Holiyan S Suresh

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION
Learning objectives:
Animal Form and Function
1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy is the biological form of an animal.
Physiology is the biological function of the animal.
2. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
Physical laws that constrain animal form by influencing
animal body plan with regard to maximum size, and limit
range of animal forms.
3. Use examples to illustrate how the size and shape of an animals
body affect its interactions with the environment.
As bodies increase in size the muscles required for
locomotion must represent an even larger fraction of total
body mass.
For shape. Any bump on an animals body surface causes drag
impeded a swimmer more than it would a runner or flyer.
Aminals share a streamlined body contour, a shape that is
fusiform (tapered on both sides).
4. Describe the challenges and benefits that come with complex
animal form.
Challenges of exchange with the environment such as.
Complex animal form has smaller surface area to volume
ratio. The cells must have access t oxygen, nutrients, and
other resources. This occurs when extensively branched or
folded surfaces enable exchange with the environment. Must
include a circulatory fluid. Exchange btw intestinal fluid
and circulatory fluid help the cells to obtain nutrients and get
rid of wastes.
Benefits: external skeleton for protection, sensory organs
that warns about their environment, contolling the release of
stored energy by breaking food gradually. Specialized
filtration systems that adjust internal fluids that bathes
animals body cells. Altogether, help maintain an stable
internal environment.
5. Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system. Name the four
main categories of tissues.
Tissue groups of cells that looks the same and have a
common function. Organ is different tissues organized into
functional units. Organ system, group of organs that work

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together and provide additional level of organization and

coordination.
Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and
reticular fibers.
Collagenous fiber provide strength combined with flexibility.
Not elastic, and dont easily tear.
Elastic fiber are easily strength but are resilent, snapping
back to their orginal length when tension is released. Shaped
long threads.
Reticular fibers, are very thin and branched. Has collogen
and is continuous with collagenous fibers. Hence it forms a
tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent
tissues.
Describe the functions of macrophages and fibroblasts within
connective tissue.
Fibroblast secrete protein ingridients of extracellular fibers.
Macrophages are cells that roam the maze of fibers, and
engulfs foreign particles and the debris of dead cells by
phagocytosis.
From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following
animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to their
functions, and note examples of each type.
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue
i. Loose connective tissue
ii. Cartilage
iii. Fibrous connective tissue
iv. Adipose tissue
v. Blood
vi. Bone
c. Muscle tissue
i. Skeletal muscle
ii. Cardiac muscle
iii. Smooth muscle
d. Nervous tissue
i. Neuron
ii. Glial cell
Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems with
respect to specificity of target cells and speed and duration of
response.
Endocrine system signal molecules release into the
bloodstream by endocrine cells reach all location in the body.
Hormones are signaling moelcules the move thought out the
body by endocrine system. Different harmoes have different
effects and each cell have receptors for a particular hormone

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to respond. (cells can also represent more that one receptor

types). Hormones are slow acting, and often their effects are
long lasting.
In the nervous system, a signal is not moved throughout the
entire body, rather each signal called nerve impulse travels
to a target cell along a dedicated communication line that
has neuron extensions called axons. Tansmission is
extremely fast and nerve impulse only a fraction of a second.

Regulating the Internal Environment

10. Distinguish between regulators and conformers for a particular
environmental variable. Explain how an animal may be both a
regulator and a conformer.
Regulator uses internal control mechansism to regulate
internal change when external fluctuation arises.
Conformer, if it allows its internal condition to conform to
external changes in the cariable.
An animal can be regulator and conformer by regulating
internal conditions while allowing others to conform to the
environment.
11. Define homeostasis. Describe in general terms how an animal
maintains homeostasis.
Homeostasis is when the body temperature are in a steady
state or internal balance.
Animal maintains homeostasis by maintain a relatively
constant internal environment even when the external
environment changes.
12. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
Which type of mechanism contributes to homeostasis?
Negative feedback is a response that reduces or damps the
stimulus. This contributes to homeostasis.
Positive feedback triggers mechanism that amplifies rather
than diminish the stimulus.
13. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how
endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets.
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain
an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
Endothermic, warmed mostly by heat generated by
metabolism.
Ectothermic, gain heat from external sources.
14. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat
with their environment.

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Insulation, circulatory adaptations, cooling by evaporative

heat loss, adjusting metabolic heat production.
15. Discuss the role of hair, feathers, and adipose tissue in
insulation.
Traps a thicker layer of air, repel water. Plays a role in
thermoregulation. By allowing the animal to live in a place
below its body temperature.
16. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying
the transfer of body heat with the environment.
Vasodilation is an increase in the diameter of superficial
blood vessel. Hence it warms the skin and increases transfer
of body heat to the environment by radiation, conduction and
convection.
Vasoconstriction reduces blood flow and heat transfer by
deacrsing the diameter of superficial vessels. Avoid
overheating.
17. Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may
function to retain heat within an animal body.
Concurrent heat exchange, the flow of adjacent fluids in
opposing direction that maximizes transfer rates of heat or
solutes.
18. Describe animal adaptations to augment evaporative cooling.
Sweating or bathing moistens the skin and enhances
evaporative cooling.
19. Describe thermoregulatory mechanisms utilized by endothermic
invertebrates.

20. Explain the mechanisms by which endotherms may increase

their metabolic heat production.
21. Explain how ectotherms and endotherms may acclimatize to
changing environmental temperatures.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
22. Define bioenergetics.

The overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal.

Determines nutritional needs and is related to an animals
size, activity and environment.
23. Describe the basic sources of chemical energy and their fate in
animal cells.
Chemical energy is obtained by eating other organism. It eat
to fuel metabolism and activity.
24. Define biosynthesis.
Needed for body growth and repair, synthesis of storage
material such as fat, and production of gametes.
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25. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for
animals.
Metabolic rate is the amount of energy the animal uses in a
unit of time which is the sum of all the energy requiring
biochemical reactions over a given time interval.
By using calorimeter, measuring the amount of oxygen
consumed or carbon dioxide produced by an animals cellular
respiration. Also for longer periods, record the rate of food
consumption, the energy content of the food and the
chemical energy lost in waste products.
26. Distinguish between basal metabolic rate (BMR) and standard
metabolic rate (SMR). Identify the broad categories of animals to
which each term applies.
BMR is the minimum metabolic rate of not growing
endotherm that is at rest, has an empty stomach and is not
experiencing stress.
SMR is the metabolic rate of a fasting, non-stressed ectoderm
at rest at a particular temperature.
27. State the equation that describes the relationship between
metabolic rate and body size. Describe a hypothesis to explain
this relationship.
28. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of small and
large endotherms differ.
29. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budgets of ectotherms
and endotherms of similar size differ.
30. Define torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.
Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and
metabolism decreases. This is an adaptation that enables
animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous
conditions.
Hibernation is long term torpor that is an adaptation to
winter cold and food scarcity.
Slow metabolism and inactivity of estivation, enables animals
to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce
water supplies.
Daily torpor, many small mammals and birds exhitit a daitly
torpor that seems to be adapted to deeding patterns.

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