part of the circumference of a circle.
words
will
centre.
Fig. 38
it
changes
make a
circle
its
position at every
it is
struck from one
S'lf
44
A compound curve does

It is struck
not bend regularly throughout
The
from two or more centres.
its
whole length.
may change
degree of curvature
at every point in the ellipse (i) or at intervals as in the<wa/(2), or the direc-
be reversed entirely as in the ogee
tion iP'r
The accompanying
figure
(3).
See
fig.
38.
shows modifications of the ogee.
Practice
Fig. 39
Do
drawing these in different positions.

definite length.
not at
first try
to get
them of any
Be sure to draw the whole line without stopping and do

make a very abrupt change in the direction.
In uniting curves with other curves or with
lines, in
order to produce a beautiful
care must be taken to have
direction of each other.
and
not
straight
pleasing result,
them run gradually

in our illustration
into the
is
much
more pleasing than B.

After
some
B
length
practice
Make two
these points by a
compound
making curves of indefinite

making curves of some stated length.
practice in
dots,
say
curve.
or 3 inches apart.
After becom'ng
fairly
Connect
proficient
COMPOUND CURVES
45
lole length,
nay change
the direc-
in
doing
this,
for practice.
combine curves to form
designs.
Here are a few examples
Invent others.
Practice
5.
them of any
and do not
ig
with straight
leasing result,
jually into the
ition is
much
of indefinite
stated length.
Iirt.
Irly
Connect
Fig. 40.
proficient
Other examples
will
be found under Symmetry.
46
14.
The Double Loop.

The double
loop
is
difficult
compound curve
practice might look something like this.
The
to make.
use of this curve
A
is
page of
not so
JULiUUUUUU
Fig. 41
common in
each day,
curves.
is
constructing designs
an
excellent
little
practice of this kind, however, taken
means of acquiring
facility in
making compound
LEAF FORMS
47
Fig. 42
15.
Leaf Forms.
Besides what might be called
objects afford
most
as conventionalized^
that
is,
artificial
patterns or designs,
many
natural
These are often represented

they are symmetrically drawn, all the minor
excellent
examples.
points of detail being omitted.
(2)
Our illustration shows the

As conventionalized.
To produce artistic
clover leaf (i)
work, endeavor to
binations have the appearance of freedom.
by constant practice.
As
make
it
all
appears in nature,
and
curves and their com-
This result
is
obtained only
48
Fig.
Sometimes a pleasing effect is produced by drawing some of the parts

form and making the whole design symmetrical, as
No. I, 2, 3 and 4 of fig. 44. No. 5 shows the Lotus flower and No. 6 a
in almost their natural

in
43
compound
leaf,
both conventionalized.
I<EAF
FORMS
49
ii
Fig.
44
Forms of this kind make very beautiful units for repetition in a border.
These may be ornamented or the background filled in to give emphasis to
the unit.
as
The use of flowers and leaves in design is almost universal. Sometimes,

we have said, these forms are conventionalized. Often, a design will better
'<m
50
Fig. 45
suit
find
it is intended, or it may be that a more artistic

produced by representing the flower or leaf ornament simply as we
the purpose for which
effect is
it
in nature.
LEAF FORMS
51
'f
im
Fig. '.Q
These
illustrations will give
some
idea of the use of flowers or leaves
im
FREEHAND AND
52
Do
as suggested.
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
not be content with merely copying designs of this
kind but endeavor to invent others.
In the problems that follow draw from the flowers

obtainable.
if
samples are
If these are not obtainable substitute others.
Problems.
1.
Draw an apple
leaf (a)
As
it
appears in nature, and (b) Convention-
alized.
2.
Draw a
rectangle
and divide it into squares. In each

conventionalized and connect them by double
i in.
square draw a maple leaf
x 6
in.
x 4
in.
curves.
3.
Fill in
4.
Draw a
Draw a
circle
and ornament
it
with apple blossoms.
about 3
in.
in diameter.
On
the outside to the
left
and inside prim MAY.

Draw a square and around the upper left hand corner a bunch of
bunch of
daisies
two or three dandelions.

16.
i in.
the background.
outline a
5.
rectangle
Print a suitable motto inside the square.
The Spiral.
Fig. 47
THE
There are two
varieties of the
shown
in our illustration.
tically
the
same
in
faPIRAL
In
53
compound curve
A the distance between
called the spiral, as
the lines remains prac-
the distance between the lines increases, being less
nearest the centre.
The
practised.
spiral is
Do
a most
difficult
not try at
first
curve to draw well and should be

to
make
curves
of any definite
much
size.
'm
^m
Fig. 48
Endeavor first to acquire ^^/7/Vy, next proportion^ and lastly fitnas.

page of spiral practice might look something like this, which is a page of real
FREEHAND AND
54
practice
fectly
slightly
formed.
reduced in
Do
not,
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
Notice that the figures are not per-
size.
therefore,
copy the page,
as
it
is
submitted
Fig. 49
merely as a suggestion.
practice.
Keep
the paper always in the
same
position during
THE SPIRAL
After
some
facility
is
gained give
more
55
attention
to
the
proper
proportion of the parts and also of the size of one curve as compared
with another.
To make
the spiral fit a definite space will be the most
diffi-
cult task.
few examples are here given which will give some idea of the kind
Avoid making a dotted outline, but draw

In symmetrical designs be
sure to build up each symmetrical part as we have before recommended.
of practice that will be beneficial.
freely
each spiral with one stroke of the pencil.
Very pretty units
for repetition
may be made by modifying the
spiral in
riiiny ways.
'
i.
!J
\M
flu.
Fig. 50
Invent
by placing them in borders and designs.
other
with
The double spiral modified and used in combination
Practice these
others.
56
Fig. 51
compound
curves will also
make
very pretty units.
few spiral designs for practice are given on page 57.
Others
will
be
found under Borders.

17-
Borders.
Border
that which
which we shall use it, means

may be made of any number of
in its widest sense, the sense in
is
used to enclose a space.
It
curved, ornamented or not according to the taste. It simply

a sort of picture frame, the purpose of which is to add contrast, value
and compactness to the filling.
lines, straight or
acts as
THE SPIRAL
57
'
'1
if
Im
FREEHAND AND
58
PRACTICAI, DESIGN
Fig.
52
In drawing and applying borders observe

1.
The
design must be appropriate to that which
it
is
proposed to
enclose*
2.
It
must be adapted to the position
in
which
it is
generally seen.
BORDERS
If
it is
generally viewed horizontally
in that position
if vertically it
vertical position; if the
purpose
be further modified to appear at
The border must
in
it
59
must he so drawn
must be so designed to be pleasing in a

for it to be seen in any position it must
repose in any position.
is
be appropriate both to
fact
to be pleasing
its
application
and
position.
Parallel horizontal lines
added above and below,
to the right or left in
nearly every case are necessary to produce the best effect.
Parallel Lines.
Probably the simplest as well as the most generally appropriate

of parallel lines variously drawn.
Book,
is
made
For examples of these see The Drawing
FREEHAND AND PRACTICAI* DESIGN
6o
AAAmm
Fig. 54
Tke Zigzag
The zigzag is one of the oldest and, next to the parallel line border, the
most generally used. It may be modified in many ways as shown in
our
illustration.
Tke Square.
The
Square
square as a unit
is
widely used.
Examples may be seen in
T!ke
Tablet.
Tke
Circle.
See examples under Tke Circular
Tablet.
Tke Triangle.
Be
in
very careful in the use of the triangle.
Tk Triangular
Tablet.
A few examples
are
shown
BORDERS
Fig.
6z
55
The Stat
The method of construction
is
shown
in the
first
space of the illustration
and requires no comment.
Fig.
56
Interlacing.
Triangles, squares
and simple curves are shown
the appearance of parts passing
in front
of or
in combination to give
behind each other.
In
drawing designs sketch the invisible as well as the visible portions. This
will aid in getting the visible portions in proper proportion as well
as in
their right position.
See
fig.
i8,
page
27.
62
Fig. 57
The Cross and Square,

In the
first
part of our example the
Fig.
method of construction
is
shown.
58
Running Patterns.
The same
principle will apply here as in the interlacing designs,
the invisible parts as well as the visible before lining in

,*McA means to draw in very light lines, preparatorj' to making the
Vnit is a d'jsign repeated to form a larger design.
finislied
drawing.
Draw
PART
n.
MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION
'
'if
64
2.
Lines.
A line has
length only
Lines are either
The ends
strai}:;ht
of a line
a.XQ
neither breadth nor thickness.
or curved.
points.
Fig. 59
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. (D.)

A curved line is a line that changes its position at every point. (A
Straight lines
may be
classified as horizontal^ perpefidicular^ or oblique.
Horizontal WwQs are drawn directly across the paper. (C.)

Vertical
XmQS are drawn from the top towards the bottom. (B.)
Oblique lines are
drawn slanting to the right or left. (D.)

same distance from each otho- thr-
âra//<?/ lines are the
rhout their
entire length. (E.)

3.
Surfaces.
and breadth oni^
bounded by lines.
Th*^
perfectly flat everywhere.
The
Surfaces have length
Surfaces are enclosed or
A plane surface
is
have no thickness.
faces of a cub'
plane surfaces.
A curved surface
is
like the
rounded surface of a cylinder or a
sp'
are
ANGLES
Accoiding to their angles, triangles may be
es
classified as right-angled^
obtuse-angled or acute-angled.
Fig.
right-angled
An
An
\.x\zx\^Q,
obtuse-angled
02
has one right angle. (A.)
ix'\ax\g\G
has one obtuse angle. (B.)
acute angled triangle has three acute angles (C.)
(E.)
shows the base, vertex and perpendicular height. (P.H.)
6 Quadrilaterals.
A (juadri'ateral \s a figure enclosed by four straight lines.

A quadrilateral may be classified as a parallelogram, a trapezium
or a
',!<
trapezoid.
11
m
Fig. 03
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral having its opposite sides parallel. (A.)

A trapezium is a quadrilateral none of whose sides are parallel. (B.)
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral having only two of its sides parallel. (C.)
js.JS-B
66
4.
Angles.
Fig. 60
An
angle
is
the opening between two lines which meet at a point.
Angles may be
(A.)
classified as rights obtuse or acute.
When
angles
angle,
one straight line falls upon another straight line, and makes the
on each side of it equal to each other, each of the angles is a right
and the line making these angles is perpendicular. (B.)
2i.
An
An
5.
obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. (C.)

acute angle
is
less than
a right angle. (D.)
Triangles.
triangle
is
their sides triangles
a figure inclosed by three straight
may be
lines.
Fig. 61
An
An
equilateral triangle has

isosceles triangle
A scalene
its
three sides equal. (A.)
has two sides equal. (B.)
triangle has
According to
classified as equilateral^ isosceles or scalene.
none of its sides
equal. (C.)
THE CIRCLE
parallelogram
may be
classified as
a square, a
67
rectangle^
a rhombus^ or
rhomboid.
Fig. 64
A square is a parallelogram
whose
sides are equal
and whose angles
are
right angles. (A.)
A rectangle is a parallelogram whose opposite sides only are equal, but

whose angles are right angles. (B.)
A rhombus is a parallelogram whose four sides are equal, but whose
angles are not right angles. (C.)
A rhomboid is a parallelogram whose opposite sides only are equal and

whose angles are not right angles. (D.)
Fig. 65
The
The
diagonal of a parallelogram
is
iiameter of a parallelogram
is
a line joining the opposite corners.

a line joining the middle points of
opposite sides.
K polygon
7.
a figure with more than four sides.
is
Tho Circle.
The
which
is
circle is
a figure enclosed by a curved line called the circumference,
everywhere the same distance from a point called the
The
radius
is
centre. (A.)
a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference.
v^
68
The diameter is a straight line drawn through the centre and joining
two opposite points in the circumference.
An arc is any part of the circumference.
Fig. 65
A chord is a straight line joining the ends of an arc.

A segment is any part of a circle cut off by a chord.
A semi-circ'e is a half-circle.
A quadrant is a quarter circle.
8.
Problems*
I.
Bisect a line^ that
iSj
divide it into two equal
parts.
From
the ends of the line as centre with radii
greater than half

straight line
the line draw two arcs.
joining the
intersect will bisect the line.
Fig. 67
points where the arcs
GEOMETRIC PROBLEMS
2.
Draw
a straight
line
perpendicular to a given straight line
69
from a
given point.
Fig.
68
and near the middle ; from this point as

centre with any radius cut the line at a and ^.
From a and ^ as centres
draw intersecting arcs. A line drawn from the given point to the point of
A. If the point
is
in the line
intersection will be perpendicular to the given line.
B. If the point is at the end of the line ; from this point as centre with
any radius draw an arc cutting the line at a. From a with the same radius
step off ^ and c, from d and c as centres draw intersecting arcs.
A line
drawn from the given point to the point of intersection will be perpendicular
to the given line.
is outside the line, from this point as centre draw an arc
and A from a and d as centres draw intersecting arcs.
drawn from the given point to the points of intersection will be
C. If the point
cutting the line at a
line
perpendicular to the given
line.
A'
70
Draw a
3.
line parallel to
a given
/^
line.
/-
Fig. 69
you require the

two points in the given line, with the distance
A line drawn touching these arcs will be
to be apart, draw two arcs.
From
lines
any.
parallel to the given line.

4.
Draiv an angle equal
to
a given angle.
Fig. 70
From a as centre draw an arc cuttmgthe Imes

the
Draw one of the lines which will help to form
Let a be the given angle.
of the angle at b and c.

centre with the same distance draw an
ande From the end of this line as
Mark d e equal to b c. The other line completing
arc cutting the line at d.
the an^le will be
drawn through
e.
GEOMETRIC PROBLEMS
5.
Bisect
From
71
an
angle.
the point where the lines
meet as centre draw an arc cutting

From a and b
b.
as centres draw intersecting arcs. A
line drawn from the point of intersection to the point where the lines meet
to form the angle will bisect the angle.
the lines at a and
Fig. 71
Q
6.
Draw an equilateral
Draw one of
the sides.
triangle.
From
the ends of this
side as centres with radii equal to the length of this

side
draw
intersecting arcs.
Draw the
other sides
from the point of intersection to the ends of the
first
side.
V'S
p
Fig. 72
7.
Draw a
side erect
square.
From the end of this

From this end
a perpendicular.
Draw one
'!
side.
as centre with radius equal to the side already
t1'
1^4
drawn, draw an arc cutting the perpendicular

at a.
radius
From the centres a and b with the same

draw intersecting arcs. The other
sides will be
drawn from the point of
intersecI
tion.
Fig.
73
'ilK'
7a
8.
Draw
an oblong or rectangle.
The method
is
the same as that of the square.
9.
Find the
centre
From any two

draw
centres
draw
manner as
sides of the
Join the points of inter-
meet
other two points as
intersecting arcs in the
before.
Join the
These two
intersection.
will
any radius
on both
From any
section.
circle*
points with
arcs intersecting
circumference.
of the
lines if
same
points
of
produced
at the centre of the circle.
Fig. 74
10.
Draw a
line
4^
inches long and erect a perpendicular 2 inches
from the end.

11.
Draw a
line
4 inches long and bisect
it.
Test your work with the
ruler.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Draw a line 4 inches long and divide it into four equal parts.
Draw a triangle the sides of \*hich are 2, 3 and 4 inches.
Draw a square the sides of which are 3^ inches.
Draw an angle and bisect it. Draw another angle i^ times as
large.
16.
1 7.
Draw a rectangle ;
Draw a triangle ;
length 2
in.,
width
bisect each side
inch.
join
points
of bisection
by
straight lines.
18. Bisect the angles
they meet
19.
in
of a triangle and produce the bisecting lines
till
point.
Draw a square;
bisect each side; join the points of bisection to
form four smaller squares.

20. Divide
a line into Tour equal
parts.
DEGREES
9.
73
Degrees.
Every
circle is
supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, each part

(").
This unit, degree, is used to measure angles.
being called a degree
Every arc of every semi-circle contains 180 and every arc of every quadrant
90.
Fig. 75
When two
following
straight lines
manner
From
the straight lines as
form an angle,
The
in Fig. 75.
measured
in the
is
angle
is
said to contain as
many
is'
degrees as there are degrees in the arc a

the whole circle, the angle
this angle is
the angular point as centre strike an arc cutting
Thus
b.
if
this arc is one- filth of
said to be an angle of 72, because one-fifth of
360 (the number of degrees in a whole
circle) is 72.
10 Problems.
1.
How many
2.
Bisect a right angle.
3.
4.
5.
degrees in a right angle
How many
Draw an angle of 135.

How many degrees in an
Draw an angle of 67 J^".
NoTB An
degrees in the angles thus formed
angle four of which will
instrument for measuring angles
is
called a protractor.
make a
right angle ?
it.
ym
74
\7
DICTATION DRAWING.
!i1
has been said that comparatively few persons are able to describe
It
accurately what they have seen.
when
tested
Experience proves,
that, in the
schoolroom
seem to have general impressions, which,

are variously vague and inaccurate.
All
at least, this is largely true.
Dictation
Drawing
not only tend to develop accurate observation
will
but accurate expression of what
is
seen.
It will also
help to
fix
permanently
upon the mind the proper application and significance of the terms made use
of in this work, and, as an exercise in dictation, descriptive writing of designs
already drawn will be excellent practice, cultivating the use of terse
and
accurate language.
Drawing. Strive to become familiar

and curve, horizontal, oblique, vertical,
perpendicular angle right, obtuse and acute
triangle
parallel and
equilateral, isosceles and scalene, right-angled, obtuse-angled, and acuteangled square, rectangle, diagonal and diameter circle, radius, diameter,
bisect and trisect.
arc, chord, segment, semi-circle and quadrant
The prefix semi used in connection with diagonal, diameter, etc., means
Review the terms used
with the terms
point
line
in Geometric
straight
half-diagonal, half-diameter, etc.

Artificial objects
having geometric forms are best suited to begin with.

75
Its
^'IIp
76
As a
preliminary exercise,
make careful examination and
For example
of a few designs.
tions
fig.
written descrip-
77 would be the result of the
following
Fii;.
Draw a
diameters.
square,
77
two sides vertical;
its
diameters.
Bisect the semi-
Join points of bisection to form a smaller square
each corner
of the larger square with the nearest corners of the smaller square.
all
oblique lines to form a four-pointed
Line in
star.
In joining points, unless the contrary
is
stated, a straight line is
under-
stood to be used.
Write a descriptive outline of each of the figures in

It
draw.
is
not necessary that
good
exercise
is
all
Although we have placed

will also afford excellent
76.
to write a description of one, close the book,
from your description and compare with the
it
fig.
should be written before beginning to
this
draw
original.
department with Mechanical Drawing
freehand practice.
DICTATION PROBLEMS
1.
77
Problems.
Draw a square. Trisect each side. Join the points of trisection by
and horizontal lines to form nine smaller squares. Line in the inner
of each corner square and the outer side of each central square of each
I.
vertical
sides
side to
form a
cross.
|r"j
i\
ji
,
Fig. 78
ÎM
The
in " is
let-
done the
Fig.
2.
constructive sketch should be

figure will
3.
raw
78 shows the progress of the work, step by step.

a square and its diameters. Join the ends of the diameters to
Line in the squares.
Draw a square and

Draw a
circle
Line in both
diagonals.
Bisect each semi-diagonal and
form a smaller square. Line in both squares.
its
two diameters cutting each other at right angles.

Through the points of bisection draw a smaller
Bisect each semi-diameter.

circle.
so that when " lining
be plainly seen.
join the points of bisection to

4.
\ing
light
Draw
form another square.

to
made very
circles.
4h
78
5.
Draw a
and its horizontal diameter. Divide this diameter

Through each point of division draw a vertical line
rectangle
into four ecjual parts.
Line in the horizontal diameter
terminating at the sides of the rectangle.
and
all vertical lines.
6.
Draw a
Draw
smaller squares.
Draw
Trisect each side.
scjuare.
lines connecting the points of
to divide
trisection
vertical
and
horizontal
the square into
the diagonals of the centre square.
nine
Line in the
corner squares and the diagonals.

7.
Draw a
Divide
square.
side of the large square.
it
into nine smaller squares.
Draw simple curves concave
()
Bisect each
to each other, joining
the points of bisection with the two nearest corners of the centre square.
Line in the curves.

8.
Draw a
square.
Divide
side of the centre square.
it
Connect each corner of the
Bisect each
largest square with
the two nearest points of bisection by simple curves concave to each other.
Line
in the curves.
9.
Draw a square and
divide
Bisect each
it
Connect each point of bisection with the two

nearest corners of the centre square by simple curves, concave to each other.
side of the larger square.
Draw
the diagonals of the central square
the centre of the inner square.
the diagonals outside of the
circle.
Draw a square and
divide
10.
a small
Line in the
it
having for
From
circles.
its
centre
curves and those parts of
into nine smaller squares
nals of the central squares of each side.
the diagonals as centres draw small
circle
circle,
the diago-
the points of intersection of
Line
in the outer sides
of each
corner square, the circles, and those parts of the diagonals outside of the
circles.
11.
Draw a square and its diameters.

From the centre
to form a smaller square.
a small
circle.
Join the ends of the diameters

of the squares as centre, construct
Trisect each side of the smaller square,
and connect the
corners of the large square with the two nearest points of trisection by sim-
pla curves concave to each other.
Line in the
circle, curves,
smaller square
DICTATION PROBLEMS
and those parts of the diameters of the
79
large square
which are outside the
circle.
?J
Draw a square and
12.
ple curves
on the
divide
it
Draw sim-
inside of each side of the central square.
Line in the
curves and the corner squares
Draw
same centre),
and diameters. Line in the squares,
those parts of the diagonals between the two outer squares and those parts
of the diameters between the two inner squares.
14. Draw a square and divide it into sixteen smaller squares.
Shade
13.
sides parallel.
three concentric squares (squares having the
Draw
their diagonals
by horizontal parallel lines
Line
in the
15.
boundary
Draw a
all
the outside squares, except the corner ones.
lines of the
square.
shaded
Bisect each side.
as centres construct small circles.
I*
parts.
From
the points of bisection
Join the points of bisection to form a
smaller square.
Draw
semi-diameters.
Join the points of bisection to form a
the diameters of the smaller square.

still
Bisect the
smaller square.
Shade the smallest square and those parts of the largest square outside of
the circles and the medium square.
Line in all the sides of the squares
which are outside of the circles, the circles and those parts of the diameters
which are outside of the smallest squares.
16.
Draw an
equilateral
triangle.
Bisect each side.
of bisection as centre construct small circles.
form another triangle.
Line in the
circles
From
the points
Join the points of bisection to
and
all straight
lines
which are
outside of the circles.
Draw a rectangle, longest sides vertical. Bisect the longest sides.

1 7.
Draw on each side an ogee curve, curving in at the top and cutting the side
at
the point of bisection.
Line in the curves and the horizontal sides of
the rtctangle.
18.
squares.
Draw a square about

Draw the diagonals
in.
side.
Divide
it
into thirty-six small
of any one of the small squares.
semi-diagonal draw two simple curves concave to each other.

curves
and repeat the design
in each of the other squares.
On
each
Line in the
u^
P,0
Draw a square and
19.
divide
it
From
diagonals of the central squtsre on each side.
Draw
the
the points of inter ec-
tion of the
diagonals as centres, construct circles having their diameters
f.qual to the
diagonals of the squares.
Line in the outer sides of the corner
and those parts of the circumference of the
squares,
larger square.
circles falling within the
Shade those parts of the larger square which are outside of
the circles.
Draw a horizontal line about 4 in. long and divide it into four
parts.
Draw two simple curves on the horizontal line concave to each
20.
equal
other.
On
each of the two inside parts of the horizontal line as a base, con-
struct equal isosceles triangles
Line
the curves.
triangles
21.
and those
Draw a
eqaal arcs
on each
side,
having iheir vertices outside of
of the curves which are outside of the
in those parts
parts of the triangles which are outside of the curves.
circle; three diameters, cutting the circumference into six
a simple curve on each side of each semi-diameter.
Line in
the curves.
22.
Draw two
concentric circles;
cutting each other at right angles.
23.
Draw a
Line in the
circle.
circle,
of the semi-diameters of the
Draw
a similar curve on each of the
smaller circle construct an ogee curve.
other semi-diameters.
two diameters of the larger
On one
circles
and the curves.
Divide the circumference into six equal
DriwW the cord of each arc and a radius from the end of each cord.
arcs.
Line in
all straight lines.
24.
Draw two
horizontal
bisection
base.
equal and opposite isosceles triangles hiving a
common
Bisect each of the equal sides, and join the points of
by horizontal and
touching each other, on the
vertical lines.
and thoe halves of the equal
Construct equal simple curves,
Line in the curves
of the vertical lines.
inside,
sides forming the vertical angles.
After working out the foregoing problems, or others of a similar nature,

practice problems in which the figures are of definite size.
25.
Draw a
rectangle 6
in.
by
Di-aw the diagonals of each square.
in.
and divide
it
into
Bisect each semi-diagonal
six squares.
and
join the
DICTATION PROBLEMS
points
of bisection to form smaller squares.
smaller squares
and those
8i
Line
the recidngle, the
in
parts of the diagonals which are outside of the
smaller squares.
Draw a square
26.
the sides of which are ^
in.
its
diagonals.
From
the point of intersection of the diagonals as centre, construct a circle having
a radius of one inch.
Draw an
27.
Bisect each side
From
in.
Line in the square and the circ^
equilateral triangle the sides of
which are two inches long.
and join each point of bisection with the opposite
angle.
the point of intersection of these lines as centre construct a circle 2
Line in those parts of the
in diameter.
triangle
and those
28.
Draw a
circle
which are outside of the
parts of the triangle which are outside of the circle.
circle 3 in.
in diameter;
two diameters
at right angles to
Bisect each semi-diameter and from the points of bisection as
each other.
centres, construct circles three-quarters of
each small
part of the circumference of
Draw a
an inch in
circle,
which
is
Line in that
radius.
outside of the others.
by i in., longer sides vertical a horizontal

one inch from the bottom and projecting a half
an inch to the right and left. Mark a point on each vertical side one inch
from the top. On each vertical side construct an ogee curve, curving in at
the top, cutting the vertical side at the marked point and touching the end
of the longest horizontal line.
Line in the curves and all horii-ontal lines.
29.
rectangle 4
in.
line cutting the vertical sides
30.
that
Draw two horizontal lines, each

ends may be connected by
(heir
diameters of each scjuare.

to
in.
long and one inch apart, so
vertical lines.
Divide the figure thus formed into
vertical lines.
bisection
form
small-^r
five
Jo n the ends by
squares.
all
Other figures
Compound
squares.
Connect the nearest corners of the

Line in the
curved lines and the upper and the lowrr horizontal
for descriptive writing
lines.
and dictation drawing are found in

and Simple lurves and
curves^ Straight line designs^ Simple cun'es
straight lines in combination.
the
Bisect the semi-diametcs and join the points of
smaller squares by two simple curves, concave to each other.

smaller squares,
Draw
!.U'
T^W"
82
f8.
Descriptive outlines of designs in Fig, 76.

1.
Draw
a square
2.
Draw
a square and divide each side into four equal parts.
its
diagonals and diameters.
points of division by vertical
and
Join the
horizontal lines to form sixteen smaller
squares.
Draw
3.
a square and
its
Bisect each semi-diagonal.
diagonals.
the points of bisection to form a smaller square.
Draw a
4.
Divide
squa-e.
Line in the
into sixteen smaller squares.
it
Join
Line in both squares.
and the inner sides of the other outside squaies.

Draw two of its diameters at right angles to each
5. Draw a circle.
Through the points of bisection draw a
other.
Bisect each semi-diameter.
smaller circle.
Line in both circles and those parts of the diameters outside
four small corner squares
the smaller
circle.
Draw an
6.
equilateral triangle
and
of bisection to the angle opposite.

intersect as centre
draw a
circle
bisect each side.
From
Join each point

where these lines
the point
touching the sides of the triangle at the
points of bisection.
Draw a
7.
rectangle the longer sides of which are horizontal
times as long as the shorter sides.
Bisect
each longer
points of bisection to form two smaller rectangles.
each smaller rectangle.

circles
From the
Draw
side.
and four
Join the
the diagonals of
points of intersection as centre draw two
touching the inside of the longer sides.
Line in
all
vertical lines,
those parts of the diagonals outside the circles and the upper and lower arcs
of the
circles.
8.
Draw
Draw a
its
rectangle, twice as long as

squares.
it is
wide, longer sides horizontal-
diameter, and the diagonals of the smaller squares thus formed.
Join points of bisection to form two smaller
Line in the smaller squares and
all
horizontal lines outside the
smaller squares.
Draw a rectangle twice as long

squares and dr;iw the diagonals of each.
9
as
it
is
wide.
Divide
it
into two
the points of bisection to form two smaller squares.
Line
Join
in the longer sio^s
ANSWERS
83
of the rectangle, the smaller squares and those parts of the diagonals which
are outside of the smaller squares.
3.
Answers.
J.
r^
,-,
T"*"
84
.mauBi wiiiiiB
MECHANICAL DRAWING AND
Ar
II.L,USTRATION
CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING.
'.
1
(
i'l
m
In the construction of buildings and in the manufacture of many
articles,
by descriptions given them by the architect or designer.

These descriptions are made partly in writing and partly in drawing. A
drawing will in many respects give a more accurate idea than can possibly be
workmen
are guided
given in a written description.
It has, too,
drawings as they are called, are

appears.
as
it
1.
Object.
The
made
much
the advantage of giving
information in a comparatively small space.
These
of the object as
working
constructive or
actually is
it
and not
written descriptions are called specifications.
The making
affords, will
of drawings of this kind, apart from the mental training it

be a means of laying by much information that will be of great
practical use in future
The
evident.
ing of
impossibility to
Some
itself,
make drawings
the actual size of
objects are too large, others
a building,
building
life.
for
while
all
objects
are too small.
example, must necessarily be
much
is
The
quite
draw-
smaller than the
that of the parts of a watch must be
much
larger.
The size of the drawing will matter little so long as it is large enough to be
made and read accurately. One thing, however, is very necessary, that is,
that the proportions of the
proportions of the object.
drawing correspond accurately with the actual

In order to do this adopt a
85
scale.
86
2.
The Scale.
Draw a
Divide
line 3 in. long.
feet, that is,
an object actually 2
Any one knowing
this line.
into
it
two equal
The whole
of these parts to represent a foot.

ft.
long
this scale
will
may
Suppose each
then represent two
be drawn exactly the length of
read from the drawing the actual
length of the object you intend to represent.
long as this line he knows that
parts.
line will
If the object
is
drawn half
as
one foot long, and so on.
it is
a'
t
LX
^C/tLe
^ 0/V EfGHT^,
Fig. 79.
Each subSubdivide each of the parts into twelve equal smaller parts.
An object drawn as long as one large space
division will represent an inch.
and
four smaller spaces
eighth,
3.
because
is i ft.
in.
long, etc.
This
is
one-eighth as long as the distance
it is
it
called a scale
of
one-
represents.
Problems.
1.
Draw a
Divide
line 3 in. long.
it
into equal parts,
making a
scale of
one-quarter.
The
scale being one-quarter, the distance to be represented
as great as
the'
equal parts.
drawing
length of the line,
Each
made
part,
which
to this scale
is
is
12
viz.,
in.
is
four times
Divide the line into twelve
a quarter of an inch, will represent an inch.
sometimes said
to
be drawn a quarter of an
inch to the inch.

2.
foot,
Draw a
line 3 in. long.
showing a scale of one-eighth.
senting a wire 16
3.
Divide
Draw a
ft.
it
into equal parts, each representing
Use
this scale to
draw a
line repre-
long.
line 6 in. long
part represent a foot, what
is
and divide
the scale
it
into twelve equal parts.
If each
THE SCALE
4.
Draw a
line six inches long
each part represent a
Use
foot.
87
divide
into
it
draw a
this scale to
two equal
parts.
Let
line to represent three
feet.
5.
use
it
Draw a
to
line three inches long
draw a
line to represent
construct a scale of one-eighth
a distance of
ft.
How
in.
long
is
and
this
line?
6.
Construct a scale of one-twelfth.
7.
Construct a scale of one twenty-fourth, and use
it
to
and
draw
figures
representing
{d)
A circle, 6 inches in diameter.

A square, 5 a side.
A rectangle, 4 x 8
A triangle, the sides of which are
{e)
An
{a)
{b)
{c)
8.
9-
ft.
equilateral triangle, 7
ft.
ft.,
it
to
An
{c)
{d)
An
{e)
oblong, 8
circle,
i ft.
in.
ft.
scale of
Draw a
{/))
x 4
draw
in.
isosceles triangle, base 4
line, i
How
A
A
ft.
in diameter.
long
in.,
equal sides 8
in.
2 in. long.
one foot to the inch.
represent one inch.)
(rt)
ft.
side.
square, 4 in. a side.
{l?)
of an inch.
4.
Draw a
will
10,
ft.
Construct a scale of one-quarter, and use

{a)
long
ft.
Use
it
to
draw
(In this case a line
one foot
a line to represent one-quarter
is it ?
scale of four inches to
the inch,
and use
it
to
draw
one-half inch in diameter.
circle,
square, one-quarter inch a side.
The Plan.
Note (')
represents feet,
The term plan

describe an object.
part usually in
is
(")
often used
inches.
ft.
to designate
Strictly speaking,
it is
in.
all
may be
written 2'6".
the drawings
that drawing
made
to
which describes that
a horizontal position, such as the top or bottom of a box.
88
A drawing to describe the
side, end,
back or front
is
called
an
elevation
and
spoken of as the end elevation, front elevation, etc.

door is 4' wide
Suppose the room in which you are to be 2o'x3o'. The
2' by 4', stands on the
and in the middle of the end. The teacher's desk
The platform is 5' w de and
platform at the farther end of the room.
The desk is in the middle of the platform and 2
across the room.
is
extends
from the
wall.
Draw the plan
of an inch to the foot.)
to a scale of
one forty-eighth (one-quarter
CONSTRUCTIVE PROBLKMS
89
PLAN
P
1!
S/DE C:LVf\TlO/\f
sc^Le. .tNCHES
Fig. 81
Fig. 81
shows a perspective drawing of a
brick, also the constructive
drawings in proper position to the scale given.
Examine
this plan
How long is
How wide ?
How high ?
of a box (Fig. 82) according to the scale given.
the box
In order to further
illustrate,
two
sections are given.
show the construction and thickness of material and
How
IS
5.
thick
is
the material
They
Problems.
ur
I.
]3raw a plan of the school-yard to
some
are used to
are usually shaded.
stated scale.
SEE
90
8{>^^SSSSSSSSSST^
1
a
i
TOR
f^lAN
OF
fL^N
or- 0OTTOt\i1
I
svvk:^^'^^^^
m>})})m
J^
0)
^j[^
CAt.C.^f/r.
\97777>WV^WMM
Fig. 82
2.
Make
constructive drawings of a chalk box.
5.
Draw the
Draw the
Draw the
6.
3.
4.
side
and
the end elevations of an ordinary kitchen table.
side elevation of a sideboard.

front elevation of the teacher's desk.
tenon 6 in.x3
in.
and 6
in.
long
is
cut
on the centre of the end of
beam
a square stick of timber
the
through
passing
pin
a
position
by
held
in
of the same size and both are
fully
showing
one-twelfth
scale
of
Make constructive drawings to a
tenon.
i ft.xi ft.
the
method of construction.
Show
This
fits
into a mortise in another
also a perspective view of the joint.
CONSTRUCTlVIv PRORLKMS
91
1.
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
9a
Our
7.
18
in.
8.
Make
is
also reduced
size,
but
it.
constructive drawings of a square mallet having a round handle
long, face 6 in.x6
A spool
is 1 2 in.
cylindrical part 6
Make
of problem 6 (Fig. 83) is much reduced in

you will have no difficulty in reading
illustration
since the scale
in.
in.,
height of head 12
long
and 6
in.
diameter of the
in.,
scale one-third.
ends ; length of
one twenty-fourth.
in diameter at the
hole
in.
scale
the constructive drawings.
Sp^^rôN
P
FROrt T l c VA T/ON
â
Door Stem
ift
Scale,
Fig. 84
%tt.
CONSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS
9.
A T-shaped steel
bar of a watch
is
made
of material one-sixteenth of
an inch square.
Total length one-quarter of an inch
eighth of an inch
10.
Make
scale 8 in. to the
constructive drawings
method of construction and exact

(a)
A ball club.
(3)
An
Make
in.
93
length of arms one-
the drawings.
of the following,
showing
fully
the
size
axe.
A shelf.
{d) A kitchen
{e) A trunk.
(c)
11.
12.
table.
Show the method of construction of the corner of a chalk box.

Make the plan, front and side elevations of three steps suitable
for
entrance to a front door.

13.
By
refe
ence to Fig. 84 which
and inches
write the following in feet
is
submitted as an answer to No. la,
(a) Total width.

(d)
Total height.
(c)
Height of each
(d)
Thickness of material.
(<?)
Width of each
step.
step.
14.
of platform at the top.

Draw the plan of a baseball ground.
15.
Scale^V
(/) Size
Make
suitable plans for laying out the
a house, show paths, flower beds,
ground
in front of
etc.
a plan, side and end elevations, and cross sections of a

Write specifiwatering trough. Show clearly the construction and scale.
1
6".
Make
cations as to material, painting etc.
TUfZ
MECHANICAI, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION
94
*SKH'''
stall,
antT food.
jfW plÂfdf
His
cause aj
fou<L)y
i
W/7/^y/yz/?7Mr//r/-/z//>!z/jy/'jz/7?7i'^L
Fig. 85
a}lk bt}t
ILLUSTRATION
Art will awaken a sense of pleasure

truth in the idea if not in fact.
in the beautiful.
It will
adhere to
Jliustration portrays fact faithfully.
Endea-
vour to combine the two and strength will be gained by putting to practical
use the strength already attained.
1.
Practical.
tical
The power developed in the study

use at once. The illustration of
of this subject
may be put
to prac-
school work will frequently help to
impress facts better than any other method that can be employed.
There are some,
it is said*,
thing they intend to do.
more
We
who call up a picture in the mind of everydo this to a greater or less degree. The
all
image the more accurately we can describe in words.

hand as spontaneously obedient to the mind as the tongue
use the tongue to aid us in impressing facts upon the mind, why not
perfect the mental
Why not make the

is
We
the hand
You
read, for example, that, in the
were the British

different
points
Detroit are in
War
of 1812, the contesting parties
the American plan was to attack at three
and Americans ;
known as the west, centre and north ;
the west. Lake Champlain and Quebec
Maiden and
the north and
that
in
Queenston and Niagara in the centre. All this of course may be impressed
upon the mind by consulting a map, but it will be much more firmly
impressed if, while following the course of the war in the written account,
these facts are again reproduced in a picture.
95
MECHANICAl, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION
ILLUSTRATION PRACTICAL
Not only
in history is illustrative
97
drawing of practical use, but in almost
every other subject on the Public School curriculum, especially geography,

literature,
physiology and arithmetic.
SAu//
Cerebdlum
^.Medulla
OoiQ/iyatta
i
^'S/Hdna/ Cord
DfAGRAM /.
-Vertebral
Coiu/rtf/v
D/AGfiAM
U.
It
sAtunHm
Htmrt
liiftf
mmi fLmmU.
'hi
Fig. 8G
Fig.
86
is
a tracing from a fourth book pupil's notes on physiology.
Fig.
87
is
a brief way of stating
many
1.
Inclination of the earth's axis.
2.
Shape of the
earth.
3.
Summer and
4.
Positions of circles named.
5.
Circle of Illumination.
Winter.
geographical facts concerning:
S'l
MECHANICAI, DRAWING AND ILLUSTRATION
6ec.zl
Fig. 87
6.
Poles and axis.
7.
Summer and
8.
Day and
On
night.
page 94 are three illustrations of that familiar Fourth
the Bell of Atri.
you would
%.
winter solstice.
like
Do
them
not be discouraged even
if first
Reader lesson
attempts are not what
to be.
Letterinff.
A little
and diagrams a better

good
freehand
practice
Lettering
and when mechanappearance.
Apart from this
ically done, developes proper use of the ruler and compass.
care in the use of letters will give drawings
itself is
there
is
a correct form for each
One
tage of being plain,
rough
illustrative
letter of
every
series.
This should be noted.
commonly used styles is the gothic. It has the advaneasily made and easily read.
It is especially adapted to
of the most
work.
LETTERING
ABCDEFGHIJ
KLMNOPQRS
TUVWXYZ
abcdef ghijklmnpoqrstuvwxyz
Fig. 88, Gothic
The GrOthic is suitable for To Let^ Price 2^Cf For Sa/e, Notice^ etc.
It may be variously modified or ornamented to suit the taste of the person using it or the purpose it is intended to serve. It may be high and
narrow {condensed), short and broad {extended), of
{light-faced),
heavy and thick
{bold-faced),
light,
skeleton appearance
or shaded,
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS
TUVWXYZ 1234567890
Fig. 80, Gothic Condensed.
''it
r
100
Fig. 00, Gothic
There are two common
miStaices
Ornamented.
made
in lettering.
to discriminate between, as printers say, the

that
is,
capitals
and small
To one who
The
first is
Cap and Lower Case
a failure
letters,
letters.
understands the difference, a card lettered as in
fig.
91
appears quite ridiculous.
The second
Ill
mistake
is
failure to
keep the
slant of all letters of the
LETTERING
same
series the
same.
No
matter
varies the general appearance
is
how
well each letter
if
the slant
TO
LET
Fig. 92
Fig. 91
92 with
made,
HOUSE
to
fig.
is
bad.
House
Compare
101
fig 91.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUY
WXYZ
1234567890
abcdefgliijklmnopqrstuYwxyz
Fig. 93,
Roman and
this letter is
Italic are the styles
good
practice but
it
is
^1
Roman
used in printed books.
The making
of
not simple enough in construction to be
of Vwry great convenience in ordinary illustrative work.
\m
i
loa
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS TU V
WXYZ
1234367890
alcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Fig. 94, Italio
'
"
i23^567S^0
Fig. 95, Script
LETTERING
Script
is
is
a very
common style and
103
pen work. It
There are very many
particularly suitable for
quite appropriate for addresses, invitations, etc
designs.
t234567890
abcbetgbijhlmnopqrstuvwj^S
Fig. 9C,
Old English is
The
Old English
extensively used in engrossed addresses, certificates, etc.
following Pencraft alphabet
is
also suitable for
pen work.
T|
123^567890
Fig. 97, Pencraft
MECHANICAL, DRAWING
104
The De Vinne
alphabet
is
an
AND ILLUSTRATION
artistic
and
easily-read style.
ABCDEFGHIJ
KLMNOPQRS
TUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklm
nopqrstuv
wxyz
1234567890
Fig. 98,
De Vinne
For the purpose of drawing attention to the peculiar formation of

we submit an alphabet of the Antique. In this alphabet com-
similar letters
LETTERING
105
pare carefully b and d, b and

that all capitals are of the
are of the
same
Notice, too,
q, d and p, p and q, n and u.
same height and all lower parts of the small letters
ii
height.
ABCDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz
1234567890
Fig. 99,
An
excellent exercise
is
Antique
to choose
some
style
of letter and print neatly
a few lines of some favorite poem.
The
style
Gothic and
is
of letter used in
Youth and Age," may be termed an Art

work suggested.
quite suitable for the
In addition to the
practice.
**
styles already given
fig.
100 and 10 1 are added for
it 'I
.;!
zo6
îlcFt?vrr\g
,
vv^l^
&'
I w^r^
H^*
try
A!\d p'sj'
1 w1\rv^
[)^\
jayl
^'^*^ 'i^'\'
try ^^
ns?(l.
abcdcfgKijklmnopqrstuvw^cijz
i23456Td90
'
LETTERING
X07
1234567890
I
Si
Fig. 101.
3.
Pietare Stories.
The
illustration
difficult
work to do
nothing
it is
of
well.
story
telling
All drawing
the
story
by pictures
should be suggestive.
not interesting, only in so far as
it
affords a
If
method of
H
is
it
very
tells
practice
I
or displays the dexterity
of the person executing
it.
Many
artists
draw
:*;
beautifully yet never
become famous, while
pen, leap into prominence at once.
Why ?
others,
by a few strokes of the
Simply because they are able

-v>-.
"wm
loS
to suggest
much and do
it
in
in this department, should
pleasing a
manner as
Drawing then,
an interesting manner.
first tell
something, and secondly,
possible, or in such a
manner
at least
tell it in
as
as the circumstances
demand.
Fig. 102
We
submit for example a picture, copied
manuscript, supposed to say
and
Sitting
The
from
some old Indian
Chiefs, Black Wolf, Raven, Fast Bear
Bear hold a war council round the fire where grass was high.
hatchet, have plenty of arrows and start on foot to a
They dig up the

Cheyenne (cut-arm
is
the
they expect to have a fight
Cheyenne sign) village on Beaver Creek, where

and stampede a herd of fat ponies.
may not be regarded as displaying great artistic ability.

may have been able to do it much better. Its primary
was to tell the story and we suppose it did.
This of course
True, some one else

object, however,
We
t
shall
be able to present but
very few illustrated
.to throw out a few suggestions along this line.
fi^m work done in the primary grades.
The
stories
only
following are
PICTURE STORIES
109
ri///i,,,.".."iisl fMiô.\..il#.
til'.!.!
/rw'*^'nir
..
,7.
^..^/t.q
l"'N|fk|t|
ItU
af
>% f'k-'^lilWS
7&Af >*/VO /^'
FluytMOk
^/Or
K/r,ff.
Fig. 103
Do
not be discouraged
if
you are unable to make pictures worthy of
competition with those of others .who have had
much
greater experience.
They, too, passed through the primary stage and probably did work then that
:{
no
could not creditably compare with yours.
your very
real
men.
These
best.
It
may be
drawings of some one
too that our

\^ê shall
else.
Be content with doing each time

may not be much like
fellows in the pictures
little
little artists
were influenced by the
not discuss this point, but be content
with saying that they are simple stories, told in a simple child-like manner.
Illustrate the following stories
A dog and a cat were
They ate out of the same dish

on the same mat.
2. John and Mary, a little brother and his sister, started out to school
together one fine morning in May.
They had to cross a long bridge.
Just
They
after crossing the bridge they saw a large dog coming to meet them.
were very much afraid but ran quickly and were soon safe in the school1.
and
firm friends.
slept
house.
3.
Tommy
fields to pasture.
that ran
had a
One day
from under a
On
beautiful pony.
tree
the pony
Saturday he rode him to the
became frightened
on the side of the
road.
at
Tommy
iarge
hog
did his best to
hold on, but the pony jumped to one side, threw him off and ran aA'ay.
Tommy was not hurt much but felt very sorry because he had to walk home.
Fig. 104
With practice comes development
in the
growing ability to suggest more of what
is
power
seen.
to see, as well as a
The
characters soon
PICTURE STORIES
III
more of the nature of the original. The stories too will contain
more of literary merit. Plenty of material is found in the reading books.
to write these lessons neatly and fill in suitable
It is good practice
illustrations as you proceed.
partake
Ml
i]
4:
Fig. 105
Much
These ought
no other purpose than the pleasure they will
practice will result in quite presentable pictures.
to be carefully preserved if for

afford in looking over at
some
future time.
7
1|
ZZ9
It is
to
tell
ell all
mado
made and carefully composed will often
Remember that progress will depend largely, not
not always necessary that a number of illustrations should be
a story.
that
is
One
picture well
required.
upon the amount but upon the
quality of
work done.
Fig. 106
Fig.
106 and 107 are given merely for the purpose of showing what
may be done and
not to furnish copy.
PICTURE STORIES
113
3-
thl
m
8-i
i^^
Fig. 107
Compositions may be illustrated. If time will not allow

done fully, a suitable initial, such as is shown in Fig. 108,
compensate for the time spent in drawing it.
g what
this to
will
be
amply
114
Fig. 108
PICTURE STORIES
115
A Wff
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a LRw JblouJnf M^^^Wi yj^c^
(j\Ai&6fm
'IfUft
(yjuUlMj^
AvYvund
mwu' AaJU
tiltma
AAwluLLy. jLdt ua^ Jul/
MJ^Ju/yyu
(X WiAM'YlUCJL
AMJUrYva/ru
tJuud/
i/ytjMi
OJ^ JLoudt (Uy -rw covJUi.
'&(}^^ JlMJIji/îa^MJLA^l
\^
'IJAywAtioxMAoA^
"iojex/
AMJU
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Ait/iy cub
Zy
tiwu/
ywiVTruuIvalxiiid
^*/#tr
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Ii6
m
PART
m.
OBJECT DRAWING
Drawing is the representation of an object on a flat surface

This point is the eye
it appears when viewed from a certain point.
the spectator, it includes Model and Memory Drawing.
Object
as
of
There
impression
re-presenting
it
representation
is
carried
on a
is
difference
flat
surface,
when
between them.
retained
is
that object is
termed Memory Drawing.
On
If the sense-
be of use in
not in view, such
to
the other hand,
if
the
is
the only difference
of the sense-impression
In
little
by viewing an object
done while the object is still in view, the sense-impression

but a short time, and the term applied is Model Drawing. In
re-presenting
reality
but
in fact,
is,
gained
many
respects,
is
in the time intervening
and the expression of
Memory Drawing
is
between the receiving
it.
the more fascinating, simply
because the variety of objects, their positions and conditions are unlimited.
Not only
is
this
true,
constantly changing,
will
always arouse
but landscape, animals,
birds,
thus presenting something always
human
flowers,
etc.,
are
new and which
interest.
Drawing from the flat or copying drawings will give instruction in

the methods of others, and help to gain facility in the use of the medium.
It may be termed the primary stage.
Model Drawing seeks to develop
the observation of the object itself.
It may be termed the intermediate
Memory Drawing calls for the clearest perception of form and
stage.
most accurate method of expression.
117
It is the highest stage.
OBJECT DRAWING
ii8
1.
The
DrawinflT Book.
We strongly recommend using a drawing book. It should be well

bound and made of good material, such as we have mentioned in
Materials and Their Uses. This book of all others should be a model of
neatness.
=li^
f04
li"
THE DRAWING BOOK

1.
Do
2.
Use only the best
3.
Never
4. If
"9
your best every time.
roll
pencil
It will pay.
material.
Ji^l?
or fold your drawing book.

used, insert tissue paper leaves to keep the drawings
is
from becoming blurred.
Avoid
5.
frequent
rubbing,
as
it
tends
to
give
dauby,
dirty
appearance.
Avoid a heavy sketch, as it spoils a clear cut appearance.

7. If pen is used, on no account should the rubber be used until
The rubber spoils the surface
all pen work is finished and well dried.
even
the
best
paper
and
causes
the
ink
to blot.
of
straight
8. A plain rectangle or border of
lines drawn round each
figure will add to its apppearance.
A few straight line borders are shown
6.
in
fig.
109.
Fig. 110
9.
only to
one picture on each page ; not

and symmetrical arrangement, not
If the leaves are small, place but
more than
v.
four.
Strive,
make each
by an
artistic
drawing, but the whole page, look well.
OBJECT DRAWING
Z20
lo. If
drawing sheets are used, they should be carefully preserved
and afterwards sewed

left for this
2.
Leave a margin of two inches on the
together.
purpose.
Outlines.
Outline
Drawing
An
of an object.
is
representing by a continuous line or lines the limits
outline drawing of the
first
example
tablet for
is
made by
These lines must

be of equal length and the angles at the corners must be right angles to
suggest its equal sides and square corners. There is no other simple way
of suggesting objects except by shading.
The outline is easier to make and
the natural one to begin with.
drawing four straight lines to define
Hamerton says
become able to draw,
:
"
its
exact boundaries.
processes by which man has gradually

modern sense of the word, may be followed as
The mental
in our
the development of a chicken in the egg, by examining specimens in the
The
various stages of formation.
the marking out of the subject by
first
The
being of later development.
idea of drawing
lines,
is
always delineation^
the notion of drawing without lines
historical
development of drawing may

left to draw for their
always be seen in the practice of children when
They
amusement.
representing
The
begin,
men and
as
the
human
race
began, with firm outlines
animals usually in profile."
outline should be a line of even thickness
space enclosed by
it
and clearly cut so that the
should represent the form of the object you desire to
suggest.
To make
outlines proceed as follows
1.
Observe clearly the general outline of the object.
2.
Examine the form,
relative size
and
position of the parts of this
general outline.
3.
" Block in " roughly the space to be occupied by the drawing or
sketch the type form that will be used as a basis upon which to construct
the outline.
4.
Commencing
with
the parts proceed to build
up the
outline by
MODELS-STICKS AND TABLETS
Z3I
1)1
placing
them
together, keeping constantly in view the general outline,
and
observing at each step the form, size and relative position of each part.
5.
Arrange the
6.
Strengthen the outline.
7.
Erase construction lines and other unnecessary markings.
The
If
detail.
outline should be sketched very lightly at first with a
you are not
satisfied with
any part of the sketch do not use
tlie
hard pencil.
rubber^ but
once without rubbing. The rubber

must be used only to clean up the drawing and erase construction lines after
the outline has been perfectly defined.
Some successful teachers of drawing advocate what is sometimes termed
correct the direction of the lines at
Mass Drawing.
Even
in this
method a distinct
definition of the boundaries

<:>
of the object must be kept in the mind, so that really the only difference
between Mass Drawing and Outline

the mind, while in the latter
stated
3.
is,
we
it
believe, the natural
is
is
that in the
represented by
method
first
the outline
lines.
is
kept in
Outline as before
to begin with.
Models Sticks and Tablets.
A line represents either edgesthe meeting places of surfacesor defines

boundary.
Fig. Ill
OBJECT DRAWING
123
In addition to the objects Immediately at hand procure

1. A number of straight sticks of different lengths and of dark color.
Ordinary matches will do if nothing better can be had.
2.
The
cardboard
following tablets which
The
may be
cut from an ordinary piece of
square, rectangle, right angle triangle, equilateral triangle,
isosceles triangle, circle, semi-circle, ellipse
and
oval.
Fig. 112
Sticks.
Such objects as houses,
room
fact,
or study.
fences, etc., cannot
Representations
these toy houses, fences,
be brought to the school-
of them may be made
etc., will
with the sticks.
serve the purpose very well at
In
this
stage of the work.
Suppose the first model to be a house. Lay a long stick for the
foundation ; two more for the walls ; another long one for the ceiling ; two
MODELSSTICKS AND TABLETS

of
medium
Much
length for the roof.
and a window.
Here
shorter ones will
Before
attempting
than the width.

lower part
to
The
Compare
Sketch the
The
and a
little
is
longer than
horizontal,
the
line
to
represent
the
the width of the foundation
The
side
sides, first indicating
is
slightly
by points
the position of the upper and lower ends of the

lines that will represent
of the ceiling with the foundation.
Sketch the
them. Compare the length
ceiling.
the relative position of the highest point
height of the rectangle.
the
greater
of two parts.
foundation
with the length of the side.
the centre of the ceiling.
little
;:i!
Sketch a horizontal
and the roof oblique.
sides vertical
longer.
is
roof projects slightly over
It consists
rectangular
is
foundation.
examine
draw,
a rectangle, the upper part a square.
the window.
The
sides.
is
The door
Sketch the
nicely for a door
The height
carefully.
each of the
fs
do
it is.
model very
What
133
Compare the
It is
It is directly
above
height of the triangular part with the
about one-half.
Indicate the
highest point
roof.
This outline sketch should be made very
light and now compared careno corrections are necessary proceed to fill in the
the door and the window.
with the model.
fully
detail
Compare
If
the width of the door with the width of the house, the
with the height of the rectangle
the distance
height
between the door and each
wall with the total width, etc.
first practice of Model Drawing, too much attention should not be plven to proporStrive to obtain correctness of form. Avoid the too common practice of drawing aline at
correct. To aid in this respect, indicate the ends of
practically correct, Ixjth in proitortiouate length
In the
tion.
random and changing the direction if it is not

the line by dots, after which it may be drawn
and direction.
|;:ii
OBJECT DRAWING
124
Compare the whole

the window in the same manner.
without the
corrections
Make any necessary
sketch again with the r-odel.
Sketch the door
use of the rubber.
Line
in.
Erase any lines not required.
r^.z:^-^DrrXXTZ
Fig. 114
Construct other models and draw in a similar manner.

a.
few outlines for the
purpose of comparison.
In
fig.
115 are
"5
IJ
' ;
isi
Fig. 115
Tablets.
Draw the
square,
house, giving attention,
"5
are
An
rectangle and triangle

first,
in the
to the general form,
envelope, a sign, a sheet of paper, a
and second, to proportion.
slate,
are similar in form to the square or rectangle.
same manner as the
and many other objects
Use
as
many
of these as can
II
OBJECT DRAWING
126
be had
for models.
Draw
others from
memory and compare
the drawing
with the original.
There are three methods of drawing the
First
circle.
Sketch two or
Draw the circumference

Make a dot to represent the
even three diameters, intersecting at the centre.
Second
touching ^he ends of the diameters.
"
KEEP orr
the:
GRASS
^^
Fig. 116
centre.
Draw
As you do so endeavor
the circumference.
point always the same distance from the centre.

ference freehand without any aid but the eye.
See Practice
in
Third
This
to
keep the pencil
Draw
is
the circum-
the best method.
Freehand Drawing.
Fig. 117
Such objects
form.
The
as a button,
fan,
a coin, resemble the circular tablet in
outlines of such objects are based
on the
circle.
137
OBJKCT DRAWING
128
.^JffJ^^Xlt^^-rj'/'^/f.
FiK. 119
the ellipse and oval in the same manner as the circle.

Fig. 119 gives suggestions for models constructed by using sticks and
Draw
tablets in combination.
Build others and draw their outlines.
MAKING MODELS
4.
Making Models.
It is
of clay.
at
129
very good
almost any
servicable
The
make models
may be purchased
impracticable at present in most public schools to
set
set,
stationer's.
comprising the type forms,

If,
however, these are not to be had, a very
may be made by
best material
is
a white,
following the instructions
stiff
paper.
Manilla
is
here given.
better than card-
board.
The Cube.
igl?Sk
iiiiMiy
Jtff
Fig. 120
Icks
and
side
six
Lay out the plan as shown in fig. 120. Cut neatly round the outand fold at the lines. Stick the shaded flaps with mucilage. The
equal squares correspond to the six faces of the cube,
made any
size desired.
and may be
OBJECT DRAWING
30
The Square Prism.
SiiimmniiiiiK^
Fig. 121
The
square prism
is
made
in
the
same manner as the cube, the
only difference being the relative size of the squares and the rectangles.
These of course should be made to correspond with the
faces
of the
prism.
The Cylinder.
The
curved surface of the cylinder
the shorter side of which

circumference.
is
is
represented by the rectangle,
equal to the height and the longer side to the
MAKING MODELS
3i
I
1
Fig. 122
TAe Triangular Prism.

ibe, the
;tangles.
5
of the
The
; the other two the slanting

which represent the ends should be made
exactly the same size.
If the prism is a right-angled triangular prism, the
triangle should of course be right angled.
(Fig, 123-4.)
surfaces.
central rectangle represents the base
The two
triangles
The Square Pyramid.

scungle,
le to the
The
four triangles represent the four triangular faces.
be of exactly the same
size.
The
They should
square represents the base.
(Fig* 125.)
,6
'
^^jggîi
13a
OBJECT DRAWING
Fig. 123
Fig. 124
MODELS S DLIDS
133
Fig. 125
Tê Cone.
The
The curved side of the upper part of

be the same length as the circum'crence of the circle.
circle represents the base.
the figure must

(Fig. 126.)
5.
Models -Solids.
Use the cube,
We desire
sphere, spheroid
and ovoid.
to again impress the fact that object drawing
is the representation of objects, not as they are, but as they appear when viewed
from a
certain point.
The cube, for instance, has six faces, but place it in any position and three are all that can be seen at the sai/ ^ time, and it may
be so
placed that two or only one
at the
different pictures therefore
of the
what is
seen at one time.
may be seen
may be made
same time. Many entirely

same object. Draw only
OBJECT r RAWING
134
_r
Fig. 127
Place the cube squa-ely in front and on a level with

the eye.
Pass the
the limits of the visible part.
Represent it by a square. In
pencil round
U:-
MODELSSOLIDS
13s
[7
ti
d
Fig. 128
fact
it
Truly
appears exactly as the square tablet

it is
an
entirely different object
ever, should not
LJ
when held
in the
same
position.
Previous or present knowledge, how-
be the guide now.

^
D-D
\^.
Fig. 129
i!
OBJECT DRAWING
136
In the same manner outlines of

position, are
Fig. 129 represents
visible surface.
In
times.
all
cubical objects,
when
in a similar
based on the square or rectangle, drawn in proportion to the
A one end only is visible
a trunk as
;
in
it
is
seen at three different
the back and in C, the front.
Place such objects as a table, a cupboard, a fanning mill, a clock, a

sideboard, a box, a wheelbarrow, etc., in such a position that one side only
visible
and draw the
outline.
See
fig.
is
129.
The Sphere.
Fig. 130
Pass the pencil round the visible part of a sphere.

All objects such as
an apple, a tomato, a
resemble a sphere, are said to be spherical.

circ'e.
detail
It is true
The
is
circle.
is
the objects mentioned differ from the sphere in points of
and the outline in many cases, in order to suggest the

Take note of the irregularities which make this
while the circle
because they
basis of their outline
modified.
object,
must be
difference, and,
used as a basis, so modify it, that if a hole were cut

it would allow the object to fit snugly into it.
paper round the outline
See opposite page
Ii{i
It describes
ball or 'a peach,
for outlines
of spherical objects.
in the
MODELSSOLIDS
^V-^
137
^-^
,
135
OBJECT DRAWING
The
Ellipsoid.
Fig. 131
The Ellipsoid, itrheii .he side is visible, is represented by an ellipse.

This ellipse becomes shorter, as the end is turned towards you, until it
becomes a circle. An object similar in form to the ellipsoid is said to be
Two examples are shown in fig. 132.
elHpticaL
Fig 132
MODELS-SOLIDS
X39
The Ovoid
Fig. 133
The Ovoid
is
represented by an oval which
Memory
the basis of
is
A pineapple and a pear are shown in
of this class.
fig.
all
objects
134.
Exercise.
some
Recall the image of
Think
Examine the mental
image as carefully and in the same manner as the original object would be
examined. Use the circle as a basis and sketch the outline (page 141 ).
Follow the same method with the square, ellipse or oval.
Sketch a
carefully over
circle.
any
peculiarities of
form
it
may
familiar object.
possess.
Repose.
An
object
is
said to be in repose
when
it
rests
something may be a table, a board, the ground,

horizontal line a
little
etc.
above the lower part of the
represent the farther edge of the support.
upon something.
To suggest
outline.
this,
This
draw a
This line will
OBJECT DRAWING
Z40
Fig. 134
Thr same
effect is
will suggest the idea of
produced by representing the shadow, as

a support.
Fig. l.T)
this in itself
1 itself
MODELSSOLIDS
141
OBJECT DRAWING
142
6.
Effect of Distance.
Hold the
pencil as
indicated
in
fig.
136, at arm's length,
the point of the pencil
a desk in front.
a point
is
in line with
in
direct line with the eye,
and one end of

it will mark
pencil so that
and the other end of the desk.
the eye,
per-
the hand so that
thumb along the
Slide the
and
Move
pendicular to a line from the eye to the object.
The
dis-
tance thus marked represents the apparent length of the desk.
Fig. 136
Repeat the experiment on another desk of the same
same
position, but standing
nearer to you.
The
distance
and in the
now indicated
size
represents the apparent length of the second desk.
Compare
these apparent lengths.
Measure, in the same manner, the apparent
any distance from the
Move
eye.
size
of any object at
the object farther away and measure
Compare the measurements taken on the pencil. What caused

The pencil was, in both cases, held the same distance
from the eye. The distance between the eye and the object must have
again.
the difference?
been the cause.
The
conclusion
with the distance the
then
object
is
that
is
//le
away.
apparent size of an object will vary

The farther away; the smaller an
EFFECTS OF POSITION
object will appear.
Objects of the same
but at different distances,
size,
different.
Those
away appear smaller than
those which are near.
will
per-
appear
farther
that
d of
mark
i
143
Fig. 137, copied
from a photo-
graph of three yachts,
disthis
known
that
the
masts are
height
yet,
is
are
and that
size,
all
It
yachts
these
of the iame
all
illustrates
point very clearly.
of the
same
by comparing the
actual size of each in
the
ture a vast difference
noticed.
The camera
is
pic-
represented them,
not as they actually were, but

as
appeared
they
different
at
distances away.
Compare the objects in any

good photograph and notice the
same point clearly brought out.
Place a
in the
the same
Idicated
Compare
carefully
\]ect
of apples of
on the table at
distances from the eye.
different
at
number
size
their apparent size very
and note the
result.
leasure
7.
caused
Hold a square
listance
[st
Effect of Position.
have
Fig. 137
vary
iller
an
in
vertical position directly in front
of the eye.
|///
tablet
tion
6.
and width
Compare the measurements taken. They
Measure the height

as directed
in
are the same.
sec-
Tip
OBJECT DRAWING
144
Fig. 138
the tablet slightly back
The
fore.
until
it
height
finally
is
from the
now
less
appears as a straight
SS7r-_J^rT-
vertical,
measure and compare as beCont*

to tip it back
than ihe width.

line.
^r^^
See
fig.
139.
,^SKtmr% ^^jij%3^.^
Fig. 139
Again place the tablet

the right or
left.
Compare
in its
again.
former position.
What
is
Turn
the result?
it
See
gradually to
fig.
140.
FORESHORTENING
145
ir
,3
1'
Fig. 140
the
Hold tie model

height.
Change
Thus
it
is
in
any position and compare the apparent width with

and compare again. What is the result ?
the position
seen that
not only distance but position will change the
appearance of objects very much.
made
unless di
mce and
ance of an object
the result desired
fact,
accurate drawmgs cannot be
The
other hand, the
appear-
change with every change of position, so that if

an interesting picture, that position which will best
will
is
the most interesting characteristics should bs chosen.
illustrate
gently,
In
position are carefully considered.
aim
is
choose a position which
is
on the
If,
power and habit of seeing

not familiar as this will compel the
to develop the
intelli-
closest
attention.
In
fig.
141
eight positions of
comparatively small
it
8.
may be
140.
to
very
many
this
number
is
positions in which
placed.
Foreshorteningr.
We
[ually
a book are shown, yet
when compared with the
believe
it
correct
is
safe to say, that
drawn correctly.
drawing of a cube for the reaso
the cultivated eye,
because an
We
it is
illustration looks right to
assume then that
stated.
fig.
142
is
OBJECT DRAWING
146
Fig. 141
By
actual
measurement of the edges
in the picture,
are of different lengths, while the edges of a cube are
The
representation of edges or surfaces, as they appear
directly in front of the eye,
is
termed foreshortening.
greatest difficulties in object drawing,
it is
all
and constant care
found that they
of the same length.
when not extended

This
is
is
one of the
necessary in order
that foreshortened edges or surfaces be accurately represented.
FORESHORTENING
147
;î
Fig. 142
Think of an object when sketching its outline as if it were being traced

on a transparent plane held between the eye and the object. There is no
better way of becoming convinced of this than to hold a piece of glass
between the eye and some object, and tracing the outline on the glass.
lat
they
length,
xtended
J
of the
in order
OBJECT DRAWING
148
The drawing paper

same manner as the
represents this transparent plane.
tracing is
done on the
In order to
glass.
think of the relative position of a point as being to the
some other
or below
the position
point,
Draw on
left
or right
in the
it
do
this,
above
of,
of which has been indicated.
Measure at first as outlined in section 7. After some practice however,

be unnecessary, except as a means of testing work done.
this
will
The
eye becomes so trained that distances can be
In sketching outlines, of the
measuring.
of a as being to the left of

as 3
is
below
4.
See
^,
as far as
i is
fairly
judged without
square for example, try to think
to the left of
2,
and below as
far
143.
fig.
Fig. 144
The same
principle
foreshortened.
any part
is
the
of b as far as
lejt
may be
applied to the drawing of any object
In the illustrations of the

is
to the left of
D, and a
is
tablet, fig. 144,
below b as
when
a
far as
is
to
is
below A.
Cut a piece of dark-colored card-board, about an inch in width and 6

Place this model as suggested in fig. 145, on the desk a couple
Make an outline drawing of the model as it appears from
of feet in front.
where you are sitting.
inches long.
A i>Unnb lino, made of a wliite piece of string and a liglit weight,

the object will aid in fixing the relative position of jwints.
if
held between the eye and
FORESHORTENING
-,X
149
''I
m
Fig. 145
Care must be taken to make all measurements when the pencil is at the
same distance from the eye. To make sure of this, fasten the pencil by a
piece of s'ring to the coat and take all measurements when the string is taut.
To aid in seeing the model more clearly, it is a good plan to lay it on a
sheet of white paper.
'
As a
guide, sketch a horizontal line across the paper so that
the nearest corner.
it
touches
Sketch another in a similar manner on the drawing
Choose a point A to represent the nearest corner of the tablet.

Measure the distance the corner B is to the left of A. When taking this
measurement hold the pencil horizontally, and at right angles to a line from
paper.
when
is
to
bBis
land 6
Fig. 14G
:ouple
from
the eye to the object.

left
as
I
eye and
of A.
all
The
Mark
distance from
this distance
to
will
(A
to
i),
on the guide
determine the
other distances are measured in proportion to
vertically to
measure the distance
is
it.
above the guide
line to the
size of the drawing,
Hold the
line.
pencil
Indicate this
tmam WKM
-!5"
OBJECT DRAWING
ISO
by sketching a
corner
is
to
line perpendicular to the guide line

i
to the left of
mark the positions of

above
A C
;
is
all
3 to the
A, and
to
D is A-2
other corners.
left,
and above
and 3-C above A.
The
it.
left
In the same manner
above A.
to the right,
By joining
and 2-D
these points by
straight lines the outline is completed.
Fig. 147
Pig. 147 further illustrates

drawing of a group of leaves.
The
this principle
subject of foreshortening
perspective.
There
is this,
is
and shows
its
application to the
further dealt with, in the sections
however, that
we
desire to emphasize
on
while the
principles, outlined in sections referred to are necessary, success will largely
depend upon
the
left
ability to think of
or right
The
of,
above or belouf
prominent points in an object as being to
some other
best objects to use as models for
point already indicated.

first
practice are those having
prominent points indicating the meeting of edges or
and
fig.
149.
surfaces.
See
fig.
148
PROBLEMS
151
Fig. 148
Problems.
Draw a garden rake
1.
handle to the right
{b)
{a) as
down (<r)
Draw a hoe in five different
Draw the following
the eye, handle pointing

2.
3.
{a\.
{c).
{d).
{e).
A
A
appears
lying
positions.
folded piece of paper in three different positions.
An envelope lying on the

A twig of maple leaves.
(/^).
when
on the ground,
is above
leaning against the wall, head down.
it
hanging on the wall so that the head
table,
one corner pointing towards you.
chair.
pair of scissors in three positions.
4.
Draw a hoe
5.
Sketch the outline of an open umbrella, placed in such a position
on the
6.
floor that the
in four positions.
handle
is visible.
Place the following objects in different positions and draw them

I.
knife.
:K
OBJECT DRAWING
J52
v^^
Fig. 149
8.
9.
Show
Draw
the outline of each foreshortened face of a cube.
the
left
side of the
Sketch the outline of as
10.
room
much
which you are
in
of the ceiling as
sitting.
is visible
one
at
time.
9.
Insects
and Animals.
The drawing
pleasure, will
servation.
many
of insects
and animals, besides
affording
a great deal of
play a most important part in the development of accurate ob-
We know
of at least one person
who could
not say positively
how
was examined for the purpose

Here then is one application of the Scriptural
of making a drawing of it.
truth "Hear ye indeed, but understand not ; and see ye indeed, but perlegs a grasshopper
had
until the insect
ceive not."
We
1.
shall outline
but three methods that
may be
followed.
Secure such specimens as are available and draw directly from these.
2. Draw from memory, and as soon as the opportunity presents

compare the drawing with the object.
itself
INSECTS AND ANIMALS

3.
Examine the object
critically,
and
if
possible
153
make a rough
sketch or
take written notes of prominent characteristics, after which the drawing
may
be made from memory.
The
dragon-fly
an excellent specimen to begin
is
white piece of card-board.
Place
it
in
with.
vertical position in
Pin
front
it
to a
so that
what may be called a symmetrical view is obtained. The card wîll act as a
white background and enable the outline of the insect to be clearly seen.
one
roose
Fig. 150
itural
per-
Success
beginning to sketch.
Ihese.
itself
depend upon making a thorough examination before

Get a clear conception of the general outline and the
will largely
most prominent characteristics. It is almost completely symmetrical, that

is, if it were cut in two parts, and 'he left half turned over on the right, it
would
practically coincide.
this position.
This
Sketch a vertical
is
true of almost every insect
line to
when seen
form the axis of the outline.
in
Upon
OBJECT DRAWING
154
this line indicate the greatest length to
measuring unit and
Mark
ofif
all
make
other parts should be
the drawing.
made
Thi;, will
the part of the whole length to be required for the head
shoulderS; wings
and lower part of the body.
be the
in proper proportion to
it.
then the
Sketch vertical lines to mark
the greatest width in proportion to the length already decided.
Fig. 151
If this
much
has been done carefully,
Do
sketching the detail.

ing the other.
different
first
little
difficulty will
Sketch the outline of both sides of the head
wing on the
left
first
body bringing each side along together.

sidj ; then the first on the right, etc.
parts of the
be found in
not sketch the whole of one side before
commenc;
next the
Outline the
PROBLEMS
Compare
the outline with the original, and,
necessary, line
The
155
if
no changes are thought
in.
such a position that any of the parts

been much practice in drawing it from a
insect should not be placed in
are foreshortened until there has
symmetrical view.
See the grasshopper in
152.
fig.
Animals, unless stuffed specimens are procured, must of necessity be
done from memory.

After fair proficiency in drawing individual subjects has been attained,
A very
practice grouping.
interesting
group
shown
is
in Gg. 153.
Problems.
1.
Draw a
2.
Draw a dog
cat drinking from a small dish.
lying
on a mat.
3. Sketch the outline of a
is
4.
Draw a grasshopper
duck and
lying
on
five ducklings.
back as
its
if
dead.
5.
Show a symmetrical view of a common house
6.
Make a
7.
Draw a group of three
8.
Compare
the proportion
9.
1
o.
1 1
2.
fly.
nicely-shaded drawing of a squirrel cracking a nut.
the height of a horse with

?
Draw
How many stripes

Draw a
rabbits.
its
length from tip to
tip.
What
the horse.
of color are on an ordinary caterpiller
Draw
it.
beaver.
Draw a group
of three cows.
Show
the outline of a cow's head as
the necessary notes for a
if
she were drinking from a
trough.
1
3.
Make
4.
Draw an
5.
Sketch, frcm
memory
sketch of a bear.
elephant.
some good copy,
For other groups see
the outline of a lion.
Drawing from
the flat.
dSfi
M
1.36
OBJECT DRAWING
Fig. 152
INSECTS AND ANIMALS
Fig. 153
157
153
OBJECT DRAWING
Fig. 154
î
LEAVES, FLOWERS AND PLANTS
159
ill,
Fig. 155
10.
Leaves, Flowers and Plants.

Drawing from leaves, flowers and plants should be done during the
summer and autumn months, when specimens are easily obtained.
not always advisable to draw directly from the object when fair profici-
spring,
It is
i6o
OBJECT DRAWING
Fig. 15d
ency has been attained.
After an object
is
drawn from niemory, however,
comparison should always be made with the object or a good picture of

order that inacc-uracies
the future.
may be noted and consequently guarded
it
in
against in
I.EAVES,
however,
Lire
of
it
in
against in
FLOWERS AND PtANTS
i6i
MWNNI
OBJECT DRAWING
162
Begin by outlining single
and
lastly the
whole
leaves,
drawn than plants with many and small
easily
and few
leaves are
much more
leaves.
Place a sheet of white paper or card-
Place the object directly in front.
board to form a white background.
This of course may be dispensed with
time and the plant drawn with appropriate surrounding.
after a
The same
here,
then a group of two or three leaves,
Plants with large
plant.
general directions as are given for sketching outline will apply
a careful examination of the whole, comparison of relative position

of parts, building up the outline by placing the parts together com-
viz.,
and size
mencing with the more prominent.
The wood
violet in
fig.
156
Indicate the total height
may be
taken for an example.
by sketching two horizontal
width in proportion to the height by vertical
lines.
lines,
and the
Sketch the main stem
Mark the position of the leaf points and sketch the

Mark the petal points and sketch the floweis.
with the object, make any corrections necessary and
and the two branches.

leaf
stem; then the
Compare
leaf.
the outline
line in.
A
shown
number of
leaf outlines are
in
and
fig.
158,
in
fig.
shown
Plants in
in fig. 155.
outline are
159 shaded drawings.
Shading should not be attempted
until
a satisfactory sketch
is
made.
Problems,
1.
lilac,
Make
outline drawings of the following leaves
maple, beech, apple,
sunflower, chestnut, ash, raspberry, violet, dog-tooth violet, mayflower,
cherry.
2.
Draw a bunch of grapes
3.
Make shaded
4.
Draw a
5.
Draw the
wild
with leaf attached.
drawings of the following leaves
lily
as
it
maple, chestnut, ash.
would appear when growing.
following buds
rose, apple, wild turnip, geranium.
I.EAVES,
FLOWERS AND PLANTS
Fig.
158
64
OBJECT DRAWING
fig. 159
THE CIRCULAR TABLET, CYLINDER AND CONE

11.
The Circular Tablet, Cylinder and Cone.

The Circular
By
the
I.
That,
vertical
really is
Tablet.
same method of measuring with the
from the eye, notice
and
165
pencil at a fixed distance
when a
circular tablet
is
held directly in front, the horizontal
diameters apîear the same length.

circle.
Read
(Fig. 160.)
first
The
tablet appears as
it
principle in Parallel Perspective.
m
Fig. 101
Fig. 160
2.
That,
if
the position
horizontal diameter
before.
is
is
In this position
it
it
to the right or
left,
the
represented by an ellipse which becomes
may be
narrower the farther the tablet
becoming a
changed by turning
foreshortened while the vertical diameter appears as
is
vertical straight line.
turned from the original position,
finally
(Fig. 161.)
That,
3.
if
the position
again change
is
by tipping the top backward and the bottom

forward, the vertical diameter
and the
It
may be
by an
represented,
ellipse
162
foreshortened
tion, finally
when
in this position,
which becomes narrower as the
from the original posibecoming a horizontal straight line.
tablet is tipped farther

Fi;-.
is
horizontal diameter appears as before.
OBJECT DRAWING
i66
That,
4.
if it is
held in a horizontal position on a
level with the eye (A),

line
is
but
if
it
appears a horizontal straight
lowered or raised (B), the receding diameter
It may then be represented by an

which becomes wider as the distance above or
foreshortened.
ellipse
below the eye level
is
increased.
(Fig. 163.)
Fig. 163
5.
That,
if
held vertically with edge pointing towards the eye,
as a vertical straight line (A)

as an ellipse
creased.
but
if
moved
to the right or
which becomes wider as the distance to the
left
(B)
it
it
appears
appears
right or left is in-
(Fig. 164.)
Fig.
164
Problems.
1.
Draw
the circular tablet in an oblique position, the horizontal diame-
ter receding.
2.
Draw
Place the tablet in
the ellipse by which
it
an oblique position
may be
both diameters oblique.
represented and indicate the diameters.
A tablet about 18 in. in diameter is the Tiest for class use. It should In? made of lipht colored
pasteboard and lield in front of a dork background. Vertical and liorizontal diameters should Ihj
drawn in black.
plainly
THE CYLINDER
Draw
3.
front
it
appears when lying on the desk in
both diameters receding.
Place the circular tablet in a slanting position
4.
tal,
tablet as
the circular
167
it is
one diameter horizonthe ellipse by which
Draw
the other receding upward from the ground.

represented and indicate the diameters.
5.
circular tablets each in
Cylinder.
TJie
Notice that the end of a cylinder

sliced
from the end the
respect the
circle
result
same as the one
is
appears as an
An
would be a
circle, that if
a thin portion were
circular tablet,
just experimented with.
does not always appear as a true

ellipse,
a different position.
circle, that
under certain conditions
is
said to
it
be cylhidrkal.
Place a cylinder in a vertical position and below the

top surface
in every
wider at some times than others.
object similar to a cylinder
The
a model
Recollect, too, that the
is
really
a circular
tablet, in
i-ivel
of the eye.
a horizontal posi .ion, below
the eye.
Measure the foreshortened diameter

one already drawn. Sketch the ellipse.
Sketch the horizontal diameter.
and sketch
The
right
and
in proportion to the
it
vertical
left.
curved surface meets the circular surface at the extreme
Sketch two vertical lines to define the boundaries.
Compare
the height with the width and indicate the height on the vertical lines.
The
ble.
base
is
also a circular tablet, the
Since this face
should be wider.
Line
is
edge of which
is
only partly
visi-
farther from the eye level, the ellipse to represent
Sketch the diameters and then the
in visible edges.
(Fig. 165.)
ellipse.
it
OBJECT DRAWING
i6S
Fig. 105
Place the cylinder in different positions.

1
Draw and compare
with
fig.
66 and 167.
In
the
left
To
fig.
;
166 three outline sketches are shown.
B, in frant
faciliato
at rigiit angles
may be
described as to
C, to the right.
the takiiiR of ineasurements of foreshortened diameters, indicate two diameters

talce muasurements along these.
and
A cylinder for class use should be at least 2

diameters being in black.
ft.
long, 1
ft.
in diameter
and
of a light color, the
THE CYLINDER
169
(,
Fig.
The
greatest difficulty in
106
making drawings
like
fig.
167
will
be to suggest
the idea of rest or repose.

J'rofi/ems.
1.
2.
Draw a
Draw a
log in three positions
cubical block
length ten times the diameter.
upon which stands a
below the eye, top of cylinder above.

3. Sketch the outline of an ordinary land
roller.
4.
Outline an ink bottle in a vertical position.
5.
Draw a stump
which an axe
is
sticking.
Fig. 167
vertical cylinder
blck
OBJECT DRAWING
170
For other cylindrical objects see page 116. Place these

and draw their outline. Draw others from memory.
positions
a cup, a sugar bowl, a goblet, a
fruit can,
bottle,
a post, a
in different
A
a
barrel,
teapot, a
pail
and
a link of stove pipe are good examples.

6.
Sketch a cylinder in a vertical position
width as 3 to
2.
Show a
part cut from the
below the eye
left side.
height to
(Fig. 168.)
Fig. 168
work from the centre. Sketch the

A and B. Join these points by a
straight line.
Upon this line indicate the length of the piece to be cut away,
C and D. With C and D as centres, sketch two cross sections. Through
Line in
the centres C and D sketch diameters to cut out the part desired.
In problems like No.
diameter of each end.
the visible edges.
6, it is
Mark
best to
the centres,
THE CYLINDER
171
:1|
'Jrl
Fig. 109
in
Roll an ordinary sheet of foolscap, place it in a vertical position
and
outline
the
Sketch
front so that the light falls upon it from the right.
7.
indicate shade
and shadow.
submitted as an answer to problem 7, is somewhat

principles of this section, however^ may be applied.
Fig. 169,
The
8.
Draw
1.
2.
the following
A nutmeg grater.
A water trough.
3.
4.
A sap trough.
A quarter cylinder.
irregular.
OBJECT DRAWING
172
9.
Draw a
half cylinder
below the eye
right angles to the picture plane.
(Fig.
rectangular surface receding at
170 and 171.)
Fig. 170
Fig.
171
The Cone,
Fig.
The apex
tal.
The
173 shows the construction lines necessary to outline the cone.

is directly above the centre of the base when the base is horizonbase of the cone
is
a circular surface and
tablet.
Fig. 172
will
appear as a circular
THK CONK
173
To show
proceed
^vith
in
a part cut from a

cone
the san.e manner
as
the cylinder.
construction
The
lines
are
necessary
shown
in
"g- 174.
Such objects as an
ink bottle, a
funnel and a top
are similar in form
to the cone.
See
fig.
,72.
The Hemisphere.
Cut a sphere
the form of the
in
flat
two.
Draw the hempishere

pos.fons.
in
fig.
What
is
surface ?
in different
Two positions are shown
175.
Fig. 173
i:ni
emmmmmm
OBJECT DRAWING
174
Fig. 175
Hafid/es.
To show
the appearance of a handle attached to a cylindrical object
a most difficult thing to
do
well.
An
ordinary saucepan
is
is
a good example
to begin with.
-A
v
'
'/.
.,'
Fig. 176
HANDLES
175
Fig. 177
_.v
Sketch the outline.

to
be attached.
From
ellipse.
and
B), erect
heiglit
(Fig.
Mark
177.)
a point on the ellipse at which the handle
From
this
converge tc meet
DC and produce
Indicate,
it
it.
on the nearest of
these, the total
If the diameter recedes, a line
Make
I)
slit'htly less
towards that side to which the handle
than
is
point marking the top of the handle will be in this straight line.
this point is
taken from
For construction
top, see
fig.
is
of the
the points where the diameter meets the circumference (A

perpendiculars.
from the handle to the ground.
this point will
pomt sketch a diameter
176.
verge to meet the
AC
from
A C.
attached.
Join
The farther
the greater slant will be given.
lines necessary,
when the handle
E G, F H, A C and B D
same vanishing
point.
are vertical.
is
on a Icvd with the

E A and F B con-
*a
OBJECT DRAWING
T76
Problems,
Draw
a cone
Base below the eye
(a)
horizontal.
{p)
Base above the eye ; horizontal.
{c)
Base oblique
curved surface resting on the ground.
2.
Draw
3.
Draw a
4.
Draw an Indian wigwam.
5.
Draw
6.
Draw a saucepan
7.
Draw a wooden
8.
Show the
9.
Cut an apple
and about 3
10.
a butter dish (circular top)
Draw
below the eye.
plate with vertical wire handle
a tent
ft.
lower part, cylindrical

;
in
below the eye.
top, conical.
handle on the farther side
pail
outline of a
in front.
handle
vertical
cup and
two equal
below the
eye.
below the eye.
saucer.
parts.
Place them below the eye level
Draw them.
the outline
and show the construction
lines
necessary to
fasten a handle to a frying-pan.

11.
Sketch the outline of a cylinder as
above the
it
appears hung from the ct Hng
eye.
12.
Draw a group or four
13.
Draw a lamp.
14.
Show
the appearance of a cylindrical hole in the ground a few feet
15.
Draw
three links of stove pipe, one lying across the other two.
16.
Show
a cone in outline; one-quarter cut away.
cylindrical objects.
in front.
(Fig, 178.)
It is not thoupht necessary lo introduce cubical objects In Part III., as the same principles
applied to the square tablet will apply to the cube. The cube und cubical objects are fully treated
Part IV.
ill
TREES
177
Fig. 178
12. Trees.
the foundation upon which to construct the outusually in a vertical position and the limbs and foliage spring
The trunk
line.
It is
or stem
is
few feet
principles
spjfûce
ROPL/KH
YOUfifO FV/^f"
illy treated
Fig. 170
lU
mmmmmmmm
OBJECT DRAWING
178
from
it
outward and upward.
The
branches, however, are connected with
the stem according to a particular plan, which
is
different in different kinds
of trees.
The
trunk of the poplar
is
vertical
and the branches shoot out and up-
ward forming acute angles with the stem.

The spruce and pine have branches almost at
In the spruce the branches curve slightly down.
The trunk
and
right angles to the stem.
of the willow practically ends at the
foliage spring
first
branches.
Limbs
outward and upward in long slender branches.
f\ fM
m
'
OP\K
Fig. 180
The stem
of the oak rises to about the middle of the top.
The branches
curve up and are very rugged and crooked.
The
The maple stem and limbs are more graceful and slender than the oak.
is much the same, although it lacks that sturdy appearance
general form
peculiar to the oak.
TREES
179
î*"^^y^.
\^
tL'j
BEEf^H
PINE
Fig. 181
The stem
of the beech
is
quite straight
and reaches nearly
to the top of
The
other
branches are quite long and slender and turn up gently at the ends.
The
the tree, where
it
breaks up into branches that slant upward.
lower branches droop.
An elm
tree divides at the
first
limbs which spread outward and upward,
then downward in gentle curves.
The
and
top of the apple
is
much
like
a hemisphere.
The
trunk
is
short
lost at the first branches.
As a general rule, the outline of the foliage is controlled by the arrangement of the branches. A knowledge of this arrangement will aid in memory
drawing.
OBJECT DRAWING
i8o
Fig. 182
The
by
farther
away a
tree
is,
the less distinct
it
appears,
Represent such
light lines.
Problems.
1.
Show, by a drawing, the general construction of the trunk and
branches of a cherry
2.
3.
tree.
Draw a small house, in front of which is a maple tree.

Show an ordinary board fence receding and along which
is
a row of
poplars.
4.
the
4:1
Compose a simple scene
in
which the horizon
left
of the picture a group of elms.
5.
Outline a group of three pines.
is
suggested,
and on
DRAWING FROM THE FLAT
iSi
MAPLE
Fig. 183
13. Draivingr
From the
Flat.
has been argued that the hand develops conjointly with the power to
It
This
interpret impressions received through the eye.
may be
true
when the
hand and eye have equal opportunities. "We are able to draw better with the
right hand than with the left, simply because the right hand has had more
practice.
In fact any organ will develop with practice properly taken. If
the desire is to suggest intelligently all that is see.j, the hand must be given
Drawing from the flat copying the
opportunities of actually doing so.
drawings of others while not affording as good training to the eye as drawing from the object, will give the hand excellent practice, if judiciously con-
ducted.
There
is
Too much drawing from
type already learned, and,

exert
the
flat
a tendency, too, as soon as an object
an undue influence.
if
care
is
tends to blunt personal

is
recogni/.ed, to refer
effort.
it
not exercised, the drawings thus
to a
made
Occasioiial exercise in copying has the advantage
of lefuling profit by others experience.
methods of representation and
Good
copy, too, will present
cultivate a taste for better illustration.
good
OBJECT DRAWING
I82
Choose
as accurate a
then, only such drawings as are worthy of imitation
copy as
and make
possible.
Here, as in drawing from the object, proper proportions of size and

All work should be
relative position of parts must be accurately observed.
done without instruments and all distances judged by the unaided eye. No
construction lines should be drawn on the copy, although, in first exercises,
it is quite legitimate to use light construction lines in making the outline.
Fig. 184
To make
in
fig.
185
a copy of
may be used.
Some definite
fig.
184,
These
some such construction
lines as are
will aid in fixing the position
shown
of the points
distance, say E to H, should be taken as a unit of

marked.
measurement and all other distances judged in proportion to it. The more
prominent points are indicated by letters.
At first, drawings should be made the same size as the copy. Reducing
and enlarging is much more difficult.
A shaded drawing is much more difficult to copy than an outline. Fig.
shows
the method of making an outline preparatory to adding the shade.
187
DRAWING FROM THE FLAT
183
Fig. 185.
Copy
fig.
186, enlarging
it
those that follow, are found in
to 6 in. in width.
many
ihown
)oints
Init
of
more
ûcing
Fig.
shade.
Examples, in addition to
of the sections preceding.
Fif. ISO
iS4
OBJECT DRAWING
"^J
Fig. 187
DRAWING FROM
Flir.
Fig.
188
189
TIIK
FLAT
185
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L^
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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
IM
1.0
2.2
lit
li
|||M
I.I
1.25
1.4
1.6
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/A
Photographic
Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, NY. 14S80
(716) 872-4S03
4is
<>
m-
i86
OBJECT DRAWING
PART
iv:
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE, GROUPING, SHADE
SHADOW.
AI^HD
-^^-
^d'
-.
1.
The
jt^^
.izcn.
Look out over a large body of water, a lake or the sea, or look down a
long level road. The sky seems to slope downward to the earth. On the
water where there are no trees or hills the place of meeting a pears to be a
This Horizon Line
horizontal line.
at
the edge of the water.
appear above the horizon.
beech where the eye
The
sails
See
much
fig.
is
always on a level with the eye.
191.
But stand on the bank above the
higher than before and the scene

sails,
changed.
See
fig.
No
192.
two persons then see the same horizon
line unless
eyes are on the same level.

Notice, too, that the position of an object
although the object
may remain
eye and to other objects changes
changed.
it ;
is
or at least nearer to the
Other objects that seemed to shut out the horizon before are now beit.
tlieir
is,
Stand
of a boat, a few rods from the beech,
horizon can be seen plainly above the
top.
low
is
The
We
move
the same result
stationary,
when the
may be termed
its
relative^
that
position in relation to the
position of the spectator
is
an obstacle to see what is behind

would be obtained were we able to move above or below.
to the right or left of
187
M'r
r:^
APPLIED PERSPECTIVIv
iS8
Fig. 191
The
horizon
is
not always visible.
may be shut out from view by

For convenience, however, especibetter to indicate the position of the
It
other objects, such as trees or buildings.

ally
when drawing from memory,
it is
Fig. 192
horizon
line.
It will serve as
the level of the eye.
In
See
fig.
a guide in representing objects below or above

193.
fixing the position of the horizon line
the conditions under which an object
is
it is
likely to
very necessary to consider
be seen.
table,
for ex-
PARALLEL PERSPECTIVECUBE
1S9
Fig. 103
ample,
is
when the
about half the height of an ordinary person.
It is
generally seen
on the same ground. If standing, the height of the horizon line from the bottom of the table should be about double the height of
the table.
Compare the height of the object with the height of the eye
above its lowest part and fix the position of the horizon line accordingly.
2.
spectator
is
Parallel Perspective.
The Cube.
pane of
glass about
cubes about 6 inches a
side,
16 inches wide and 20 inches long, two small
a table and a pointed piece of hard soap are
required for the following experiment
Place the glas in a vertical position on
cubes near the

races
is
left
in contact.
and on the
t!
e table.
Place one of the
farther side of the glass, so that
one of the
Place the other near the right and a few inches awav,
but having one face parallel to the
glass.
Sit or stand directly
front,
on
w^r^
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
190
Fig. 194
that side opposite to the cubes, so that the eye
is slightly
below the top, but
above the cubes. The appearance is shown in fig. 1 94.

Indicate on the glass, by making dots with the soap, the position of each
While doing this, it is best to keep one eye
visible corner of the cubes.
closed.
Be careful to keep the eye always in one position.
Remove the cubes and join the points by straight lines to represent
The drawings thus made are perspective outlines of the cubes
the edges.
in this po.ition.
Perspective
Drawing signifies
through which to look.
looking through^ which suggests something
is an imaginary, transparent plane

somewhere between the eye and the object. It is represented in our experiment by the pane of glass which we shall call the picture plane. It is
always perpendicular to the direction in which we are looking.
The
we have before intimated, represents this picture

Drawings should be made on paper as if the object were seen
drawing paper, as
plane.
This something
PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE-CUBE
X9I
Fig. 195
it in the same manner as upon the glass.

To
an opaque piece of paper is impossible. Important
principles, however, may be deduced from this and other expertments to aid
in representing on paper what we see.
through and traced upon
actually
do
this with
An
examination of the drawings, (Fig. 195), shows that the outline figures representing the faces which were parallel to the picture plane are
So are those faces of the cubes. The sides of the squares

and horizontal. So are those edges of the cubes. It is easily
seen too, that no matter how the cube is turned, those faces which are kept
parallel to the picture plane, are represented by perfect squares the sides of
which will be oblique if the edges of the cube are oblique or vertical and
perfect squares.
are vertical
horizontal
if
the edges are so.
Notice too, that the edges which were vertical are

vertical lines
and
that those edges
picture plane are represented
which were horizontal and
by horizontal
lines.
represented by
parallel to the
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
193
jFirsf Principle
Surfaces or edges which are parallel to the picture plane
are represented as they actually are, that
By
reference to the
same
figure
it
is,
will
they are not foreslwrtened.
be seen that the two faces which
were parallel to the picture plane, although represented by perfect squares,
by squares of the same size. These two faces of the

size, but the farther face is represented by the smaller
vertical edges, although represented by vertical lines, arc
are not represented
cubes are of the same

All
square.
represented by lines of different lengths.
The edges
of the cubes are
all of
same length, but the farther edge is represented by the shorter line.
Read also Effect of Distance.
Second Principle: The farther an object is removedfrom the picture plane
the
the smaller will be the representation
of it.
&tL
Fig. 196
Receding edges are those which

will cross
it.
Produce the
If the experiment has
meet.
lines
if
produced towards the picture plane
representing receding edges until they
been performed accurately
it
will
these lines will converge to meet at a point {a vanishing point),
point
is
on a
level
and
that this
with and directly in front of the position of the eye when
viewing the objects.
JM
be found that
It is the Centre
of
Fision.
See
fig.
196.
PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE-CUBE
193
Third Principle : Ail receding edges which are perpendicular

plane are represented by lines which converge
These three
memory
principles,
drawing.
understood,
if
centre of vision
will
They
called the horizon
a fixed point upon which the eye
is
It is
line.
landscape, as the case
may
it.
The
be,
position of
is
tiie
person viewing the object or
such that the eye
He
or she
is
is
See
Above and
fig.
directly
opposite and
represented by a vertical
line crossing the horizon line at the centre of vision.
Spectator.
directed.
is
horizon passes through
represented in the drawing by a horizontal line
The
level with the centre of vision.
on a
be a great help, especially in
will not solve all difficulties.
All other points are described as relative to
the centre of vision.
to the picture
meet at the centre of vision.
however, should be exercised to guard against
Care,
being entirely guided by them.
The
to
This
line is called the
197.
Above and
to the left.
HORIZON
CV
O
<
to the right.
R.
H
Below and
to the left.
Below and to the
right.
W
Oh
Fig. 107
The
[plane
they
lines
in
and
position of an object
points.
Fig. 198
a different position, and
is
described in reference to
these
imaginary
shows the positions of nine cubical blocks, each
all
having one face parallel to the p'cture plane.
Id that
It
this
when
In
tliese
experiments the picture plane is s ipjiosefl t > l>e in contact with tlie object or group
The ground therefore is a horizontal line touching the bottom of the nearest
to be represented.
object.
APPI,1ED PERSPECTIVE
194
Fig. 198
Each
1.
To
position
the
may be de
left
cribed as follows
and above;
sides of the parallel
face (parallel to the
picture plane) oblique.

2.
To
the
left
and above
in line with the spectator.
sides of the parallel face vertical
right side
PARALLEI. PERSPECTIVE CUBE

3.
4.
To
To
and above
and below
the right
the
left
95
sides of parallel face vertical.
sides of the parallel face vertical
top in line
with the level of the eye.

5.
Directly in front
6.
To
the right
sides of the parallel fa''e vertical.
top above and lottom below the level of the eye;
sides of the parallel face vertical.

7.
To
8.
In
the
left
and below ; sides of the parallel face vertical.

and below ; sides of the parallel face
front, slightly to the right
vertical.
9.
To
the right and below
Notice, in
all
sides of the parallel face oblique.
these drawings, that there are but two classes of lines,
representing two classes of edges
Edges whi h are parallel to the picture plane, represented by lines

drawn in actually the same position as the edges they represent.
2. Receding edges, represented by lines which converge to meet in the
1.
centre of vision.
Place an ordinary chalk box directly in front but below the level of the
eye, so that the nearest face
and
is
parallel to the picture
plane
edges vertical
horizontal.
The
nearest face
shortened.
is
Represent
and therefore not foreby a rectangle, the sides of which are in
parallel to the picture plane

this face
The
proportion to the edges of the box.

the size of the finished
fi
size
of the rectangle
will
determine
ure.
There are two receding parts
visible.
Represent them by lines con-
vergirg to meet at the centre of vision.
Compare
the height of the
the ground (that

case,
upon which
we suppose
ground.
to
box with the distance that the eye is above

box rests^
The height of the box, in this
the
be about one-third of the height of the eye from the
Sketch the horizon
line,
of the rectangle and the horizon line
so that the distance between the bottom

is
about three times the height of the
rectangle.
Choose a point, in the horizon line

represent the centre of vision.
directly
above the rectangle, to
11
^
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
196
JioRnoH
yj
Us^K
I
bl
Fig.
Compare
199
the height of the farther visible edge with
the height of the
box and sketch a horizontal line in a corresponding position to represent

11
1^!^
the farther edge.
The
inside visible
cal lines.
These
This line
between the converging lines already drawn.

ccners are vertical. Represent the visible parts by vertiis
vertical lines are
the tops of the sides.
between the horizontal
lines representing
APPLIKD PER.SPKCTIVK CUHE
197
!l
Fig.
Line
It
is
material.
200
and represent shade and shadow.
in
not advisable in a
first
This may be attempted
See
fig.
200.
attempt to represent the thickness of
after the principles
have been
fairly well
understood.
lines which may be used in outlining a
The outline is strengthened so that the lines reseen.
The position may be described as below the
shows the construction
Fig. 201
cha^k box from memory.
quired
may be
eye and
to the
Fig 202
made
in the
clearly
lefc.
is
a shaded drîwing of the same box, built upon an outline
same manner as
fig.
201.
An edge may be parallel to the picture plane ami still l>e vertical, horizontal or oblique.
Since the picture plane is supposed to be vertical, all vortical edges are parallel to it, but all horizontal or oblique lines are not parallel to the picture plane.
PARALLEI, PERSPECTIVE PROBLEMS
199
1^
Fig. 202
While
is
this is necessary, the outline sketch
upon which the
based, should be carefully and accurately made.
figure
finished drawing
See also
(Fig. 211.)
of the old well in Shade and Shadow.

Problems.
1.
Draw
1.
2.
are ap-
3.
plane.
4.
2.
tcss the
6.
pencil box.
7.
brick.
8.
Draw
1.
iarance.
2.
Fig.
lie
5.
box.
3.
An
slate.
205
Draw
A wagon
3.
4.
may be submitted
A sheet
A card.
as
three cubical blocks,

;
all
A
A
11.
An
12.
9.
basket.
cigar box.
ink bottle.
pile of
wood.
when one edge recedes
at
of paper.
below the eye
one
level.
A
A
5.
6.
an answer to No.
sfction
directly in front
10.
box.
A cross.
A book.
A valise.
the following objects as they appear
envelope.
face is
right angles to the picture plane
|o jepre-
since it
from the
A trunk.
A biscuit
\
A
when one
the following cubical objects as they appear
parallel to the picture plane
to the
left,
pane of
glass.
shingle.
of problem
one to the
2.
right,
one
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
200
Fig. 203
4.
right
Draw
a cubical block, one face parallel to the picture plane,
and below the
centre of the block.
In
The
fig.
206
first
eye.
Show a square
to the
opening, receding through the
(Fig. 206.)
sketch the parallel face and outline the square opening.
inside edges of this opening recede at right angles to the picture plane,
and arc represented by lines converging to meet at the centre of

the same manner as the receding edges of the cube.
Sketch
all
receding
lines.
Measure the distance the

E F (vertical) and F G
Sketch
vision, in
vertical
edge
(horizontal).
E F appears
to the left of
Sketch the invisible edges
A B.
E N,
PARALLETv PRRSPKCTIVR -rRORTJ<:MS
20
1"
Fig.
20-i
ining.
)lane,
Ion, in
AB.
EN,
Fig. 205
^^pp
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
302
Fig. 206
DNandGN.
These of course
will
be hciizontal, .eceding and
vertical.
By producing the vertical edges of the opening H L M K downward to

and Y on the lower edge and sketching receding lines from these points
and
X
to
two points are found directly below the opening in the farther face
FENG. The edges of this opening are easily found by sketching vertical and
I
2,
horizontal lines between the converging lines as

lining the opening
5.
Draw a
one of the
<Fig. 207.)
Q R P O.
all visible
ock, showing a part cut
cub'
faces thu
Line in
PQ, RO,
PO
and QR,
out-
edges.
away
.v/imed recedes at right angles
in
to
such a manner that

the
picture
plane.
PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE PROBLEMS
203
Fig. 207
kical
to
its to
There will be no difficulty with problem 5 if the foreshortened faces are

measured with the pencil and compared with some part already
drawn and taken as the standard. If the drawings are made from memory
carefully
the appearance desired

6.
face
ill
and
out-
Draw a
is
the only guide.
rectangular tablet standing
upon a cubical
block,
one face of
each being parallel to the picture plane.

7. Draw in outline a cubical block ; one edge resting upon the ground
and the lower face upon another cubical block one face of each block
;
that
parallel to the picture plane.
klane.
In
and
many
still fulfll
of the problems in this section the object

the conditions stated.
may
be represented in different positions
^^^m
APPIJED PERSPECTIVE
204
8.
Draw
a book-shelf; above the eye
level.
Show
the thicknesss of the
material.
9.
front
Make an
ordinary kitchen table; directly in
outline drawing of- an
side parallel to the picture plane
below the eye
level.
Horizon
Fig. 208
Fig.
208 shows the method of outlining a table
in this position.
THE SQUARE PYRAMID

10.
the
ly
rod
Draw a
205
rectangular board in the centre of which stands a vertical
below the eye ; directly in front
edge
in
I:
Fig. 209
To
find
the position
of the bottom of the vertical rod in problem
sketch the diagonals of the foreshortened face.

point of intersection of the diagonals.
T/ie
II.
allel
Draw a square pyramid
The
rod
(Fig. 209.)
Square Pyramid.
;
one edge of the base horizontal and
Those edges of the base
that recede at right angles to the picture plane are represented
verging to meet in C.V.

B.
par-
to the picture plane.
Sketch the nearest edge of the base (AB).
ly
7,
stand on the
will
M;asure the distance the point
Sketch CE. Sketch the diagonals of the base.

above the point of intersection of the diagonals.
and indicate upon
it
corners of the base.
the height of the pyramid.
Line in the
visible edges.
The
by
lines con-
appears above
vertex
D is direct-
Sketch a vertical line
Join the point

(Fig. 210.)
with the
APPLIED PERSPECTIVB
206
Fig.
12.
vertex,
Draw
above
210
the outline of a square pyramid; base, below the eye level;

directly in front
one edge
---:;^ <-::--..
ry nu
.'11
11
i
TRIANGULAR PRISM
Fig.
T^
i.-^.
Draw
Such objects as a
parallel to the
tent, the
top part of a house and a trough resemble
The method
of construction
is
clearly
shown
213.
fig.
14.
prism
prism; triangular face
(Fig. 212.)
the triangular prism in form.

in
212
Jrianîlar Prism.
in outline, a triangular
picture plane.
ao7
15.
Draw a house
one face
lower part cubical
upper part
like
a triangular
Draw a
plank balanced on a cubical block; one face of e^ch
parallel to picture plane.
Care should Ix; taken to place the vanishing point in such n position that the outline is not
Such outlines as fig. 212 arc really \.xX of a whole picture as the object when vieweil
the spectator is naturally in front.
FIk. 212 would form part of a group of objects in
such a position as fig. 204. The measuring of distance into the picturefrom the picture plane is
not treated here as it properly belongs to Linear Perspective. Be guided iu this matter by iustructioQS given iu Fbresliortcning,
distorted.
li>y
Jt
J^
aoS
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
Fig. 213
3.
Angular Perspective.
Angular perspective is the representation of an object or group of

objects the edges of which are neither parallel nor perpendicular to the picture plane.
In the accompanying illustration (i)
tive
li
and
(2) in angular.
is
represented in parallel perspec-
ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE
209
Fig. 214
In addition to experiments similar to those outlined under Parallel

Perspective carefully perform the following
Place a number of
on
changed
tion
the
table in
sticks,
front.
about a foot in length, each in a vertical posiNotice that although your position
to the right or left they always appear to
Fig. 215
be
vertical.
To
may be
be
fully
mm
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
2IO
convinced that
plumb
this is true, tie
line in line with the
a weight to a piece of string and hold
eye and each
stick.
Change your
position
this
and
repeat the experiment.

First Principle
Vertical edges are represented by vertical lines.
Place a piece of string, about three feet long, under the cover of a book
so that about equal portions are
on each
side.
Close one eye, pull the
Fig. 216
string tight
that the
and
slowly raise the hands until the string
two sections are
in direct lines with the
Second Principle
which converge
to
in such
a position
eye and two edges of the
Change the position of the book and repeat

book and string will appear as shown in fig. 216.
book.
is
the experiment.
All parallel receding edges are represented by
meet at the same point.
The
lines
an
ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE
Repeat the experiment allowing

the book to lie flat on a level table
and the string to intersect at a
point vertically above the edge to
which it is attached. The point of
intersection
on a
is
eye in the horizon.

Place
book so
raised.
level with the

(Fig. 217.)
something
the farther edge
that
Proceed as before.
point of intersection
the horizon.
Change
now
the
point
above
(Fig. 218.)
of
Where
intersection
(Fig. 218.)
//bAVZO/V
Fig. 218
is
is
The
the support so that the
edges recede downward.
Fig. 217
the
under
is
now?
tI9
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
Fig. 219
Change the position of the book so that the edges recede towards the
right and notice that the point of intersection is to the right of a point directly in front of the eye.
(Fig. 219.)
ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE
Allow the edges of the book to recede towards the
point of intersection
now?
(Fig.
220
213
left.
(/)
In the horizon when the receding edges represented are horizontal.
Above
when
the
lines representing
(^)
the horizon
is
Third Principle: The converging or vanishing point for

parallel edges will he
Where
the edges represented recede up:c\ird.
j) Belorv the horizon when the edges represented recede downzcard.

{4) To the right of the centre of vision when the edges represented recede
towards the right of the spectator.

(5)
left
of the
To the
left
of the
centre
of vision when the edges represented recede
to the
spectator.
Here again, do not rely entirely upon the principles just laid down.
The eye and hand will be cultivated by exercise, and by trusting them confidence in their ability
is
increased.
knowledge of these principles
will
and the hand to represent more accurately what is seen.

Draw the cube in different positions. Apply the principles of this sec-
aid the eye to see
tion.
:
Fig. 221
It is net always convenient nor yet possible to

for
converging lines and great care
is
show the vanishing point
necessary in representing
receding
Îff^
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
214
edges.
It is well
as this will give
sometimes to produce the
ordinary circumstances
drawing
paper permits,
it is
safe to
assume
that
Under
a picture looks right the
if
(Fig. 222.)
correct.
is
lines as far as the
a better opportunity to judge of their correctness.
HoRIZ. ON
L/NE,
Fig. 222
Problems.
Draw
I.
the following objects according to the instructions given
A chalk
(rt)
box
Resting on the bottom
osition horizontal
end, side and top
visible.
end and
(l>)
horizontal
{c)
end
{d)
Resting on one end ; cover removed

and part of the inside visible.
{e)
Nearer end resting on the ground

block
side visible.
visible.
;
horizontal
farther
end, side
end supported by a
end, side and part of the inside visible.
(/) Farther end resting on the ground nearer end supported by a

block ; end, side and part of the inside visible.
;
The plumb
line
is
right or left of another.
i
.91
1
\
!i
an excellent device
to
show the distance that one point appears
to the
i-ROBLEMS
215
(g)
Farther end resting on the ground ; nearer end supported by a

block ; end and part cf the inside visible.
(A)
Suspended by a
string
end up
lower end, side and part of
the inside visible.
side
by a
Fig.
by a
|to the
3.
A
A cylinder
lying
4.
in three positions.
2.
223
chair in five different positions.
pen box
on
its
(Fig. 223.)
curved surface.
The same experiments as outlined with the string

pane of glass as in Parallel Perspective,
may
be performed successfully with a
lU.,
ip
APPLIED PERSPECTIVE
2l6
Fig. 224
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
A
A
A
A
funnel in five positions.

stove-pipe elbow.
school globe.
washboard
trunk
A table in
in five positions.
bottom, side and end

five positions.
See
visible.
fig.
224.
PROBLEMS
217
Fig. 225
11.
Draw
five objects
found
in
the parlor, each in such a position that
one edge recedes from the picture plane

right angle.
See fig. 225.
12.
Sketch the outline of a
at
an angle greater or
pile of three planks,
lying
less
than a
one across the
other.
13.
Draw a
chair below the level of the eye so that a line connect-
ing two of the legs does not recede at right angles to the picture plane.
'i
^w^
SHADE AND SHADOW
2l8
14.
Draw a box;
lid
open
at right angles
iv.
the top
no
faces parallel to
the picture plane.

15.
4.
Draw a
three-legged stool
no edges
Shade and Shadow.
The suggestion of shade and shadow is possibly the most difficult department of drawing, yet the most powerful means of representing an object.
S/mde is not a material substance, but merely an effect produced upon
some part of an object because of its receiving less light than some other
part.
T/i/s
shaded part
is
always opposite
to the
light.
It is
necessary to
when drawing from memory and in grouping,

order that shaded parts are placed in proper position and properly graded.
the light falls from the left, shaded parts will be seen on the right and vice
exercise great care, especially

in
If
versa.
Because shade
is
an
effect
produced on the object
itself, it
is
really
part of the object.
Fig. 22G
an enec' produced in the same manner as shade. Shadow,

it is not a part of the object, but an effect
produced outside of it because of the object intercepting the light. In fig.
226 the dark side of the cylinder is termed shade, the dark effect upon the
Shadow
ib
however, dififs from thade in that
ground, shadow.
RELIEF
219
The application of shade and shadow will aid in making the drawing of
an object stand out from the background and from surrounding objects.
This
effect is called relief a.nd

It will aid, too, in
house, for example, in

or the ship.
is
well illustrated in
fig.
226.
giving prominence to any part of a picture.

fig.
Emphasis
is
227, attracts attention
li
before the trees, the
The
hills
given to the house.
11
Fig. 227
Compare
the drawings of the cylinder in
exact tracing of the other.
Ihe
given by
fig.
228.
A much
better idea
than A, although one
is an
Shade and shadow here again aid in suggesting
roundness or thickness. This is termed solidity.
That medium which requires the least attention is the best for a bePor outline drawing and sketching there is nothing better than the
ginner,
of the roundness of the object
is
p^
SHADE AND SHADOW
220
Fig.
pencil.
228
For shaded work, too, the pencil has advantages over charcoal,
These of course have their advantages, but the pencil is quite
brush or pen.
suitable for all ordinary purposes
from the student, thus allowing
and
requires comparatively
no
attention
the energy to be
any grade of drawing may be done, from that of
simplest outline to the many gradations of shade and shadow in the most
With the
pencil,
too,
complicated subject.
obtainable.
It
directed to the object.
all
Pen and ink
as a
medium
for
drawing
is
one always
has the advantage of compelling the utmost care on the part
of the user, as well as developing a certain dexterity in the use of this particular
medium, a very important matter when we consider how much
used in the ordinary business of every-day
The methods
pen
is
I.
used
that follow have been found to be the best
when
pencil or
Cross hatching : This
is
done by drawing quick, short lines across one

number and {b) the blackness of the
another, grading the shade by {a) the

lines.
it is
life.
PARAIvLEL LINES
221
Exercises like the following should precede an attempt to
make a shaded
drawing.
Sketch a rectangle 6
white paper of the
Draw
light.
in.
by
The
into six equal squares.
first.
In the third draw two
each other to represent a shade
lines crossing
etc., until in
sets,
care should be exercised to

light to
it
the
hig,hest
quick, short parallel lines across the second square to represent
a shade darker than that of the

square three
Divide
in.
square represents the lightest shade
left
be considered.
is
similar
sets of
In the fourth
darker.
the last a perfect black
make a
The number,
a very dark.
sti
Great
obtained.
proportionate grade of shade from a very

strength
and closeness of the
lines
should
(Fig. 229.)
:==_.
.-
..
-tiiiiiMllittâMaauaifflgi
Fig. 229
2.
Parallel Lines
manner but
By
all practically in
this
method the
Sketch a rectangle and divide

to remain white.
drawn
in the
same
it
into squares as before.
Allow the
first
In the second, draw light horizontal or vertical lines some

In the third, increase the num-
distance apart to represent a shade darker.
ber of lines by drawing them closer together.

in the other squares,
Proceed
in the
same manner
making each square proportionately darker,
the last the darkest shade
lines are
the same direction.
very pretty effect
is
is
represented.
until in
(Fig. 230.)
produced by using almost the same number of

by darker lines as in fig. 231.
lines but representing the darker shades
SHADE AND SHADOW
222
Fig. 230
A combination
of these
is
a better method than
These methods are adapted

cially the pen.
Even when
230 a richer shade
is
to the use of
the pencil
is
used,
pen or
if
pencil, but
more espe
the lines are drawn as in
produced than by using the
Fig.
either.
flat side.
The
fig.
white of the
231
paper as seen through the lines gives a cleaner, clear-cut appearance. The
method that is best to use is largely determined by the object represented.
Fig. 232
BLENDING
223
232 shows the proper method (B) and the wrong method (A) of
Fig.
laying on the lines, unless of course the object
By
Pencil:
3.
method the
this
The
of shade being produced by pressure.
graded pencils
Use
a good plan.
is
is
to suggest a rough surface.
side of the pencil
is
used, the gradation
use of two or three differently
the hard for light
and the
soft for
dark
shades.
The stump
is
a very useful instrument in pencil shading.
soft paper, tightly rolled
rub
and sandpapered
the pencil shading.
lightly over
It is
made
With
to a point like a pencil.
In
this
manner the
lines left
of
it
by the
Be careful in the use

The amount of color left on it
pencil are well blended, producing a very pretty effect.
of the stump, as
after
much
less color is required.
rubbing hea/y lines
is
often quite sufficient to produce the lighter
shades.
Blending.
By
There
this is
is
no
meant a even gradation from the
distinct line
effects of crosshatching
between the shades.
and
lightest to
Fig. 233
the darkest.
shows the
different
parallel line shading.
Fig. 233
Direction of Lines,
The
direction of the line
a reference to
fig.
234
will
is
show.
a very important mattet- to be considered as
As a
rule,
when
parallel lines are used.
SHADE AND SHADOW
234
vertical surfaces are
shaded by
vertical lines, horizontal surfaces
lines and oblique surfaces by oblique
shaded by curved
one serious objection

face.
It
is
this,
and
strength
This, however,
lines.
Curved
lines.
is
to the use of curved
not always necessary.

lines in representing
that curved lines are very difficult to
direction,
by horizontal
surfaces arc often nicely
a very necessary matter in
There
is
a curved sur-
make uniform
in
suggesting a smooth
surface.
Fig. 234
shows the method of applying crosshatching in representing

Many of the figures in The Circular
Cylinder and Cone illustrate parallel line shading as applied to curved
Fig. 235
the smooth, curved surface of a sphere.

Tablet^
surfaces.
The Model.
It is
almost impossible in an ordinary school room to obtain the proper
conditions of light to afford good examples to begin with.
no
are the
more
a rule, there
is
objects under such conditions that the shades
and shadows
it is
are as definite as possible.

directions
As
and shadows
difficult
Use such
and the more
indefinite the shades
definite outline in nature
to suggest them.
To
obtain the best results observe the following
THE MODEL
onzoni.';!
335
en nicely
There
is
rved surliform in
smooth
fTfrnT'JTT
l
S
Fig. 2;}5
resenting
\Cirai!ar
curved
Begin with a w^hite cube made of plaster of Paris or white paper placed
upon a white ground. Allow the light to enter the room from the left side
only, slightly above and to the rear.
Place the cube a few fe^-t in front and
below the eye
usual way.
proper
there
is
shadows
level so that three faces are visible.
Examine the shades on each
sary that the exact shade of each face should

2i
The
proportionate value to each.
the vertical face to the
left
left.
See
fig.
thadows
grade each accordingly.
blowing
Examine the shadow.

Observe in the shadow that
of the cube.
It is
be represented as
vertical face to the right
in the
not so neces-
is
it is
to give
the darkest
the lightest, and the top, although lighter than the
right side, is darker than the
est side
Sketch the outline
face carefully.
It is
its
Represent the lightest shade
first
and
236.
darker nearer the cube.
darkest part
is
slightly
Sketch
its
outline.
darker than the dark-
SHADE AND SHADOW
236
Fig. 236
Curved surfaces should be attempted

tained in representing
after
some
ability has
been
at-
flat surfaces.
Prodkms.
1.
the
Draw an
Show shade and shadow.
ink bottle.
The
light falls
from
left.
Draw a book
2.
(i)
(c)
in three positions
from the
(a) Light
Light from the
Open
left.
some of the
A piece of two-inch
3.
right.
leaves vertical
plank about 3
ft.
light
from the
left.
long and a foot wide stands on
the ground, directly in front and below the eye, the two-inch face towards
The
Outline the plank and represent shade and shadow.
you.
from the
4.
5.
Sketch the outline of an ordinary straw
shadow.
light falls
left.
The
light falls
apples
light
from the
hat,
from the right and above.
right.
shade
it
and show the
UNITY
5.
OroupingrGrouping
Attractive
been
"alls
227
more than one object in a picture.

groups show Unity^ Harmony^ Variety and Repose.
is
the drawing of
at-
from
tands on
;
towards
ight falls
ihow the
Fig. 237
obta'ned by placing the units of a picture in such a manner as

Give much attention to arrangement. Make
to form a connected whole.
Unity
is
GROUPING
228
one picture and not a
A and B
of
fig.
number of pictures
closely placed together.
Compare
237.
^*ff
Fig. 238
Harmony
is
the result of making the group pleasing
character of the objects
having something in
and
their artistic arrangement.
common and
a pleasant appearance.
The
by observing the
Select those objects
them that the whole may have

the barrow and the gardener, seen in the
so arrange
geese,
rear of a large residence, produce a harmonizing picture.
(Fig. 238.)
HARMONY
)are
Fig. 2:39
Fig. 240
229
GROUPING
230
Variety
is
obtained by grouping such objects that are unlike each other
in shape, size or quality.
not destroy the harmony
Be careful
that a desire to produce variety does
Similar objects should be placed in different
positions or so that they are partly hidden.
also
add
Slightly
emphasizing parts
will
(Fig. 240.)
variety.
Fig. 241
Repose
each
will
gives a
So arrange the parts that

Shadows will aid in this respect.
feeling of rest to the eye.
appear to be perfectly at
rest.
(Fig. 241.)
The same
general directions previously given for drawing single objects
apply to the drawing of groups.
proceed to build
it
Conceive of the group
up by placing the
parts together.
first
as a whole and
GROUPING
3i
Fig. 242
First
Lose
s^ght,
endeavor to see only the
fact
houette shown in
of
fig.
general outline of the whole

group
points of detail.
Think of the group as the sal
"
^
^
243.
all
Fig. 24;{
"""^""^ '''""^'"
' ^S- ^'^^^
^^'^^ proportions of the whole
^ *^f arranged,
r. c^r
are
satisfactorily
fill in the detail
as in fig: 245.
GROUPING
332
Fig. 244
The
Fig. ^45
must not be regarded as arbitrary,

nd fast rules. Let every picture
tell its own story.
This story, of course, will depend largely upon the mood
and tempermcnt of the composer, and even then interpretation by different
persons may be entirely different. To some fig. 239 suggests but little, but
as
it is
brief hints given in this section
down any hard
impossible to lay
there are others to
whom
it
tells
In addition, strive to obtain
a long,, long story.

:
1.
Variety of lines both in character and direction.
2.
A light,
3.
Pleasing and suggestive positions of the units composing a group.
free
touch of pen or pencil.
At the same time avoid

1.
Long unbroken
lines.
2.
Undue emphasizing
3.
Lines which are heavy and cumbersome.
4.
The employment
of
of
lines.
more
lines than are absolutely necessary.
GROUPING
Fig. 246
233
-f;
GROUPING
234
5.
The
to break
old well
use of mechanical means in drawing lines.

It is often desirable
up a hard a- d mechanical outline. Examine the illustrations of the
on page 233.
Fig. 247
The outline sketches on page 235 will suggest a number of groups.

Procure such objects as are given and group them. Make the drawings in
the usual way.
GROUPING
235
GROUPING
236
Problems.
Draw groups
A camera,
I.
of the following
case and tripod to suggjst that the owner was examining
his kit previous to a trip into the country.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I I.
1 2.
1
3.
4.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
2 0.
6-
(Fig. 186.)
broom and mop.

Axe and block of wood.
Cube, sphere and cylinder.
Rake, hoe and shovel.
Opera glasses and case.
Knife, pencil and scribbler.
Hat and coat.
Boots and rubbers.
Chair and table.
Lamp and books.
Cup, saucer and teapot.
Pump, fence and water-trough.
Hand-sleigh and wood pile.
Globe and chalk box.
Bat, ball and lacrosse stick.
Rocking chair, table and lamp.
Knife, fork and plate.
Mucilage bottle and brush.
Glass, bottle and spoon.
Pail,
Position of the Picture Plane.
What may be termed

aboul 60 degrees
that
is,
the focal capacity of the eye
we
are able to see at one time
is,
all
on an average,
objects within
two lines drawn from the eye at an angle of 60 to each other, 30'
side of the line representing the direction in which we are looking
on each
the line
of sight.
POSITION OF PICTURE PLANE
237
Fig. 249
249 represents the part of a room that may be seen without changIf the distance between the eye and the blackboard were lessened, less of the room would be visible, and vice versa. The
farther away a group of objects is, the more of the group is visible, unless, of
Fig.
ing the position of the eye.

iin
ich
|ne
course, the distance be so great as to cause
it to be indistinct.
one time is in the form of a circle of such a
were drawn from two opposite points on the circumference
The whole view

size that, if lines
visible at
GROUPING
238
to the eye, they
would form an angle of
The
centre of vision
and the horizon passes through
this
every time the position of the eye changes, a
new
centre of this circle

reality,
60.
to the mind.
There
is
centre, so
picture
is
is
the
that in
presented
a new C. V. and a new horizon.
This focal capacity of the eye often necessitates many changes of posiThis is especially the case when
tion in getting a view of even one object.
viewing a large object like a building, or
eye.
person in reading a newspaper
when viewing an
is
object close to the
able to see a small portion of
it
one time. The position of his eyes must be changed frequently before
has been seen.
at
all
Fig. 250
In
fig.
250 the dotted
different positions of the eye.
lines represent the

It is
different lines of sight
quite necessary to
move
at
the eye in this
THE HUMAN FIGURE

manner to
True, the time intervening between the presentations
times.
so short that the view
The
if all
is
very short,
taken in almost at a glance.
is
picture plane
therefore,
that
many objects. Our impressions of an object, then,

many pictures being presented to the mind at different
get a view of
are often the result of
is,
939
is
always perpendicular to the line of
a new plane every time the eye changes
combined to form one
these planes are
its
plane,
There
sight.
It is clear
position.
would be the
it
shape of the inside covering of a sphere.
The
natural position of the
are in their easiest position
grapher, in setting his camera,
are
hung upon the
wall,
appear as they would
body
when the
is
is vertical
and the muscles of the eye
line of sight
careful to place
it
is
horizontal.
photo-
Pictures
in this position.
when above the eye, in such a position that they

when on a level with the eye. In memory
if vertical
be guided by principles governing the representation of

objects as they would appear on a vertical plane.
drawing,
it is
safe to
Cubical objects, represented as the box seen upon the floor in

are, strictly speaking,
a part of another larger picture.
is
fig.
249,
true of almost
very drawing.
The
This
best view of an object, however,
is
obtained when
it is
at or near
the centre of vision, and, as before intimated, care must be exercised to
guard against placing
it
so
far
from the C. V. as to cause
distortion.
This
is
often noticed in a photograph where the focal capacity of the lense has beea
insuffieient to
7.
cover the whole plate properly.
The Human Figure.
We fully recognize the fact that efficiency in
at
"khis
drawing the human figure
cannot be attained without a long course of hard study. Our object, however, in introducing the subject here, is not to outline a course of this kind,
but to merely suggest another means of excellent and interestitig practice
which
will
tend to cultivate the power to see and to express what
is
seen.
GROUPING
240
Rg. 251
B^ by
Hang a
drawing
diflTcrcnt
coat, for example,
articles
on the
of clothing in different positions.
wall a few feet in front.
A dark coat
THE HUMAN FIGURE
241
against a light background or a light

coat against a dark background
best.
Sketch the outline.
(Fig. 251.)
Try
and
at
first
is
the
to use as few lines as are necessary

to suggest the outline
folds of the cloth.
Avoid the too common
error of scratching
promiscuously without regard to their significance.

mean something. Do not draw a line until satisfied
lines
make the drawing more
down
Every line should
that it is required to
Notice the very few lines used in fig
suggestive.
254-
Fig. 252
The
face
is
more
easily outlined in profile, although
to give expression in this position.
In
first
attempts,
it is more diflficult
do not be discouraged
GROUPING
242
253
if
a likeness
is
not obtained, but be quite content with getting
tions in general.
fair
propor-
See draiîngs on page 247.

(fig. 252).
Compare
and with the whole hand.
Draw the left hand in different
Study carefully the construction of the hand,

length with width, length of fingers with each other
Notice the number and length of joints,

position's.
figure,
Such
etc.
exercises as this will aid in
although the detail of the hands
the expression of the whole
may not be shown.
(Fig. 253.)
THE HUMAN FIGURE
243
^
244
GROUPING
THE HUMAN FIGURE
Fig. 256
245
GROUPING
246
Study the
feet in the
Good
same manner.
practice
may be obtained by
rawing a pair of boots in different positions.
When
shown
ble.
posing a model for a
in profile
See
The
fig.
attempt,
it
that the
is
best to
have the face
hands are not
fully visi-
254.
three outlines
a quick sketch.
and-ink
first
and the arms so arranged

shown on page 247
No. 3
artist, Phil.
is after
May.
illustrate
the method of making
a character sketch by that well-known pen-
Although such drawings as these are apparently
made quite freely, a great deal of care is necessary in their production.

The space at our disposal will not allow but few drawings of the human
The few presented will give some idea of the methods that may be
figure.
employed. Our object is attained by merely suggesting it as a model for
practice.
Problems.
Draw your left hand.

Make an outline sketch of your
1.
2.
left foot
as
it
appears
when extended
in front.
A lady is
3.
sitting
Make a drawing
ing.
by a table upon which
lies
a book that she
is
read-
of the lady, chair, book and that part of the table
supporting the book.
Make an
4.
5.
6.
view
outline sketch of a
little girl
face towards
Copy the drawings shown on pages 244-5-8-9.

Draw a lady's head showing the arrangement of
you ; arms
folded.
the hair, (i) back
(2) side view.
A boy sits in a rocking chair, reading the newspaper.

showing
a side view of the group.
ing
Draw
from memory, the right hand holding a pencil.
8.
7.
9.
A little girl is writing a letter to her grandma.
Make a
Illustrate
draw-
by a draw-
ing.
10.
Make an
1 1.
Two
outline sketch of a
boy standing
in a position to catch a
ball.
boys are standing by a large box, talking.
Draw
the group.
THE HUMAN FIGURE
12.
Copy any good
Gladstone.
picture of
Queen
Victoria,
247
Lord Roberts or Mr.
248
GROUPING
Fig. 258
IHE HUMAN FIGURE
249
GROUPING
aso
Will and his large Newfoundland dog are having their picture
13. Little
Show by a drawing what
the group would look like.

Sketch an oval about 4 inches long. Inside the oval sketch the
Queen's head. Show two Union Jacks, one draped on either side.
taken.
14.
15.
Copy
outline sketches of Sir Wilfrid Laurier
and
John Mac-
Sir
donald.
In letting
great pleasure
this little
The work
whose hands
dom
book pass from our hands, we desire to express the
we have enjoyed
will fall short
it
may
fall,
in preparing
of its purpose
it.
if it
does not lead the teacher, into
to allow the activities of children the greatest free-
even to the extent of encouraging, under his judicious guidance, their
flights
of fancy in a humorous direction.
During the progress of the work we have had as our constant companions
in imagination
the bright and pleased faces of thousands of the
children of the public schools, to
whom we
hope, through
its
pages, soon to
we have been enabled to interpret their diffito suggest a means to surmount them.
We
believe that a training along the lines herein suggested will be a means of
removing many of the clouds, lightening many of the burdens and doing
speak in
culties,
reality.
In so
far
as
we have endeavored
away with much of the drudgery that too often accompanies the student's
work in this otherwise fascinating subject.
-
ure
the
ac-
:he
ito
;e2ir
ri-
le
to
fi.
ê

Hints On Drawing

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intended for the student of Drawing as well as for the teacher*

Its object is to intensify

We desire also to acknowledge very valuable assistance and criticism from

London, February, 1900.

Eye and Hand.

Straight Line Designs

Simple Curve Desiins."

G-m^cdI'';"*''"""'""''" "''^^"~ ^"^ ILLUSTRATION.

The Drawing Book.

Sticks and Tablets.

The Circular Tablet.

Drawing from the

PART IV.APPLIED PERSPECTIVE, GROUPING, SHADE AND SHADOW

Shade and Shadow.

Position of the Picture Plane.

A proper understnnding of the process by

which the knowledge of an object

Wlien we look at an object an image appears in the mind as soon as we cease

object outside of the

mind that gave

Our experiments, and

have led us to conclude that the drawing

and received something

thirty-five pupils ove

We then put away the rubber and a short conversation

took plaoe about

was again requested to draw, but this time a man riding a

case the previous knowledge of the object overcame the power to