Form 4 Science Chapter 2: Body Coordination

Body Coordination
Body coordination is a life process that involves harmonious functioning of
interrelated organs and parts in the body to produce a coordinated response
Two body systems that control and regulate coordination are:
o The nervous system
o The endocrine system
A stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. It
evokes a response.
Response is an action or movement as a result of a stimulus.
The nervous system handles fast and short responses which involve the
transmission of electrical impulses
The Human Nervous System
The human nervous system can be divided into:
o The central nervous system (CNS) which consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
o The peripheral nervous system (PNS) which consists of cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.

A neuron is a nerve cell which is the basic functional unit of the nervous
system
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

 The brain is an organ that is the center of control and coordination in the
nervous system
The spinal cord controls reflex action
The peripheral nervous system is the network of nerves which connect the
central nervous system with other parts of the body.
Cranial nerves composed of 12 pairs of nerves which originate from the brain
and are connected to sense organs in the head and neck, and also to
effectors such as the muscles or glands in the body cavity.
Spinal nerves are composed of 31 pairs of nerves which originate from spinal
cord and are connected to sense organs and effectors in the whole body
including hands and legs.

Neurons
A neuron is a nerve cell. It is the basic functional unit of the nervous system
The cell body contains many projections
o Dendrons - projections from the cytoplasm that point outward from the
cell body
o Dendrites - smaller projections that branch from Dendrons or axons
o Axons - another type of projection
Dendrons and dendrites receive messages from other cells and transmit the
message to the cell body
Axons conduct messages away from the cell body
Some axons in certain neurons are covered by myelin sheath. The sheath
breaks up at intervals along the dendrons or axons. This enables impulses to
jump from one node to another, shortening the time impulses travel along
the surface of the axons or dendrons.
Besides this, the myelin sheath is important because:
o It acts as an electrical insulator
o it is a source of food for axons and dendrons
o it also protects axons and dendrons from physical injury.
Types of neurons
There
o
o
o

are three types of neurons

sensory neurons
motor neurons
interneurons (relay neurons)

Nervous Coordination
Receptors and effectors
Any changes which occur inside and outside of the human body are known as
stimuli
Receptors are sensory cells that detect and receive stimuli and turn them into
electrical impulses
Effectors are muscles or glands which produce responses due to stimuli. They
respond to stimuli by:
o contraction
o gland secretion
Figure below shows how the human nervous system works

Nerve Impulses
are messages conveyed along the nerve in the form of weak electrical pulse
An impulse moves only in one direction as shown in figure.

Impulses move in one direction

Reflex action
A reflex action is a rapid, automatic unlearned response to a stimulus. This
action is involuntary and cannot be controlled by the brain
A reflex action does not require conscious thought or decision by the brain
The components involved in a reflex action are:
o The receptors
o The effectors
o Sensory neurons
o Relay neurons
o Motor neurons
Reflex arc
A reflex arc is a sequence of pathways taken by the impulses from receptors
to effectors in a reflex action
The pathway of impulses in a reflex arc are as follow:

Proprioceptors
Proprioceptors are sense organs which are connected to sensory neurons.
Humans are able to determine the position of their legs, arms, head and
other parts, along with the orientation of the body as a whole with this type of
receptors
Proprioceptors are found in all skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and
joints. They provide information to the brain regarding adjustment in posture
and movement. Therefore, adjustments may be made to maintain body
posture or to carry out a particular body movement.
Kinesthesis
Kinesthesis is the ability to sense the position, location, orientation and
movement of the body and its part without looking at ourselves.

The Human Brain and Its Complexity

Structure of the brain

The human brain is the most complex organs in the human body. It is also the
most complex brain among all mammals.
The brain is the center that controls and coordinates our responses as shown
in above

The human brain has an external layer which is white in color.

o The grey-colored layer is made up of closely packed neuron cell bodies
which form the grey matter of the brain
o The white-colored layer is made up of nerve fibers which form the
white matter of the brain
The human brain can be divided into three main parts:
o Cerebrum
o Cerebellum
o Medulla oblongata

Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain.It makes up about 80%
of the mass of the human brain.
The cerebrum can be divided into two hemispheres.
o Right hemisphere
o Left hemisphere
Nerve impulses from the left side of the body will be received by the right
hemisphere whereas nerve impulses from the right side of the body will be
received by the left hemisphere
Functions of the cerebrum are:
o It controls voluntary and highest intellectual functions such as thinking,
learning and problem solving.
o It regulates emotion and memory through the limbic system.
o It controls human behavior.
o Receives and interprets impulses from sensory organs
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located below and behind the cerebrum
The function of the cerebellum are:
o Controlling and maintaining posture and balance of the body
o Controlling and coordinating muscular activities
Medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the lower most portion of the brain and is continuos with
the spinal cord.It is the smallest component of the brain
Medulla oblongata relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal cord.

 Medulla oblongata controls automatic functions

Voluntary and involuntary actions
Human respond to a stimulus through voluntary actions and involuntary
actions

Effect of injuries to specific parts of the human brain

Hormonal Coordination in the Body

Hormones
are chemicals secreted by endocrine glands. Hormone produced are secreted
directly into the bloodstream and carried by blood to tissues or organs
without the need of any ducts. They are usually secreted is small amounts
The hormones have a specific effect only on the tissue or an organ designed
to receive its message .This tissue or organ is called target tissue or target
organ. This is because only this specific tissue or organ will respond to them.
Important roles of hormones are:
o Causing physical and physiological changes.
o Controlling the rate of body process
o Influencing growth

The endocrine system

Chemical coordination involves the endocrine glands and their secretion
Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and their secretion
Endocrine glands do not have ducts. Thus it is also called ductless glands.

Pituitary gland
is located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus
The anterior lobe regulates the activity of several glands. Among these are
thyroid, adrenals and reproductive glands.
It produces hormones such as:
o Corticotrophin - stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain
hormones.
o Growth hormone - stimulates the growth of bones, muscles and other
body organs. Plays a role in the handling of nutrients and minerals in
the human body.
o Prolactin - promotes the development of glandular tissue in the female
breast during pregnancy. Stimulates milk production in women who are
breastfeeding.
o Thyrotropin - stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin
hormones.
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormones
(ADH).This hormone acts on the kidneys to regulate water content and write
output. Oxytocin is also released by the posterior lobe. Oxytocin triggers the
contraction of the uterus during labour. It also stimulates the ejection of milk
from the lactating breast.
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located in the front of the lower neck.
Hormone thyroxin produced by the thyroid gland has the following functions:
o Controls metabolic rate
o Controls skeletal growth
o Controls mental development
Pancreas
Pancreas produces two important hormones
o Insulin - insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by stimulating
the conversion of glucose into glycogen in the liver.
o Glucagon - glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by
stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Insulin and glucagon work together to maintain a steady level of glucose in
the blood. This is important to produce and maintain stores of energy.
Adrenal gland
is located on top of each kidney.
The adrenal glands have two parts; the internal part is the adrenal cortex and
the inner part is name adrenal medulla

 Adrenal cortex produces hormones called corticosteroids.Corticosteroids

influence or regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's response
to stress,metanolism,the immune system and sexual development abd
function.
Adrenal medulla produces catecholamines such as adrenaline.
Ovary
are located in the female reproductive system
Ovaries produce two groups of female sex hormones.
o Estrogen
o Progesterone
Estrogen is involved in the development of secondary sexual characteristics
in female such as:
o The development of breasts
o The accumulation of body fat around the hips and thighs.
o Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina.
Progesterone prepare the uterus lining for pregnancy
Testis
is located in the male reproductive system
testis secretes hormones called androgens
The most important androgen hormone is testosterone.
Coordination between the Nervous System and the Endocrine System
The two types of coordination work together at certain times. The human digestive
system is a good example. When food is served, the mouth will start to salivate and
this response is coordinated by the nervous system. Gastrin a type of hormone is
secreted when the half-digested food goes into the stomach. Gastrin causes the
stomach wall to produce hydrochloric acid and other enzymes to carry out further
digestion.

Effects of Drug Abuse on Body Coordination and Health

Definition of drugs
Drugs are chemical or biological substances which affect the function of the nervous
system, especially the brain, causing changes in behavior and personality. They
change the way the body works.
Types of drugs
The four main types of drugs are:
o Stimulants
o Depressants
o Hallucinogens
o Opiates

Drug abuse
is the misuse or overuse of any medication or drug
Reasons of drug abuse include:
o use drugs because they are thrill-seekers
o use drugs out of curiosity or because their friends do it
o use drugs in order to cope with unpleasant emotions and difficulties in
life

Effects of Excessive Consumption of Alcohol on Body Coordination and

Health
Ethanol commonly known as alcohol is found in most alcoholic drinks. It is a
strong psychoactive substance with a depressing effect.
Ethanol is produced in a process call fermentation. Fermentation is a process
that uses yeast or bacteria to change the glucose in the food into ethanol.

Yeast + glucose > ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy

Effect of excessive consumption of alcohol on body coordination
Alcohol is a depressant. This means it slows down the function of the central
nervous system.
When alcohol is consumed, it is absorbed into the bloodstream rapidly and
travels around the body to the brain.
Effect of excessive consumption
Alcohol is broken down into acetaldehyde by the enzyme, alcohol
dehydrogenase in the liver. The acetaldehyde is then broken down into acetic
acid by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Next acetic acid is
converted into fats or carbon dioxide and water. Fatty acids build up as
plaques in the capillaries around liver cells. Liver cells begin to die. This leads
to the liver disease called cirrhosis. As we know the liver is damaged, certain
toxins buildup. This leads to symptoms of jaundice.
Foetal alcohol syndrome is another one consequence of excessive
consumption of alcohol use.
o A fetus is fed through the placenta inside the mother. Since alcohol
passes easily through the placenta, the developing fetus gets a
dose of alcohol when the mother drinks alcohol.