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Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
Warwick Digital Laboratory, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Design
Validation
Verication
Lifecycle management
The verication and validation of engineering designs are of primary importance as they directly
inuence production performance and ultimately dene product functionality and customer perception.
Research in aspects of verication and validation is widely spread ranging from tools employed during
the digital design phase, to methods deployed for prototype verication and validation. This paper
reviews the standard denitions of verication and validation in the context of engineering design and
progresses to provide a coherent analysis and classication of these activities from preliminary design, to
design in the digital domain and the physical verication and validation of products and processes. The
scope of the paper includes aspects of system design and demonstrates how complex products are
validated in the context of their lifecycle. Industrial requirements are highlighted and research trends and
priorities identied.
2010 CIRP.
1. Introduction
Globalisation coupled with product customisation and short
time to market have spearheaded new levels of competition
among manufacturers. In CIRP, the needs for design adaptability
[1], the ability to develop products and services for the ecommerce era [2] and the issues of dealing with design
complexity [3] have been recognised. To be successful in the
global market, manufacturing companies are increasingly
expanding simulation models from product and process based
(value chains) to service based (value networks) by focusing on
lifecycle simulations and design for product variation [4] to
obtain both quality of product and robustness of processes, and
to enable the validation and verication of products and
processes to 6-sigma. These methods are vital to reduce process
faults and facilitate efcient and effective engineering changes.
Current validation and verication-based approaches mainly
focus on product conformance to specications, product functionality and process capability. However, even the most robust
systems can be subject to failures during product verication and
validation.
This paper presents the concepts of validation and verication
in the product lifecycle by including analysis and review of
literature and state-of-the-art in: (i) preliminary design, (ii) digital
product and process development; (iii) physical product and
process realisation; (iv) system and network design; and (v)
complex product verication and validation.
The paper starts with a summary of the scientic motivation for
the review of design verication and validation. The denitions of
verication and validation are then covered, including concepts
and denitions arising from ISO standards as well as software
* Corresponding author.
0007-8506/$ see front matter 2010 CIRP.
doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2010.05.005
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Table 1
Denitions of verication and validation in the digital and physical domains.
Verication
Validation
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Fig. 5. Verication in digital and physical world (adapted from Refs. [20,21]).
and simulation aspects [10,12] will become increasingly applicable. The overall process for integrated digital and physical
prototype verication and validation is exemplied by SAE
Aerospace [20], see Fig. 5, and the metrological practice governing
the physical prototypes is given by VIM [17].
3. International standards related to product and process
design in the lifecycle perspective
International standards play an important role in preserving the
designers intent and seamlessly utilising the associated information and manufacturing practices in a heterogeneous manufacturing environment. The transition of the designers intent from the
digital design specication to the actual product and associated
service realisation is illustrated in Fig. 5. Today, as each phase of the
products lifecycle is globally dispersed in supply and knowledge
chains [2], international standards are essential to deploy
standardised manufacturing execution protocols in order to
establish an unambiguous denition language throughout a
global supply chain and ensure consistent product performance in
the service phase. Hence, the provisions of the most relevant to
product and process verication and validation standards are
analysed herein.
3.1. Standards for representing product information
Computer interpretable representation of product information
is utilised within a variety of CAx applications for design
verication and validation. The majority of these standards
represent geometric information and evolved to cover other
aspects. Standards such as Geometrical Product Specication (GPS)
[22], ASME Y14.5: Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
(GD&T) [23], STandard for Exchange of Product model data (STEP)
[24] have thus evolved for modelling and preserving other aspects
of product related information such as tolerances, kinematics,
dynamics and manufacturing processes. For example, the STEP and
GPS standards have evolved, providing product specic informa-
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standards such as DMIS [44], DML [45] and I++DME [46] for the
exchange of inspection process information and measurement
results in the production environment. Similarly, the BS EN ISO
8062 series [47] and the BS EN ISO 10135 [48] series of standards
within the GPS framework cover the requirements for casting and
moulding processes. Another set of process specic standards is
the ISO 14649 series [49], with parts corresponding to different
processes; for instance, part 16 [50] for performing inspection
operations in a STEP-NC manufacturing environment.
3.3. Standards for representing manufacturing resources
A typical manufacturing system consists of a range of resources
such as machine tools, material handling systems, xtures, robotic
arms, and measurement systems [51]. Each resource has a distinct
purpose and thus provides specic capabilities that are utilised in
manufacturing decision-making. A variety of international standards have evolved in order to utilise and exchange the
information regarding manufacturing resources and their capabilities in a digital environment [52]. For example, ISO 13584 [53]
with the acronym PLIB is a series of standards for the computerbased representation and exchange of part library data. PLIB is fully
inter-operable with STEP [24]. Resource specic standards have
evolved to satisfy business needs. For example, ISO 13399 [54]
deals with the representation and exchange of cutting tool data
and ASME B5.59-2 [55] is an information model for machine tools.
Measurement equipment related GPS standards [56,57] were
developed to describe the acceptance tests for co-ordinate
measuring machines and general requirements for GPS measuring
equipment respectively.
3.4. Standards for preserving design verication knowledge
International standards are used to preserve and seamlessly
transfer context specic knowledge obtained through design
verication, within a heterogeneous manufacturing environment.
Business sectors such as, aerospace manufacturing, defence, ship
building and military equipment manufacturing intensively invest
in research and development activities and have a strong
requirement to conserve and reuse knowledge acquired through
the design verication processes. Consequently, ISO 10303 AP 209
[58] has been developed by aerospace and commercial research
organisations for associating engineering analysis data with
geometric data. ISO 10303 AP 237 deals with the exchange of
computational uid dynamics (CFD) information, including
product geometry, associated meshes dening the computational
details and CFD boundary conditions [59].
4. Verication and validation in the early stages of design
capture intent and conrm requirements
The early design stages are vitally important for the correct
capture of technical and lifecycle requirements arising from
understanding and interpreting market needs. Verication is
inherent in methods deployed during these important early stages,
although this is not always appreciated by designers and
manufacturing practitioners. This section outlines methods for
design idea validation and quality function deployment (QFD) as
well as the more technical aspects of ensuring that consistency in
terms of key design objectives is maintained using key characteristics (KCs) and Design for X (DFX) techniques.
4.1. Product idea validation and market analysis
There are three key considerations that are applied in the early
stages of design: (1) to prioritise customer needs (CNs) in a
quantitative manner based on market analysis; (2) to select the
best design schema; and (3) to improve communication at all
levels of the organisation. Methods such as matrix prioritisation
and analytical hierarchy process [60] are applied to help the
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ment torsors [107] and modelling the effects that local small
displacement have on the remote functional requirement using
Jacobian transforms [108]. Desrochers et al. [109] proposed a
unied Jacobian-torsor model for statistical or worst-case tolerance analysis or synthesis [110].
5.2.2. Digital tolerancing methods and tolerance optimisation
Optimizing tolerances aims to maximise the functional
performance and economic factors associated with tolerances.
The economic factor is often expressed in a quality loss function
[111] and in most applications the Taguchi loss function is used.
Govindaluri et al. [97] consider the quality loss from the
perspective of the customer and the manufacturing and rejection
costs by the manufacturer. When incorporating Taguchis quality
loss function Cheng and Maghsoodloo [112] found that when a
components mean varies, only the quality loss associated with
that component will be changed; whereas when a components
variance shifts, the optimal allowance, tolerance costs, and quality
losses associated with each component will be affected. Tolerance
optimisation methods are classed as either deterministic or
stochastic; the former considers the nominal values of design
variables with respect to given input values, using a single point for
evaluation, whereas the latter consider the statistical variation of
the design variables [113,114].
Computer Aided Tolerancing systems can provide a simulation
platform for modelling the effects of tolerance setting within a
manufacturing process or assembly [115,116]. Tolerance analysis
and synthesis are considered within a DMU to include aspects of
tolerance build-up and assembly clashes [117]. Tolerance design
methods have been summarised by Singh et al. [99] as shown in
Fig. 10, including traditional and advanced methods.
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Fig. 12. Overview of the theoretical framework for integrating measurement with assembly planning.
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Fig. 14. Isosurface of instantaneous vorticity over an F-18C aircraft at 308 angle of
attack [185].
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Table 3
Non-destructive evaluation techniques.
NDE method
Principle of operation
Acoustic emission
C-scan
Eddy current
Dye penetrant
Infrared thermography
Photothermal imaging
Laser vibrometry
Shearography
Acoustography
Parameter
Test method
s (MPa)
E, cij (GPa)
Dynamic stiffness
Shear strength
Shearstrain
Shear modulus, stiffness
Elastic compliance
Poissons ratio
Work of fracture
Edyn (GPa)
t (MPa)
Gc (J m
Kc (Pa m1/2)
a (K 1)
Tension, compression,
exure, etc.
Tension, compression,
exure, etc.
Tension, compression,
exure, etc.
Vibration, time of ight
Torsion, shear, tension
Torsion, shear, tension
Torsion, shear, tension
All of the above
Tension, compression
Pendulum and drop
impact
Fracture mechanics
tests
Fracture mechanics
tests
Dilatometer
DSC, DMTA
g
G, cij (GPa)
Sij (m2 N 1)
nij
gf (J m 2)
Tg (K)
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supply chain. DES is widely used for the design of systems. DES
allows the dynamics of complex manufacturing systems to be
veried without physical implementation. Simulation is identied
as the second most widely used technique in the eld of operations
management after modelling [221]. DES utilises a multi-state
mathematical model of the system where events happen in a
chronological sequence, are instantaneous and change the state of
the system [222].
DES environments with 3D capabilities have been developed
leading to the concept of the digital factory [224]. The results
from continuing research into the eld of DES have been
implemented in industry to the extent where almost every major
manufacturing enterprise uses this technique to verify facility
conguration, throughput times, material inventory issues and
logistics in the digital design phase, or to evaluate improvement
ideas before their physical deployment. Johansson et al. [225]
conducted a survey and reported the need to improve the
coherence and reliability of data provided via DES to enhance
their use by industry for verication and validation of activities.
7.2. RFID methods for the verication of production logistics
RFID technology uses tags for responding to radio frequency
(RF) signals by transmitting a constituent data, readers for sending
and receiving RF signals and software to process data. RFIDs have
seen rapid adoption in the manufacturing, service and logistics
industries and this section outlines the use of RFID technology for
system design verication and validation. RFID sensors are an
effective means of collecting and processing real-time data from
manufactured parts, products, processes and resources, thus
creating a traceable, real-time view of the production system
and the supply chain, allowing the verication of production
schedules and logistics [226].
For modelling large/complex systems, DES systems require
modelling assumptions regarding the behaviour of elements of the
system (statistical distributions, etc) and the inputting of a large
amount of data. The quality of DES system output is a function of
the correctness of these assumptions and input data. The use of
RFIDs in conjunction with DES can dramatically improve the
quality of DES decision-making by the provision of veried input
data regarding key behaviours of the real system.
Due to the quality and quantity of real-time RFID data, there is
extensive potential to utilise such data for the active adaptation
and reconguration of a system as reported by Huang et al. [227]
and the creation of wireless kanbans with embedded RFIDs as
outlined by Zhang et al. [228]. RFID technology nds widespread
exploitation in supply chain management and logistics for
improving decision responsiveness and reducing supply chain
cost via the provision of veried data [229,230].
7.2.1. Managing information loss in product manufacture
Jun at al. proposed a framework for the utilisation of RFIDs in
the product lifecycle [231]. Here the main hypothesis is that during
the digital phases of design and planning, the data and knowledge
is usually captured and codied at acceptable levels using
commercial CAx systems. As product development transits from
the digital to physical phase the information ow become less and
less complete and the wideranging applications of RFIDs can
enhance the information capture and utilisation during product
manufacture, product service and recycling [231]. This ability can
arguably enhance the design of production systems and networks
and improve new product designs by the utilisation of service data.
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Fig. 23. The V model for the verication of complex engineering products (adapted from Refs. [20,240]).
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