Allocation (oil and gas)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In the petroleum industry, allocation refers to practices of breaking down measures of quantities
of extracted hydrocarbons across various contributing sources.[1] Allocation aids the attribution of
ownerships of hydrocarbons as each contributing element to a commingled flow or to a storage
of petroleum may have a unique ownership. Contributing sources in this context are typically
producing petroleum wells delivering flows of petroleum or flows of natural gas to a commingled flow
or storage.
The terms hydrocarbon accounting and allocation are sometimes used interchangeably.[2]
[3]
Hydrocarbon accounting has a wider scope, taking advantages of allocation results, it is the
petroleum management process by which ownership of extracted hydrocarbons is determined
and tracked from a point of sale or discharge back to the point of extraction. In this way,
hydrocarbon accounting also covers inventory control, material balance, and practices to trace
ownership of hydrocarbons being transported in atransportation system, e.g. through pipelines to
customers distant from the production plant.
In an allocation problem, contributing sources are more widely natural gas streams, fluid
flows or multiphase flows derived from formations or zones in a well, from wells, and from fields,
unitised production entities or production facilities. In hydrocarbon accounting, quantities of
extracted hydrocarbon can be further split by ownership, by "cost oil" or "profit oil" categories,
and broken down to individual composition fraction types. Such components may
be alkane hydrocarbons, boiling point fractions,[4] and mole weight fractions.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]

1 Scope and terminology

1.1 More specific definitions

1.2 Scope
2 Demand for allocation

2.1 History

2.2 Benefits
3 Allocation practices and methods

3.1 Sample configurations

3.2 Measurements

3.3 Estimates, alternatives for measures

3.4 Uncertainty in measures and allocation

3.5 Proportional allocation

3.6 Ownership allocation

4 See also

5 References

Scope and terminology[edit]

The term allocate[7] is being used in the sense to denote distributing according to a plan, but the
etymology may also be linked to 'earmark'.[8] The term accounting[9] is being used in the sense to
denote justification of actions.[10]
In the context of hydrocarbon accounting, an oil field is an area developed for exploration of
hydrocarbons from one or more reservoirs[11] in the underground. Sometimes one well extracts
hydrocarbons from more than one geologic formation or reservoir, hence it may be useful to divide
the oil field and its well streams by formations or layers. More than one oil field may share
infrastructure like oil processing units and pipelines. The field activities are regulated by a
jurisdiction of a state and a contract of the licence. The contract is a business arrangement for
exploration of the oil field between the licensor, (the mineral rights owner, onshore in United
States often the land owner, elsewhere often the state possesses the ownership of mineral rights
including petroleum reservoirs)[12] and a licensee to share investment costs, operational costs,
and income from the oil field. In case of a production sharing agreement, PSA, the licensee will take
all development costs and have this capital recovered by "cost oil". "Profit oil" will be shared by
licensee and the state.[13] The licensee may be one oil company, or often a group of companies
sharing the risks, costs and profit in a partnership, consortium or joint venture. When more than
one company is involved, the term "group ownership members" is used, and the business
arrangement for petroleum extraction specifies the equity of cost and income for each member
company. Where a petroleum concessionary licence system is in use rather than contractual
type of petroleum fiscal regime, ownership of extracted hydrocarbons are shared according to fixed
equities of each member company.

More specific definitions[edit]

Field allocation or platform allocation denotes allocation cases where contribution sources are
more than one production field or more than one offshore platform, making a commingled flow
into a pipeline.[14]
Well allocation is a term used in the case where the contribution sources are production
petroleum wells, or any type of injection well.
Component allocation: while the term product allocation is used to allocate the primary product
groups like oil, gas or condensate ingredients (phase fractions) to a contributing well for instance,
[15]
component allocation breaks down and allocate individual alkane hydrocarbons
like methane and ethane, to 3 isomers pentanes in a natural gas stream. Components of crude oil
streams to be allocated may be split up by boiling point fractions.[4]
Other combinatorics on the allocation term include production allocation,[16] hydrocarbon
allocation,[17] pipeline allocation and back allocation.[14][18][19] Export allocation denotes the allocation
at a custody transfer where production quantities are transferred from an oil field. Allocation at
exports decide exactly what quantities each partner of the contract is paid for.[20] Ownership
allocation is also used to denote the income distribution from extracted hydrocarbons on each
partner of a licence or joint business arrangement area.

Scope[edit]
Allocation is an ongoing process based on flow or volume measurements, and gives the
distribution of contributing sources, often with a final calculation per day, which in turn provides

the basis for a daily production report in the case of a field that produces hydrocarbons.
Moreover, the allocation process may be designed to split up a flow of multiple products of the
individual ingredients or phase fractions, for example when associated gas and water are
supplied with a crude oil flow,[10] and each fraction within the commingled flow or storage is
allocated between the contributors and its ownership. A traditional allocation practice will execute
quantity calculations for crude oil, natural-gas condensate and produced water based on measured
results from periodic, time-limited well tests. Natural gas flows from pure gas wells are usually
measured continuously at or near the individual wellheads.
Within the wider scope of hydrocarbon accounting; all measurements and parameters used for
calculations are being deposited in a data storage, results of calculations along with methods
used in calculations, are stored in a manner that is accepted by the internal and external audit.
Stored results can be further utilised to optimise the reservoir performance of a producing field,
possibly optimising the utilisation in case of a transportation system.
The hydrocarbon accounting process is emphasizing the tracking of all hydrocarbons through
flows until a sale to a customer has occurred or hydrocarbons are disposed for including all fluid
discharges, vents and flaring of gas, consumption of gas for power production at the facility, and
quantities of evaporation from oil storages. Similarly, measurements of injected flow of water and
gas into the reservoir through injection wells are being part of hydrocarbon accounting.

Demand for allocation[edit]

Allocation is commercial rooted in the need to distribute the costs, revenues and taxes among
multiple players collaborating on field development and production of oil and gas. There are
various incentives for collaboration, one is risk and cost sharing, the practice by issuing licences
for exploration and production to a partnership of oil companies. Another is the aim of improving
production efficiency, by extracting from multiple land properties or multiple oil fields by shared
arrangement for production, also called unitisation.

History[edit]
The principle of unitised production, to allow for more efficient development of new exploration
areas, was established for the Van field in the State of Texas, US, since 1929,[21][22] and this practice
has been developed to a widespread "hidden law of unitisation" in Texas. [23] Even before 1929, it
was early established a practice of sharing equipment to extract from several wells. [24] Today,
most US states except Texas, have compulsory unitization statutes. Ownership and extraction of
oil and gas in the ground of USA is regulated by the present oil and gas law in the United States.
Sharing risks by a joint venture of several companies to field development, production and
transportation, and downstream activities has also been going on for long time, specifically for
cross border arrangements.[25] In the North Sea, oil companies shared risk in consortia, and in the
initial licence round regulated by Norwegian government, more than half of the licences were
awarded partnerships of several licensees.[26] It has also been a clear tendency towards transition
to awarding licences to partnerships.
In recent times, cost savings have become an impetus for shared utilisation of infrastructures for
processing and transport of oil and gas in areas of extraction from the ground. Methods are being
developed to allocate back contributions into commingled streams in pipeline, when oil is being
transported from a collection of offshore oil fields to facilities terminals onshore in Asia. [14]
Recent restructuring in this industry for enhanced oil recovery, deepwater field development, and
use of subsea production systems that commingled production flows from multiple oil fields,
[27]
strengthen the requirements for flexible and accurate allocation systems, to keep up with the
transition from conventional well flow testing to prevalence of model simulations, virtual flow
meters and multiphase flow meters.[28]

Benefits[edit]
There are multiple operational benefits from allocation. Detailed results from allocation to wells,
or even to oil or gas layers per well, are used to manage the production process.

Results from the allocation process are important feed into production reporting to governments
and partners, and allocation results may also feed operator's internal systems for product
sales, accounting, enterprise resource planning, data warehouse, and management information.
Allocation and hydrocarbon accounting are supporting information to the wider business
area petroleum accounting, the latter considering life cycle business and financial aspects of oil
field operations.[29]

Allocation practices and methods[edit]

Transparency, fairness and compliance with audit requirements are fundamental criteria for the
design of allocation practices and methods. Furthermore, the implemented processes should be
cost efficient as well as practical to operate. Requirements for the measurement processes and
the associated allocation process are set by legislation and the relevant government authority,
contract documents governing the relationship between the operator, partners, licensor, and
government may also provide guidelines for allocation. Details of design configuration and setup
can be read out of available piping and instrumentation diagrams, process flow diagrams and other
documentation showing flow measurement and connections between measuring points via flow
from wells to sale points. P&ID showing downhole sensors may also contribute to the design of
an allocation process.
Partners involved in any allocation system, agree upon and establish a set of principles to follow.
The principles states the units and measurement types used in allocations, i.e. where to account
mass, volume, molar or energy balance. Since physical properties of hydrocarbons are
constantly changing when hydrocarbons from various contributing sources are mixed, affected
by heat transfer and transitions in pressure and temperature, owners of hydrocarbon in a
commingled material cannot be allocated materials equal to what physically delivered from their
well. For instance, two multiphase streams are commingled, one with oil of mole weight 107 and
gas of 20 kg/kgmol, the other of 116 and 21 respectively, may result in a commingled stream of
115 kg/kgmol for the oil and mole weight of 20.3 kg/kgmol for the gas. The allocation principles
account for this effect.[2]

Sample configurations[edit]

Figure 1: Illustration of meter setup in allocation problems, simplified for clarity. A host field "A" processing
plant separates, processes and exports hydrocarbon flows from field "A", and two satellite fields "B" and
"C".
Legend: Red M is custody transfer meter, black M fiscal meter, gray M indicate optional allocation meter.[30]

Allocation systems seen in the figure to the right:

Fields "B" and "C" are each a basic allocation system where all the measured out-flow
quantities from the field are allocated to the respective wells, and allocation can be
conducted on all phases, oil, gas, water. ("B" and "C" have possible subsea plants only.)

Field "A", an oil field where fluid of oil, produced water and associated gas is extracted. If
free of pipeline connection, field "A" illustrates the typical allocation case. A processing plant
splits crude oil into three fractions. Metering stations on the export point satisfy requirements
for custody transfer, measuring instrument for flare gas is a fiscal measurement if subject to
taxation, it depends on regulatory requirements. Measurement of well streams will typically
have lower accuracy, or no meters are installed, when estimation processes are in use.

All together, the collection of fields is a field allocation system in which contributions in
sales products are allocated to each of the three fields.

Measurements[edit]
Not all streams and measurements at a production plant will feed an allocation process, but all
allocations need at least measurement of the total out-flow or total volume, along with
measurements, or estimates for, or some physical properties of the contributing flows included in
the total.
Fiscal measurements meet the statutory requirements for accuracy in the jurisdiction for tax
payments to the government; custody transfer measurements meet the requirements for financial
transactions between buyers and sellers of hydrocarbons; allocation measurements helps
support the allocation of all contributors to a commingled flow, whereby it also supports
ownership allocation. Allocation measurements may not meet custody transfer standards.
Flow measurement and allocation

Flow location

Measurement type

Allocation

Flow to an export transportation

system, (pipeline, tanker, truck)

Fiscal measurement and

Custody transfer measurement

Back allocation to field or

well, ownership allocation

Flow into and out of an intermediate

fluid storage

Custody transfer measurement

Back allocation to field or

well

Flow to consumption, power, flare

Fiscal measurement

N/A

Flow to shared facility, from a

satellite field

Custody transfer measurement

(when ownership changes)

Field allocation

Flow from the reservoir

Allocation measurement

Back allocation to well or

formation

Flow from a gas well

E.g. with ultrasonic flow meter

Flow from an oil well

Well test or with multiphase meter

for instance

Various flows within the processing

facility

Meters with sufficient accuracies

Table 1: A selection of places where flows are measured. The list not intended to be fully comprehensive.
[31]

Corrected, measured liquid total (Net quantity)

When a quantity of ready processed liquid, e.g. oil, has been measured, there is still
transformation to take place from indicated to the net quantity to be accounted: [32]

where
indicated quantity is the gross measured volume
MF, Meter Factor, adjust to actual volume, this factor is determined by probing
CTL is a volume correction factor for the effects of temperature on liquid [33]
SF, Shrinkage Factor, adjusts for changes in pressure temperature and composition, for
instance shrinkage of fluid occurs when pressure drops and constituents change to gas
phase
SW (S&W), Sediment and Water factor, adjusts for remaining water and contaminants,
determined by sample analysis
F LOW METERS [ EDIT ]

V-Cone Flow meter with raised faceweld neck flanges

Flow meters for the measurements in the oil and gas upstream industry
are chosen based on type of measurement, performance and accuracy
requirements, and the type of medium to be measured. Available meters
in the market are characterized by properties such as accuracy,
operational rangebility: flowrate, viscosity, velocity, pressure and
temperature conditions, durability and demand with respect to
calibration and monitoring, the ability to withstand contaminants,
injected chemicals, salty and acidic environment. For the application of
custody transfer measurements of fluid hydrocarbons, positive
displacement meters and turbine meters have been preferred.[34] For gas
metering, gas orifice meters and ultrasonic flow meters are most common.
[35]
Coriolis meters are in use for liquid measurements, but can also take
gas measurement applications.[36]
For the application of allocation measurements, multiphase flow
meters have been adopted, especially for subsea production systems.
These equipments are able to deduce the proportion and flow rate of
each fluid phase.

Estimates, alternatives for measures[edit]

In some locations it is too costly or not practical to implement metering
of flow rates, e.g. down in the wells and in many places at process
plants, especially on subsea plants. However, a set of methods and
techniques that aim to provide estimates for flows, are adopted by the
industry to solve allocation problems.
Geochemical allocation
Gas chromatography and isotope analysis are the known methods that are
used for determining the characteristics of hydrocarbon material
samples.[37] The method is also named oil fingerprinting, and uses data
about the chemical and isotope composition of liquid and gas flow for
each contribution that is collected. Samples from each contributing
stream is parsed, and fingerprints established, for example by using
whole-oil gas chromatography methods. These fingerprints are then
recognized in aggregate flows, which in turn can help to allocate back to
the sources.
Applications of this method comprise allocation of single formation or
layer in a commingled well,[38] and allocation of commingled pipeline oil
to contributing oil fields.[14][16]Moreover, the adoption of fingerprinting is
widely spread geographically, it includes North America and the Middle
East.[39]
Flow rate estimation

There are varieties of methods for estimating the flow rate of the wells
when flow measurements are unavailable. Models describe multiphase
flows behaviour under different conditions, and they are continuously
being supplied with readings from pressure, temperature, and pressure
drop across the venturi and density, and other properties.
[40]
Ensemble based data assimilation methods are among available
techniques for back allocation to reservoir formations.[18][19]
A virtual flow meter is a type of an implementation using such methods.
Some gas and condensate fields in the North Sea are developed with
subsea templates where multiphase flow meters are installed for each
well and virtual flow meters for each well are taken in use as a backup
for and redundancy to the flow meters.[41][42]
Process models and phase behaviour models are other
implementations of rate estimation. With the aid of commercially
available software, process models simulate the behaviour of
hydrocarbons in the processing plant. Among other purposes it is used
for calculation of shrinkage factors or expansion factors and estimation
of flow inside the plant that does not have meters. The models build on
the theory of thermodynamics to predict the behaviour of components in
the streams. Examples of equations of state that contribute to the
calculations in such models are PengRobinson equation of
state and/or Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. Process models with
simulations are in use in allocation systems at North Sea plants.[43]

Uncertainty in measures and allocation[edit]

In the oil and gas industry, it is common that the regulatory authorities in
the country set requirements for all measurements of produced
hydrocarbons, where such measurements affect taxes or royalties to the
government, the fiscal measurements. Requirements can be found in a
guideline and be specific in the way uncertainties are targeted.
Examples of targets in publicly available standards and guidelines are:
Flow measurement and target uncertainties

Newfoundland,
Labrador,
Nova Scotia[44]

United
Kingdom[45]

Norw

Liquid volume

0.25%

0.25%

Gas mass

1%

1%

For oil and gas well allocation, Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova
Scotia Offshore Areas, Drilling and Production Regulations,[44] for
example, requires accuracy within 5%.
In general, the total uncertainty of the allocation system is related
to measurement uncertainty of each measured input. Investments in
improved metering systems and operations to reduce the uncertainty
may be subject to cost benefit analysis that points to an optimum,
overall uncertainty in the allocated products.[20]

Proportional allocation[edit]

Figure 2: Periodic well tests on the production plant is the conventional way to
get an estimated or theoretical production contribution per phase fraction per
well per month. This plant is receiving a multi phased flow of oil and gas from
many wells via a manifold. Flow from one well at a time is taken to the test
separator (shaded). The output flow rates are measured for each phase
fraction.

It is easy to implement measures of flow rates of commingled, single

phase hydrocarbon flows under normal pressure and temperature, but
often not feasible to measure the individual well flow rate of multiphase
streams from oil wells, under high temperature and pressure, while
achieving known and acceptable uncertainty in the measurements. A
practical adaptation to this problem is to estimate or otherwise prepare
theoretical estimates of the flow rate from the individual wells, and
somehow normalise the estimates to even out discrepancies with the
measured overall product stream from a production facility.
The conventional approach of estimating individual flow performance
from contributing oil wells in the allocation problem is the well
test practice using test separator.[40]
Proportional allocation calculation
This is generally the most intuitive procedure, allocating a stream to the
contributing stream sources in proportions according to a known
quantity.[47]

where
N is the number of contributing sources, for example number of wells
is the total quantity in stream to be allocated

is a measured or estimated quantity portion of contributor k, for example from a flow

test
is the portion of the total allocated to contributor k
The quantity Q could be mass or energy as well as
volume. The allocation calculations are carried out
per phase, for example oil, gas and water
respectively.
Example with calculations to illustrate the
principle of proportional allocation
Assume that the flows of separated oil from two
production units go to a common storage tank. The
tank is used as a cache so that the owners of the
oil can get their load according to
an entitlement plan. Allocation is first calculated
using estimated production from each well, based
on well testing.
The results of a well test in May are shown in the
column "Theoretical production" below. Suppose it
was measured in 610,000 barrels (corrected,
measured total) of oil produced by end of May
2013.
An example of monthly production allocation via theoretical oil production from well test

Plant /
platfor
m

Well

Hours
contributing

"Skink"

S-1

672

24

5000 5000*672/24

140,000

S-2

672

24

S-5

672

24

"Gecko"

Hours
Test
Theoretical
on
Calculation
results
production
test

Calculation

Well
allocation

140000*610000/61580
0

138,681

4000 4000*672/24

112,000 112000*610000/615800

110,945

4500 4500*672/24

126,000

126000*610000/61580
0

124,813

Plant total

374,440

145000*610000/61580
0

143,634

58,000 58000*610000/615800

57,454

G-2

696

12

2500 2500*696/12

G-3

696

12

1000 1000*696/12

145,000

G-5

696

24

1200 1200*696/24

Theoretical tank total

34,800 34800*610000/615800

34,472

Plant total

235,560

615,800

Corrected, measured total (Net quantity)

610,000

Table 2: The example shows the final allocation by month end.

It distributes the total measured oil, 610,000 bbl to each well, at the proportion of estimates given by the well test
results.

The case is simplified for illustration purposes.[48]

Field factor

where
k; N is the number of wells;

is the theoretical (estimated) production for well

is the net quantity, the measured and corrected total
In table 2, the field factor is 610,000 over
615,800, equal to 0.99058.
Corrected well allocation
The effect of field factor is to distribute the
difference between fiscal measured total and
theoretical total, 5,800 bbl, evenly at the same
proportion across all wells.[49]

Ownership allocation[edit]
When a fluid stream is owned by a
compound ownership, each owner's equity
is allocated in accordance with their share.
For joint venture contractual arrangement
with fixed equities, allocation is in the
proportion of their share of ownership.
[50]
Production sharing agreements may lead to
further splits into cost oil and profit oil
categories.
Example of equity-based allocation with
calculations
Three companies A, B, and C cooperate in
a joint venture contractual arrangement
with fixed equity shares. A production

platform "Gecko" exported 235,560 barrels

of oil one month. Their equities are 20, 35
and 45 percent respectively, equivalent to
the volumes 47,112 bbl, 82,446 bbl,
106,002 bbl for each of the companies.

See also[edit]

Phase transition

Measurement uncertainty

Flow assurance

The thermodynamic equilibrium constant

Flash evaporation calculations

Equation of state

Ideal gas law

R- Gas constant

Pipeline transport

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42. Jump up^ Pabs Angelo, Shell Norway
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44. ^ Jump up to:a b MEASUREMENT
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45. Jump up^ "Oil and gas: measurement of
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48. Jump up^ based on Wright & Gallun
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49. Jump up^ Lorentzen, Rolf; Ove
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50. Jump up^ Energy Institute Guidelines
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