TASK I

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

(TL 5122)

Group I
NGUYEN THI NGOC ANH
RESTI AYU LESTARI
KENDRA TANDEGA
SATRIYANI KUSUMA N
FATIMAH JUHRA
MINDA NICELIA
MENTARI KHAIRITA UTAMI
VA VANDITH
TRY KIMLENG

(25313044)
(25314707)
(25314711)
(25314729)
(25314732)
(25314740)
(25314752)
(25314756)
(25314758)

Lecturer:
ENRI DAMANHURI

POST GRADUATE PROGRAM

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
BANDUNG TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE
2014

1.1 Introduction
A heavy metal is a member of a loosely defined subset of elements that exhibit metallic properties.
Many different definitions have been proposedsome based on density, some on atomic number or
atomic weight, and some on chemical properties or toxicity. The term heavy metal has been called a
"misinterpretation" in an International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) technical report
due to the contradictory definitions and its lack of a "coherent scientific basis". There are many heavy
metals in our environment both naturally and from pollution. If metallic element has a high atomic
weight and a density much greater (at least 5 g/cm3) than water, it is called heavy metal. There are
more than 20 heavy metals, but four are of particular concern to human health: lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), mercury (Hg), and inorganic arsenic (As). Others are including copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc
(Zn), play important roles in our bodies. Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust.
They cannot be degraded or destroyed. To a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking
water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to
maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they can lead to
poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g.
lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain.Heavy
metals are dangerous because they tend to accumulate in organism. Bioaccumulation means the
increasing of concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the
chemicals concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time they are
taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted.
1.2 Heavy Metal in Waste
Heavy metal waste come from human activity, both domestic or industrial contain heavy metals. This
waste with specific requirements can be classified as hazardous and toxic waste that must be managed
specifically in order not to pollute the environment.
1.2.1 Regulations of Heavy Metal Waste in Indonesia
General regulations on heavy metal waste in Indonesia is regulated in Government Regulation No. 18
junction to 85 in 1999. Both of this rule regulate waste belonging to the hazardous category consisting
of hazardous waste from non-specific sources, hazardous waste from specific sources, as well as waste
from expired materials, spill of the packaging or disposal of products that do not meet classification. In
this regulation, heavy metal waste should be managed as hazardous waste in accordance with
applicable regulations.
1.2.1.1 Heavy Metal Waste From Specific Sources
Table 1 lists the hazardous heavy metal waste from specific sources in Indonesian Government
regulation number 18 of 1999 conjunction to 85 of 1999:
Table1. List of heavy metal waste from specific activities
No

Specific Activites

Heavy Metals

Fertilizer

As, Hg

Pesticide

As, Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Th

Chloro alkali process

Hg

Polymer

Cd, Pb, Sb, Sn

Petrochemical

Cr, Ni, Sb

Smelting / processing of iron and steel

As, Cr, Pb, Ni, Cd, Thdan Zn

Refinement steel operation

As, Cr, Pb, Ni, Cd, Th, Zn

Lead smelting

As, Pb, Cd, Zn, Th

Page 2 of 18

No

Specific Activites

Heavy Metals

Smelting and refining of copper

Cu, Pb, Cd, Th

10

Ink

Cr, Pb

11

Textile

As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn

12

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ag, Hg, Cu, Ni, Zn, Se, Sn

13

Manufacturing and assembly of vehicles and

machinery
Electroplating dan galvanizing

14

Paint

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag, Zn

15

Dry cells battery

Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Hg

16

Wet cells battery

Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Sb

17

Components and electronic equipment

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ag, Hg, Cu, Ni, Zn, Se, Sn, Sb

18
19

Exploration and production of

geothermal
Oil and gas refinery

20

Mining

Not specific

21

Coal powerplant

Not specific

22

Tannery

Cr, Pb

23

Dyestuffs and pigments

Cr, Zn, Pb, Hg, Ni, Sn, Cu, Sb, Ba

24

Pharmacy

As

25

Recycling of used lubricating oils

Zn, Pb, Cr

26

Processing animal fat / vegetable and derivates

Cr, Ni, Zn

27

Zinc smelting and refinement

Zn, Cr, Pb, Th

28

Non-ferrous metal process

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb

29

Metal hardening

Ba, Cr, Mn

30

Industrial WWTP

As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag, Cu, Ni

31

Glass ceramics

Pb, Cd, Cr, Co, Ni, Ba

32

Seals, gaskets, packing

Pb, Hg, Zn

oil,

gas and

Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ba, Hg, Se, Ag, Ni, Zn, Sn

Ba, Cr, Pb, Ni

Ba, Cr, Pb, Ni)

1.2.1.2 Heavy Metal Waste From Expired Materials, Spill or Discharge of Residual Packaging
Products.
Government regulation Number 18 of 1999 conjunction to 85 of 1999, heavy metal waste included in
this category are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. List of heavy metal waste from expired materials, spills or disposal
of residual packaging products
Num
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Waste name
Acetic lead
Chromate lead
Nitrate lead
Oxide lead
Phospate lead
Mercury and its compounds
Cyanide silver

Waste code
D3104
D3105
D3106
D3107
D3108
D3113
D3157

1.2.1.3 Heavy metals TCLP standard

Table 3 shows the quality standards of heavy metal that determines the nature of a toxic waste by the
Indonesian Government regulation number 18/1999 conjunction to 85/1999:
Page 3 of 18

Table 3.Quality Standard Which Determines The Heavy Metal Toxicity of a Waste
Num

Heavy metal

Concentration standard in waste extraction (TCLP) (mg/l)

Arsen

Barium

Boron

100

Cadmium

0,05

Chromium

0,25

Copper

0,19

Lead

Mercury

0,01

Selenium

0,05

10

Silver

11

Zinc

0,2
5

2,5

2
2,5

1.2.2 Source of Heavy Metals Pollutants

Sources of heavy metal pollutants in the environment can come from industries that use the metal base
material. As the industry is using Cu electroplating, chemical industries that use dyes, leather tanning
industrial metals containing chromium, as well as industrial batteries. In this paper we will discuss the
sources of pollution of the few industries that during the process produces wastewater containing
heavy metals.
1.2.2.1 Electroplating Industry
One example of metal-based industries is the electroplating industry. Electroplating activities produces
solid and liquid wastes and emissions. Solid waste come from activities polishing and removing the
crust. Wastewater come from washing, cleaning and plating processes. The wastewater contains a lot
of dissolved metals, solvents and organic compounds and other dissolved inorganic.
Electroplating industry is an industry that make metal plating with the help of electric current. Metal
coating process consists of washing, cleaning, coating, rinsing and drying. Water from the washing
process metals, cleaning and flushing usually contain metals such as Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Ni and Pb.
1.2.2.2 Tannery Industry
Waste of tanning industry is divided in to solid waste and sludge, liquid and gases (odor). Waste
leather tanning industry is also determined by the use of raw materials both large and small leather
skin, auxiliary materials (chemical drugs) as well as the use of process technology and hold process,
capacity up to the type of product produced.
The main sources of waste leather tanning industry consists of:
a. The parts of the skin that must be removed, including feathers, various proteins and oil, remnants
of leather cutting, splitting and the rest of the chemicals used during the tanning process;
b. Excess chemicals from tanning process. The waste beside being form of solids, liquids and gases
can also be mixed waste containing some substance.
The nature and characteristics of tannery wastewater by type of process stages in Table 6.
Table 6. The Nature And Characteristics Of Tannery Wastewater By Type Of Process Stages
Input
Dried rawhide, 200-1000 % water,
1 g/l wetting drug and antiseptic
(tepol, molescal)

Process
Soaking

Waste
Meat offal, blood, feathers, salt,
minerals, dust and dirt.

Page 4 of 18

Input
Skin that has been soaked, 300
400% water, 610% (Ca(OH2), 3
6% Sodium Sufide (Na2S)
Chromium sulphate alkaline

Process
Liming

chrome tanning

Waste
Greenish white water, and dirty,
containing calcium, sodium sulfide,
albumin, fur, meat offal and fat
chrome

1.2.2.3 Battery Industry

Battery has three important component namely anode, cathode, and electrolytes. Primary battery or
disposable battery for example is made of zinc as anode, carbon as cathode and electrolytes which is
used as pasta mixture MnO2 powder, carbon and NH4Cl. While secondary batteries that can be filled
generally have re-anode from cadmium, and cathode from nickel with electrolytes alkaline (KOH). In
addition, lead (Pb) also often used for battery manufacturing. These components compilers battery will
have a negative impact for the environment, such as cadmium, and manganese.The concentration of
cadmium into the ground will enlarge the arrest elements volume was advanced by plants and food
chain entered. Impact that emerged when poisoning volume cadmium would be high blood pressure,
renal impairment, decrease of red blood cells, stomach disorders and fragile bones. Manganese in large
number can cause poisoning and damage thenervous system for humans.
In this paper will be discussed 3 kind of heavy metals those Mercury(Hg), Chromium hexavalent
(Cr+6) and Lead (Pb)
2.1 Mercury/ Hydrargyrum (Hg)
2.1.1 Definition and Characteristics
Mercury is made by cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) and form [Hg(0)], [Hg(I)], [Hg(II)], [MeHg] in
nature. Mercury is a peculiar metal. The important way to exposure man and the environment to
mercury are two other properties:
a. Under reducing conditions in the environment, ionic mercury changes to the uncharged elemental
mercury [Hg(0)], which is volatile and may be transported over long distances by air;
b. Mercury may be chemically or biologically transformed to methyl mercury and dimethyl mercury,
of which the former is bioaccumulative and the latter is also volatile and may be transported over
long distances;
Physical Characteristics:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Fluidity at room temperature;

Shiny;
Silvery white;
Volatile.

Chemistry Characteristics:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Mr = 200,59
Density = 13,534 g/cm3
Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa
Melting Point = 38,870C
Boiling Point = 356,720C

Page 5 of 18

2.1.2 Sources
a. Mercury in Nature

Fig. 2 Source Hg in Nature

b.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Mercury in Waste
Zinc and lead metallurgy;
Thermometers;
Dental amalgams;
Batteries;
Laboratory analyses;
Fluorescent tubes;
Barometers;
High-voltage discharge lamps;
Primary zinc production;
Basic metal industry;

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

Dredged sediment;
Chlorine-alkali industry;
Lamp production;
Petrochemical and other industry;
Large household waste;
Power plants;
Hospitals and laboratories;
Sewage sludge;
MSW residues.

2.1.3 Influence of Mercury

a. Humans
Mercury and its compounds are toxic to humans. The toxicity varies among the different types of
mercury. Generally, organic forms are much more toxic than the inorganic forms because organic
form are easier to absorb and mobile in human tissue than in organic form.
Methyl mercury
Methyl mercury is kind of organic mercury and represents the most important toxic impact of mercury
to humans. It is present worldwide and the general population is primarily exposed to methyl mercury
through their diet, in particular through the consumption of fish and fish products. Most of the total
mercury in fish is in the form of methyl mercury (may be close to 100% for older fish, especially in
predatory species). Due to long-range atmospheric and aquatic transport of mercury, methyl mercury
is also present in the environment in remote areas without local or regional mercury sources.

Page 6 of 18

The high toxicity of methyl mercury is well documented. Methyl mercury has been found to have
adverse effects on several organ systems in the human body as well as in animals. These include the
central nervous system (mental retardation, deafness, blindness, impairment of speech etc.) and the
cardiovascular system (blood pressure, heart-rate variety and heart diseases). Research on animals has
given evidence of effects on the immune system and the reproduction system.
Methyl mercury in our food is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestine),
readily crosses the placental barrier and enters the brain. A series of large epidemiological studies have
recently provided evidence that methyl mercury in pregnant women's marine diets appears to have
subtle, persistent effects on the children's mental development (cognitive deficits) as observed at about
the age of school start.
Inorganic mercury
The general population is primarily exposed to inorganic mercury through the diet and dental
amalgam. Acute inhalation exposure to mercury vapour may be followed by chest pains, dyspnoea,
coughing, haemoptysis, and sometimes interstitial pneumonitis leading to death (WHO 1991). The
central nervous system is the critical organ for mercury vapour exposure. Subacute exposure has given
rise to psychotic reactions characterised by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency.
The kidney is the critical organ following the ingestion of inorganic divalent mercury salts.
Occupational exposure to metallic mercury has been associated with the development of proteinuria,
both in workers with other evidence of mercury poisoning and in those without such evidence (WHO
1991).
b. Environment
Birds and mammals
Experiments on certain groups of animals have shown that the central nervous system and the kidneys
are the organs most vulnerable to damage from methyl mercury and inorganic mercury exposure.
Effects include neurological impairment, reproductive effects, liver damage and significant decreases
in intestinal absorption. These effects may appear at animal tissue concentrations above 25-60 mg/kg
wet weight (AMAP 1998). Birds fed inorganic mercury show a reduction in food intake and
consequent poor growth. Adverse effects on birds hatching have been observed at above 2 mg/kg wet
weight (free ranging birds and experimental). Other more subtle effects on enzyme systems,
cardiovascular function, blood parameters, the immune response, kidney function and structure, and
behaviour have been reported.
Other aquatic organisms
The organic forms of mercury are generally more toxic to aquatic organisms than the inorganic forms.
Aquatic plants are affected by mercury in the water at concentrations approaching 1 mg/litre for
inorganic mercury, but at much lower concentrations of organic mercury. High concentration of
inorganic mercury affect macroalgae by reducing the germination. Aquatic invertebrates vary greatly
in their susceptibility to mercury. Generally, larval stages are more sensitive than adults. A wide
variety of physiological and biochemical abnormalities has been reported after fish have been exposed
to sublethal concentrations of mercury, although the environmental significance of these effects is
difficult to assess. Reproduction is also affected adversely by mercury.
Other terrestrial organisms
Plants are generally insensitive to the toxic effects of mercury compounds. Mercury is, however,
accumulated in taller plants, especially in perennials. The primary effect in plants is associated with
the root tips.
Page 7 of 18

Microorganisms
Mercury is toxic to microorganisms. Inorganic mercury has been reported to have effects at
concentrations of the metal in the culture medium of 5 g/litre, and organo mercury compounds at
concentrations at least 10 times lower than this (WHO 1991). Organo mercury compounds have been
used as fungicides.
These effects are often irreversible, and mercury at low concentrations represents a major hazard to
microorganisms. Subtle, but notable impacts are believed to take place in large parts of Europe in
forest soils dominated by organic material and potentially in many other locations in the world with
similar characteristics. The microbiological activity in soil is vital to the material balances for carbon
and nutrients in the soil and is affecting trees and soil organisms, which form the basis for the
terrestrial food chain.
2.1.4 Pathway
The main human exposure to mercury is via inhalation of the vapour of elemental mercury, ingestion
of mercury and methyl mercury compounds in food . The driver of most environmental Hg and
CH3Hg studies is the perception that human health risk from CH3Hg exposure has increased with
industrialization and the increasing cumulative release of Hg to the environment from anthropogenic
sources. CH3Hg concentrations are elevated in fish and shellfish, particularly piscivorous fish such as
tuna. Dietary consumption of marine fish and other seafood is a major route of CH3Hg exposure
among human populations with many populations dependent on fish for food, protein, and nutrients.
In addition to the global commercial fishery, CH3Hg exposure can be important at the local
consumer scale. Local consumers include
a. Recreational anglers who eat their catch;
b. People who rely on local marine fish and marine mammals for a majority of their protein and
nutrition;
c. Immigrant communities who catch their own fish and may have different eating habits such as
consuming whole fish instead of fillets;
d. Consumers who prefer to eat local seafood. Indigenous peoples around the world that rely on local
fish catch for subsistence living.

Fig 3.Bioacummulation of heavy metals

Page 8 of 18

2.1.5 Regulatory Limits

a. EPA 2 parts per billion parts (ppb) in drinking water;
b. FDA 1 part of methyl mercury in a million parts of seafood;
c. OSHA 0.1 milligram of organic mercury per cubic meter of workplace air and 0.05 milligrams
per cubic meter of metallic mercury vapor for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work week.
d. Indonesia: depend on the food
2.2 Chromium (Cr)
2.2.1 Definition and Characteristics
Chromium is a metallic element with oxidation states ranging from chromium(-II) to chromium(+VI)
with the trivalent (III) and hexavalent (VI) sates being the most predominant. Elemental chromium,
chromium(0), does not occur naturally. Although there is a divalent state, chromium II (chromous), it
is relatively unstable under environmental conditions and is readily oxidized to the trivalent (III or
chromic) state. Chromium compounds are most stable in the trivalent state under environmental
conditions and occur in nature in ores, such as ferrochromite (FeCr2O4). The hexavalent (VI or
chromate) is the second most stable state; however, it only occurs naturally in rare minerals such as
crocoite (PbCrO4) (Hurlbut 1971; Papp and Lipin 2001). Hexavalent chromium compounds primarily
arise from anthropogenic sources (Alimonti et al. 2000; Barceloux 1999; EPA 1984a; Johnson et al.
2006; Shanker et al. 2005).
Physical Characteristics:
a. Hard;
b. Steel-gray;
c. Shiny.

Chemistry Characteristics:
a. Mr = 51,966
b. Density = 7,1 g/cm3
c. Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa
d. Melting Point = 19070C
e. Boiling Point = 26710C

2.2.2 Sources
a. Chromium in Nature
Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in animals, plants, rocks, and soil and in volcanic
dust and gases. Chromium has oxidation states (or "valence states") ranging from chromium(-II) to
chromium(VI). Elemental chromium (chromium(0)) does not occur naturally. Chromium compounds
are stable in the trivalent (III) state and occur in nature in this state in ores, such as ferrochromite. The
hexavalent (VI) form is the second-most stable state. However, chromium(VI) rarely occurs naturally,
but is usually produced from anthropogenic sources (EPA 1984a).
b. Chromium in Waste
The best known sources of effluents containing chromium ions are chromium plating shops working
with electrolytes based on aqueous solutions of chromic acid, metallurgic plants producing or
processing alloyed steels (where types with high chromium and nickel content are dominating) and
running acidic pickling baths, textile industry and leather tanning.
2.2.3 Pathway
Respiratory
How to enter chrome through the respiratory system by inhaling dust chromium are generated from the
production process. Chromium (VI) was found in the breathing zone of the worker welding section
with a concentration between 3.8 to 6.6 gr/ m3.
Digestive tract
How to enter chrome can be through food or swallowed. The content of chromium in the diet ranged
from 5-250 gr / kg. foods that have high levels of chromium, namely pepper and beer yeast
(Schroeder et al, 1962).

Page 9 of 18

Skin
The nature of the chrome the chromic compounds, dichromate and chromium (VI) in addition to
irritants also corrosive, in case of direct contact is likely to cause allergies. Chromium chromate
particular, many cause allergies and dermatitis biggest cause for workers.
2.2.4 Influence of Chromium
a.

Humans

The general population is exposed to chromium by inhaling ambient air, ingesting food, and drinking
water containing chromium.Dermal exposure of the general public to chromium can occur from skin
contact with certain consumer products or soils that contain chromium. The primary route of nonoccupational workers, however, is food ingestion. Chromium content in foods varies greatly and
depends on the processing and preparation.
Chromium Hexavalent
Clinical effects
Effect of chromium on health which may develop respiratory problems and also interfere with
digestion. Chromium (VI) is known to cause a variety of health affects. When a mixture of chromium
in the leather products, it can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. After breathing chromium
(VI) can cause nose and nosebleeds. Other health problems that are caused by chromium (VI) is skin
rashes, gastrointestinal effects, problem in respiratory, weakened immune system, kidney and liver
damage, lung cancer and even death.
Acute Effects:
Chromium (VI) is much more toxic than chromium (III), for both acute and chronic exposures.
The respiratory tract is the major target organ for chromium (VI) following inhalation exposure
in humans. Shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing were reported in cases where an
individual inhaled very high concentrations of chromium trioxide..
Other effects noted from acute inhalation exposure to very high concentrations of chromium (VI)
include gastrointestinal and neurological effects, while dermal exposure causes skin burns in
humans.
Ingestion of high amounts of chromium (VI) causes gastrointestinal effects in humans and
animals, including abdominal pain, vomiting, and hemorrhage.
Acute animal tests have shown chromium (VI) to have extreme toxicity from inhalation and oral
exposure.
Chronic Effects (Non cancer)
Chronic inhalation exposure to chromium (VI) in humans results in effects on the respiratory
tract, with perforations and ulcerations of the septum, bronchitis, decreased pulmonary function,
pneumonia, asthma, and nasal itching and soreness reported.
Chronic human exposure to high levels of chromium (VI) by inhalation or oral exposure may
produce effects on the liver, kidney, gastrointestinal and immune systems, and possibly the
blood.
Dermal exposure to chromium (VI) may cause contact dermatitis, sensitivity, and ulceration of
the skin.
Reproductive/Developmental Effects:
Reproductive effects of chromium (VI) in humans exposed by inhalation suggest that exposure to
chromium (VI) may result in complications during pregnancy and childbirth.
Cancer Risk:
Epidemiological studies of workers have clearly established that inhaled chromium is a human
carcinogen, resulting in an increased risk of lung cancer. Although chromium-exposed workers

Page 10 of 18

b.

were exposed to both chromium (III) and chromium (VI) compounds, only chromium (VI) has
been found to be carcinogenic in animal studies.
Animal studies have shown chromium (VI) to cause lung tumors via inhalation exposure.
Environment

Chromium can affect the air quality through coal manufacturing, which eventally can lead to water or
soil contamination. Water contamination is fairly limited to surface water, and will not affect
groundwater because chromium strongly attaches to soil and is generally contained within the silt
layer surrounding or withing the groundwater reservoir. Water contaminated with chromium will not
build up in fish when consumed, but will accumulate on the gills, thus, causing negative health effects
for aquatic animals; chromium uptake results in increased mortality rates in fish due to contamination.
When consumed by animals, the effects can include "respiratory problems, a lower ability to fight
disease, birth defects, infertility and tumor formation."
2.2.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment
For eye contact, immediately flush with large amounts of water, lifting upper and lower lids. For
further medical treatment, seek for some medical attention. For skin contact, quickly remove
contaminated clothing. Immediately wash contaminated skin with large amounts of soap and water.
For inhalation, remove the person from exposure and transfer the person promptly to a medical
facility.
To prevent some injuries, protective equipment is recommended. Gloves and clothing is highlyrecommended to avoid skin contact. The glove and clothes must be made from a material which
cannot be permeated or degraded by this substance. Wear an eye protection such as goggles to prevent
an eye contact and wear respiratory to prevent chromium exposure through inhalation.
2.2.6 Handling and Storage
a. Chromium may react violently or explosively with some other compounds;
b. Chromium is not compatible with oxidizing agents;
c. Store in tightly closed containers in a cool, well-ventilated area.
2.2.7 Workplace Exposure Limits
a. OSHA The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 1 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour
workshift
b. NIOSH The recommended airborne exposure limit (REL) is 0,5 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour
workshift.
c. ACGIH The threshold limit value (TLV) is 0,5 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift.
2.3 Lead (Pb)
2.3.1 Definition and Characteristics
Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in the Earth's crust at about 1520 mg/kg. In comparison to
the two most abundant metals in the Earth, aluminum and iron, lead is a relatively uncommon metal.
Lead rarely occurs in its elemental state, but rather its +2 oxidation state in various ores throughout the
earth. The most important lead containing ores are galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), and cerussite
(PbCO3).
Physical Characteristics:
a. Bluish-white;
b. Ductile;
c. Soft.
Page 11 of 18

Chemistry Characteristics:
a. Mr = 207,2
b. Density = 11,34 g/cm3
c. Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa
d. Melting Point = 327,460C
e. Boiling Point = 17490C
2.3.2 Sources
a.

Lead in Nature

Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in the earth's crust. There is a high occurrence of lead ore
deposits around that are gathered, and distributed around the world. A person's environment is full of
lead. People are exposed to lead in many different ways (such as paint, gasoline, solder, and consumer
products) and through different pathways (such as air, food, water, dust, and soil). Although all there
are several exposure sources, lead-based paint is the most widespread and dangerous high-dose source
of lead exposure. Additionally, lead in drinking water accounts for 10 to 20 percent of human
exposure. Infants who consume mainly mixed formula can receive 40-60 percent of lead through
drinking water
b.

Lead in Waste
Automotive industry: wheel weights, bearings, friction additive in clutch facings and brakes,
storage batteries
Construction industry: flashing, pipe, sheeting, counterweights, paint additives
Electronic industry: cathode-ray tubes, radiation shielding, solder
Resource industry: fishing sinkers, rifle bullets, backstops at rifle and pistol ranges
Printing industry: letter blocks
Miscellaneous: paint, insecticides, fungicides, chemical reagents, gasoline
additives, pigments, dyes
Automotive industry: spent glycol solution removed from cooling systems with heat
exchangers made from alloys containing lead as an adhesive
Oil field construction: joining compound (pipe dope)
Automotive industry: ceramic products, paints, rubbers, dyes, corrosion inhibiting pigment in
paints and primers
Miscellaneous: manufacture of explosives, blasting caps, matches and pyrotechnics, chemical
reagents, pigments, dyes

2.3.3 Pathway
Air
Most of the lead in ambient air is in the form of sub-micron-sized particles. Some 3050% of these
inhaled particles are retained in the respiratory system. Virtually all of this retained leadis absorbed
into the body. Particles in the size range of 13 m are also efficiently depositedin the lungs. Larger
particles are deposited with variable efficiency, mainly in the upperrespiratory tract with incomplete
absorption. All lead particles that are cleared by the lung canbe swallowed and result in further lead
absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.
Drinking-water
Lead concentrations in drinking-water and groundwater vary from 1 g/l to 60 g/l. In most European
countries, the levels of lead in domestic tap water are relatively low, normally 20 g/l. Consequently,
exposure to lead through water is generally low compared with exposure through food. Nevertheless,
in old houses with lead pipes used for the domestic drinking-water supply, blood lead levels in sixyear-old children were found to be elevated by about 30% relative to houses without lead pipes. In
areas with soft water, where leadwater pipes and lead plumbing are common, the contribution of lead
in drinking-water to thetotal lead intake may even be more pronounced.
Page 12 of 18

Food
Most people receive the largest portion of their daily lead intake via food. Most lead entersfood during
storage and manufacture, for example in canned food and in alcoholic drinks. The most important
pathway whereby atmospheric lead enters the food chain is thought to be direct foliar contamination of
plants. This contamination depends on the rate of fallout of lead in thedistricts where food is grown; it
tends to be higher in heavily industrialized areas.Additionally, air deposits raise the level of lead in
soil, which, in the course of decades andcenturies, may result in an increased uptake of lead through
the roots.
2.3.4 Influence of Lead
a. Humans
Infants and children who drink water containing lead in excess could experience delays in their
physical or mental development. Young children could show slight deficits in attention span and
learning abilities. Adults with exposure, over years, may develop kidney problems or high blood
pressure. Even low levels of lead exposure can result in decreased performance on intelligence tests.
Lead exposure in adults is also associated with fertility problems and cataracts. Additionally, lead is
stored within bones/teeth, and can be released into the blood stream at times of stress. As new
information has emerged about the neurological, reproductive, and possible hypertensive toxicity of
lead, the CDC has progressively increased the level of concern for blood lead levels. CDC case
management guidelines are designed to keep children's blood lead levels below 10 g/dL, and adults
below 30 g/dL. The maximum contaminate level goal of lead in drinking water is zero, but the EPA's
final rule is set at 15 g/L.
b. Environment
Lead is commonly found within plant tissues and in their roots. Most lead will accumulate in cell walls
or vacuoles. This shows that big amounts of lead can now easily enter the food chain via plants. High
tolerance to lead in plant roots is quite unfavorable for other members in the food chain, including
man.
2.3.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment
For eye contact, immediately flush with large amounts of water, lifting upper and lower lids. For
further medical treatment, seek for some medical attention. For skin contact, quickly remove
contaminated clothing. Immediately wash contaminated skin with large amounts of soap and water.
For inhalation, remove the person from exposure and transfer the person promptly to a medical
facility.
To prevent some injuries, protective equipment is recommended. Gloves and clothing is highlyrecommended to avoid skin contact with Lead. The glove and clothes must be made from a material
which cannot be permeated or degraded by this substance. Wear an eye protection such as goggles
with a non-vented, impact resistant ability to prevent an eye contact from fumes, gases or vapors, and
wear a face shield along with goggles when working with corrosive, highly irritating or toxic
substances. Wear a respiratory to prevent lead exposure through inhalation, such as half-mask
purifying respirator, fullfacepiece, powered-air purifying respirator with high efficiency filters.
2.3.6 Handling and Storage
a.
b.
c.
d.

A regulated, marked area should be estabilished where Lead is handled, used or stored
Lead reacts violently with other compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, ammonium nitrate
Lead is not compatible with oxidizing agents and strong acids
Store in tightly closed containers in a coolm well-ventilated area

2.3.7 Exposure Limits

a.

OSHA The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over an 8hour workshift
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b.

c.

NIOSH The recommended airborne exposure limit (REL) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over a 10hour workshift. Air concentrations should be maintaned so that blood Lead is less than 0,06 mg/
100 grams of whole blood
ACGIH The threshold limit value (TLV) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift

2.4 Hazardous Waste Treatment

2.4.1 General Treatment

Fig 4. General Hazardous Waste Treatment

Rapid Mix
The goal of the rapid mix operation is to first raise the wastewater pH to form metal hydroxide
particles. After the addition of caustic, the next step is to add aluminum or iron salts, or organic
polymers (coagulants) directly to the wastewater. These polymers attach to the metal solids particles.
The small metal hydroxide particles become entangled in these polymers, causing the particle size to
increase (form flocs), which promotes settling.

Fig 5. Rapid Mix Influence To Hazardous Metal

Sedimentation
Once particles become enmeshed in the polymer, they are allowed to settle so that they are removed
from the wastewater. The particles settle since they are heavier than water. This settling occurs in the
sedimentation tanks. Sedimentation tanks, in contrast to rapid mixing units, are designed to have no
mixing, to produce a calm flow for settling
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Fig 6. Sedimentation Process

Filtration
Water emerging from the sedimentation basin is routed to the filtration unit. The filtration unit is
designed to trap those particles that did not settle in the sedimentation basin (because they were too
small) or did not have sufficient time to settle and were carried out of the basin. Water entering the
filtration unit is passed through silica sand, diatomaceous earth, carbon, or cloth to capture the
remaining metal hydroxide particles. Metal particles stick to the filtering material and are removed
from the water. Filtration completes the metal treatment process. Only now should the pH be reduced
for discharge, if necessary, or pH can now be adjusted for water reuse.
As filtration progresses and more metal hydroxides and other solids clog the filter material, pressure
drop through the filter rises and some solids may pass through the filter. When either of these two
situations occurs, the filter must be backwashed by reversing the flow of water through the filter. This
backwash water is sent back to the rapid mix tank for mixing with the incoming water since it contains
a significant concentration of solids from the dislodging that has occurred. Furthermore, the pH of this
water (since it will be diluted with incoming water) may drop significantly and pose the problem of
redissolving all of the metal hydroxides solids.

Fig 7. Filtration Process

Sludge Treatment
The solids produced in the sedimentation stage (and possibly solids from filtration) are denoted as a
sludge and periodically removed. In diatomaceous earth and fiber filters, the entire filter media
(diatomaceous earth, filter cartridge) is dumped with the captured metal hydroxide solids. This sludge
may be sent to a dewatering stage to remove excess water and leave only solids. The water from the
dewatering stage may not be completely free of metals and should be piped to the rapid mix tank. The
sludge now contains the precipitated metal hydroxide solids, made up of identifiable quantities of
heavy metals, which are regulated according to state and federal guidelines. The solids produced from
heavy metal wastewater treatment must then be disposed of as a hazardous waste
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2.4.2 Special Treatment

2.4.2.1 Chemical precipitation
Water containing hevy metals is treated with a chemical oxidation-reduction process. Some chemicals
are needed to make suitable pH for heavy metal to be precipitated. A retention time of 45 minutes is
usually maintained to ensure adequate mixing and reaction with the sulfur dioxide or other chemicals.
This process converts the valent of heavy metal so it can be precipitated.
a. Hydroxide precipitation NaOH or Ca (OH)2, pH 8 11
Figure below explain about the relationship between the concentration of heavy metals and the pH
so the heavy metal can be precipitated. The colour area is the area that heavy metal will be
precipitated.

Fig. 8 The Relationship between Heavy Metal Concentration and pH

b. Addition of coagulants possible

c. 99 % removal possible
d. Requires high concentration, produces sludge, some metal hydroxides are amphoteric, inhibition
by complexing agents
e. Also sulfide precipitation (possible using sulfate-reducing bacteria), chelates
2.4.2.2 Ion exchange
Characteristic:
a. High efficiency, fast process
b. Synthetic resins are most common
c. Research with natural zeolite
d. cost-effective at high concentration, secondary pollution from regeneration

Fig 8. Ion Exchange

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2.4.2.3 Adsorption
Characteristic:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Activated carbon price increasing

Carbon nanotubes (CNT)
Low-cost or bioadsorbents (e.g. zeolite, clay; potato peels, eggshell, banana peels etc.)
Separation of biosorbents still a problem

2.4.2.4 Membrane filtration

Characteristic:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis

high energy cost and membrane restoration
Flotation
Ion flotation = imparting the ionic metals hydrophobic an d removal by air bubbles
Electrochemical methods
Electrocoagulation

3. Conclusion
The general population does not face a significant health risk from methyl mercury, although certain
groups with high fish consumption may attain blood levels associated with a low risk of neurological
damage to adults. Since there is a risk to the fetus in particular, pregnant women should avoid a high
intake of certain fish, such as shark, swordfish and tuna. Fish, such as pike, walleye and bass, taken
from polluted fresh waters should especially be avoided.
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure. Blood levels in children should be reduced
below the levels so far considered acceptable, recent data indicating that there may beneurotoxic
effects of lead at lower levels of exposure than previously anticipated. Although lead in petrol has
dramatically declined over the last decades, thereby reducing environmental exposure, there is a need
to phase out any remaining uses of lead additives in motor fuels. The use of lead-based paints should
also be abandoned, and lead should not be used in food containers. In particular, the public should be
aware of glazed food containers, which may leach lead into food.
Some treatments of heavy metals waste are precipitation, ion exchange, adsorption and membrane
filtration. Before using this special treatment, primary and secondary treatment is needed. Choosing
the kind of the treatment depend on the efficiency, budget and some other technical and non technical
aspects.
4. References
Anonymous. 2007. Health risks of heavy metals from long-range transboundary air pollution.WHO
Djuniardi, F., Ersa, N.S & Kusnandar, H. 2010. Penanganan Limbah B3 (Bahan Berbahaya dan
Beracun Batu Baterai Bekas Melalui Partisipasi Konsumen dan Penerapan Metode Produksi
Bersih. Teknik Lingkunga IPB. Bogor.
European Commission. 2002. Heavy Metals in Waste Final Report
Martin, Sabine and Wendy Griswold. 2009. Human Health Effects of Heavy Metals. Kansas State
University:Manhattan
Lars Jrup. 2003. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Department of Epidemiology and Public
Health Imperial College: London
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Riskanora, A.V. 2008. Studi Penurunan Logam Berat Timbal (Pb2+) dan Seng (Zn2+) dalam Limbah
Elektroplating dengan Penambahan Dolomit Hidrat pada Proses Batch. Tugas Akhir Jurusan
Teknik Lingkungan ITS, Surabaya.
Sutamihardja, R.T.M., Adnan, K., Sanusi. 1982. Perairan Teluk Jakarta Ditinjau dari Tingkat
Pencemarannya. Fakultas Pascasarjana Jurusan PSL, IPB
Wilson, James G. 1988. The Biology of Estuarine Management, St. Edmundsbury Press Ltd, Suffolk,
Great Britain.
Yuniarti, Sri Ika. 2012. Seleksi Tumbuhan Remediator Logam Kromium Di Daerah Industri
Sukaregang Garut. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.

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