Engineering 473

Mechanical Properties of
Ductile Metallic Materials

Lecture 1
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Mechanical Properties
(Static Strength Monotonic Elongation)
P
Sut
SFt
S yt
Set
Stress
lo
= P/A 0
e y
P
0.002
li l0
=
l0
(Static Strength Nomenclature)
Subscripts
y 0.2% offset yield
u ultimate
e elastic
F fracture
t tension
c compression
Syt & Sut are
generally given
in handbooks.
Sut
SFt
S yt
Set
Stress
= P/A 0
e y
0.002
li l0
=
l0
(True Stress & True Strain)
dl
d =
l
li
li
dl
= = ln
l
lo
lo
F
u
True Stress
Logarithmic Strain
True Stress
P
=
Ai
u
Logarithmic Strain
(Example Data)
True Stress-Logarithmic
Strain Curves for Several
Metallic Materials
H. Schwartzbart, W.F. Brown,

Jr., Notch-Bar Tensile
Properties of Various Materials
and their Relation to the Unnotch
Flow Curve and Notch
Sharpness, Trans. ASM, 46, 998,
1954.
(High Strain Rates)
Stress-Strain Curves for

Mild Steel at Room
Temperatures at Various
Rates of Strain
Manjoine, M.J., Influence of Rate of

Strain and Temperature on Yield Stresses
of Mild Steel, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 11(A):211-218, December
1944.
(High Strain Rates & High Temperatures)
Experimental Data for

6061-T6 Aluminum
Hoge, K.G., Influence of Strain

Rate on Mechanical Properties of
6061-T6 Aluminum under
Uniaxial and Biaxial States of
Stress, Experimental Mechanics,
6:204-211, April 1966.
(Monotonic Compression)
P
li l0
=
l0
y e
0.002
Stress
lo
= P/A 0
Sec
S yc
Suc
P
(Work Hardening or Cold Working)
Syt
Syt
(Reverse Loading)
Bauschingers Effect
Yield stress in compression
may decrease after an initial
load application past the
tension yield point.
This phenomena is
an important topic in
plasticity theory.
Monotonic
Compression Curve
(Stress Controlled Cyclic Loading)
Materials can demonstrate three
characteristics: 1) cyclic hardening, 2)
cyclic softening, and 3) cyclic strain
accumulation (ratcheting).
Skrzypek, J.J., Plasticity and Creep:

Theory, Examples, and Problems, CRC
Press, 1993, 130.
(Strain Controlled Cyclic Loading)
Materials can demonstrate
two characteristics: 1) cyclic
hardening and 2) cyclic
softening.
Skrzypek, J.J., Plasticity and Creep:

Theory, Examples, and Problems, CRC
Press, 1993, 130.
(Creep)
Creep is most
pronounced at high
temperatures. It may
also occur at room
temperatures when
the stress level is
close to the yield
strength.
, T
Failure strain
time
Primary Secondary
Creep
Creep
Tertiary
Creep
Typical curves obtained from constant stress/temperature tests.
Summary
The strength of ductile metallic materials is
dependent on several parameters.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Load Direction (Tensile or Compressive)

Strain Rate (Slow or Fast)
Temperature (Hot or Cold)
Load History (Monotonic or Cyclic)
Fabrication Process (Next Class)
Metals are complex materials when used throughout

their total response envelope.
Fortunately their elastic properties are most
commonly used.
Assignment
Read pages 25-34 in Mott.
Influence of Fabrication
Processes on the Strength of
Metals
Lecture 2
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Things that Affect Metal Strength

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Load Direction (Tensile or Compressive)

Strain Rate
(Slow or Fast)
Temperature
(Hot or Cold)
Load History
(Monotonic or Cyclic)
Fabrication Process
Common Fabrication Processes

Casting
Sand Casting
Investment Casting
Shell Molding
Powder-Metallurgy
Hot-working
Hot rolling
Extrusion
Forging
Cold-working
Heading
Roll threading
Spinning
Stamping
Heat Treatment
Annealing
Quenching
Tempering
Case Hardening
Hot Working
Hot working of metals is done for two reasons
1. Plastically mold the metal into the
desired shape
2. Improve the properties of the metal as
compared to the as-cast condition
Microstructure Changes due to Hot

Rolling
Large coarse
grain structure
Smaller grains
The granular structure of the material

is changed during hot rolling.
Allen, Fig. 16-14
Hot Working Temperatures

Material
Aluminum
Aluminum Alloys
Beryllium
Brass
Cooper
High Speed Steels
Inconel
Magnesium Alloys
Monel
Nickel
Refractory Metals & Alloys
Steel: Carbon
Low Alloy
Stainless
Titanium
Zinc Alloys
Temperature Range (oF)

650-900
750-900
700-1300
1200-1475
1200-1650
1900-2200
1850-2350
400-750
1850-2150
1600-2300
1800-3000
1900-2400
1800-2300
1900-2200
1400-1800
425-550
Allen, Table 16-1
Example of Microstructure Changes

Low carbon cast steel
(A) As cast (dendritic structure)
(B) After hot rolling (reduced grain size)
(C) After temper rolling (elongated
grains) Directional Properties
Allen, Fig, 16-18.
Beneficial Effects of Hot Rolling

Typical defects in cast metals which
are minimized in hot worked metals
1. Large grain size (due to slow cooling)
2. Porosity (voids due to shrinkage)
3. Blow holes (due to gas evolution during
solidification)
4. Segregation (due to limited solubility in the solid
state)
5. Dirt and slag inclusions
6. Poor surface condition (due to oxides and scale)
The strength of hot rolled metals is higher than cast metals.
Allen, pg 508.
Forging
A hot working process

Metal flows under high
compressive stresses
May be used with or
without die cavity to
obtain a specific shape
A blacksmith uses a hammer and

an anvil to forge metallic parts.
Forged Workpiece
The curvature on the

sides of a forged
product is due to
friction between the
ram and the workpiece.
Allen, Fig. 16-19
Directional Nature of Forged Material

Properties
Flow lines in upset forging of 1.5 dia. AISI 1045

steel specimen at 1800 oF.
Flow lines are caused by the elongation of
slag particles or non-metallic inclusions.
Allen, Fig. 16-23
Strength of Forged Materials

Forged products generally have substantially
higher strength properties than cast products.
Cast products have material properties that are
approximately the same in all directions (isotropic).
Forged products have material properties that are
different in each direction. Transverse properties are
significantly less than the longitudinal direction
(orthotropic or anisotropic)
Extrusion
Allen, Fig. 16-25
Example of Extruded Aluminum

Cross Sections
Allen, Fig. 16-24
Directional Nature of Extrusion

Material Properties
Flow Lines in Extruded Section
Allen, Figs 16-26 and 16-27
Extrusion Conditions for Typical

Metals
Allen, Table 16-2
Strength of Extruded Materials

High degree of grain flow in the direction
parallel to the axis of extrusion.
High strength properties in the direction
parallel to the axis of extrusion.
Lower strength properties in the direction
transverse to the axis of extrusion.
Spinning
Conventional Spin Forming
Shear Spin Forming
(No change in material thickness)
(Significant material thickness changes)
Used to produce rocket motor casings and missile nose cones.

Allen, Fig. 16-43
Directional Nature of Spin Formed

Material Properties
Grid Flow Lines in Shear Spun Copper Cone

Allen, Fig. 16-44
Effect of Cold Working on

Microstructure
Grain boundaries in
3003 aluminum alloy.
Strength of Spin Formed Materials
Spin formed products have increased strength in the

longitudinal direction
Strength properties in the transverse direction (through
thickness) may be significantly different.
Heat Treatment
Heat Treating
Processes
Annealing
Quenching
Tempering
Case Hardening
Annealing
Heat treating operation used to:
1) Refine the grain structure,
2) Relieve residual stresses,
3) Increase ductility.
Annealing Effects
Recrystallization
The growth of new stress-free
equiaxed crystals in cold worked
materials. Occurs after a
critical (recrystallization)
temperature is reached.
Equiaxed Crystals
Have equivalent dimensions
in all directions (i.e. not
longer in one direction)
Flinn, Fig. 3-19
Fabrication Processes Summary

Hot and cold working fabrication processes
have significant influence on the materials
strength.
Cast materials generally have uniform or
isotropic material strength.
Cold and hot worked materials generally have
higher strengths. Strength properties are dependent
on direction (orthotropic or anisotropic)
Standard practice is to obtain/verify material
properties from sample product in the direction
of highest stress/strain.
Fabrication Processes Summary

(Continued)
Annealing may be used on hot and cold worked materials
to obtain uniform properties and to relieve fabrication
induced stresses.
Heat treating may be performed to obtain strength
properties and characteristics higher than the annealed
state.
Summary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Load Direction
Strain Rate
Temperature
Load History
Fabrication Process
(Tensile or Compressive)
(Slow or Fast)
(Hot or Cold)
(Monotonic or Cyclic)
(Hot or cold working
and/or heat treatment)
Assignment
Read pages 35-51
Stress at a Point
Lecture 3
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Purpose
The stress state at critical locations in a machine
component is required to evaluate whether the
component will satisfy strength design
requirements.
The purpose of this class is to review the concepts
and equations used to evaluate the state of stress at
a point.
2D Cartesian Stress
Components
yy
yx
Notation
xy
xx
xx
xy
Normal Stress
Shear Stress
xy
yx
yy
Face
Direction
Moment equilibrium requires that

X
xy = yx
Tensor Sign Convention
yx
xy
Negative
Face
Positive
Face
xx
Negative
Face
Positive
Face
yx
yy
xy
This sign convention must be

used to satisfy the differential
equilibrium equations and
tensor transformation
relationships.
xx
Stresses acting in a positive

coordinate direction on a positive
face are positive.
Shear stresses acting in the
negative coordinate direction on a
negative face are positive.
2D Mohrs Circle
Sign Convention
xy
yx
xx
xx
xy
yx
yy
The sign convention used

with the 2D Mohrs circle
equations is slightly
different.
A positive shear stress is
one that tends to create
clockwise (CW) rotation.
2D Mohrs Circle
(Transformation of Axis)
xy
xx
ds
dx
dy
yx
=
All equations for a 2-D

Mohrs Circle are
derived from this figure.
x
yy
xx + yy
xx yy
2
xx yy
2
F in the x- and ydirections yields the

transformation-of-axis
equations
cos(2 ) + xysin (2 )
sin (2 ) + xycos(2 )
2D Mohrs Circle
(Principal Stress Equations)
The transformation-of-axis equations can be used to

find planes for which the normal and shear stress are
the largest.
1 , 2 =
xx + yy
2
xx yy
+ 2xy

2
xx yy
+ 2xy
1 , 2 =
2
We will use these equations extensively during this class.
2D Mohrs Circle
(Graphical Representation)
1 , 2 =
xx + yy
2
yy
+ 2xy
xx
2
yy
+ 2xy
1 , 2 = xx
2
Note that the shear

stress acting on the
plane associated with
a principal stress is
always zero.
Shigley, Fig. 3.3
Comments on Shear Stress

Sign Convention
1 , 2 =
yx
xy
xx
xx
xy
yy
+ 2xy
xx
2
yy
+ 2xy
1 , 2 = xx
2
Tensor
yx
The sign convention is

important when the
transformation-of-axis
equations are used.
yy
xy
xx
yx
xx
xx + yy
yx
yy
xy
2D Mohrs
Circle
The same answer is obtained

when computing the principal
stress components.
3D Stress Components
yy
yx
zy
zz
y
j
z
i
k
xy
zx xz
Note that the tensor

sign convention is
used.
xx
There are nine

components of stress.
Moment equilibrium
can be used to reduce
the number of stress
components to six.
xy = yx
x
xz = zx
yz = zy
Cauchy Stress Tensor

Tensor Transformation
Equation
xx
= yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xz
yz
zz
Tensor Transformation
Equation
mn = mi ij jn
is known as the Cauchy stress
tensor. Its Cartesian components

are shown written in matrix form.
Tensors are quantities that are
invariant to a coordinate
transformation.
A vector is an example of a first
order tensor. It can be written with
respect to many different
coordinate systems.
B
xy
xx
zx
yy
n = li + mj + nk
H
T
H
T
zz
Cauchy Formula
xz P zy
yz C
yx
A
z
n
P
F in the x,y,and z directions

yields the Cauchy Stress
Formula.
xx
yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xz l Tx

yz m = Ty
zz n Tz
This equation is similar to the

Mohrs circle transformationof-axis equation
3D Principal Stresses
xx
yx
zx
xx
yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xy
yy
zy
( xx )
yx
zx
xz l Tx

yz m = Ty
zz n Tz
The shear stress on planes

normal to the principal
stress directions are zero.
xz l
l

yz m = m
n
zz n

We need to find the plane in

which the stress is in the
direction of the outward unit
normal.
xy
yy
zy
l 0

m = 0
( zz ) n 0
xz
yz
This is a
homogeneous
linear equation.
(Eigenvalue Problem)
( xx )
yx
zx
( xx )
yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xy
yy
zy
l 0

yz m = 0
( zz ) n 0
xz
xz
yz = 0
( zz )
A homogeneous linear
equation has a solution
only if the determinant of
the coefficient matrix is
equal to zero.
This is an eigenvalue
problem.
(Characteristic Equation)
( xx )
yx
zx
xy
yy
zy
xz
yz = 0
( zz )
3 I1 2 + I 2 I3 = 0
The determinant can be

expanded to yield the
equation
I1, I2, and I3 are known as
the first, second, and third
invariants of the Cauchy
stress tensor.
I1 = xx + yy + zz
I 2 = xx yy + yy zz + zz xx 2xy 2yz 2zx
I3 = xx yy zz + 2 xy yz zx xx 2yz yy 2zx zz 2xy
Characteristic Equation
3 I1 2 + I 2 I3 = 0
There are three roots to the

characteristic equation, 1,
2, and 3.
Each root is one of the
principal stresses.
The direction cosines

define the principal
directions or planes.
The direction cosines can be

found by substituting the
principal stresses into the
homogeneous equation and
solving.
3D Mohrs Circles
1,3
1,2
2,3
3
Note that the principal

stresses have been ordered
such that 1 2 3 .
1
Maximum shear stresses
1 2
1,2 =
2
2 3
2,3 =
2
1 3
1,3 =
2
Octahedral Stresses
1
1
1
oct = I1 = (1 + 2 +3 ) = ( xx + yy + zz )
3
3
3
1
2 2
2
2
oct = 1,2 + 2,3 + 1,3 2
3
1
1
2
2
2 2
= (1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + (3 1 )
3
1 ( xx yy ) + ( yy zz ) + ( zz xx )
=
3 + 6 2xy + 2yz + 2xz
Note that there eight corner planes in a cube.

Hence the name octahedral stress.
Assignment
Read chapter 4 Covers Mohrs Circle in detail.
Draw a Mohrs circle diagram properly labeled, find the principal normal and
maximum shear stresses, and determine the angle from from the x axis to 1.
xx=12 ksi, yy=6 ksi, xy=4 ksi cw.
Use the Mohrs circle formulas to compute the principal stresses and compare
to those found using the Mohrs circle graph.
Write the stress components given above as a Cauchy stress matrix. Use
MATLAB to compute the principal stresses. Compare the answers to those
found using Mohrs circle. Note that tensor notation is required.
Derive the Cauchy stress formula. Hint: Ax=A l, Ay=A m, Az=A n
Verify the that the terms in the 3D characteristic equation used to compute
the principal stresses are correct.
Steady Load Failure

Theories
Lecture 5
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Steady Load Failure Theories

Ductile
Materials
Uniaxial
Stress/Strain
Field
Maximum-Normal-Stress
Maximum-Normal-Strain
Maximum-Shear-Stress
Distortion-Energy
Shear-Energy
Von Mises-Hencky
Octahedral-Shear-Stress
Internal-Friction
Fracture Mechanics
Brittle
Materials
Multiaxial
Stress/Strain
Field
Many theories have been put forth some agree

reasonably well with test data, some do not.
The Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory

Postulate: Failure occurs when one of the three
principal stresses equals the strength.
1, 2, and 3 are
principal stresses
1 > 2 > 3
Failure occurs when either
1 = St
Tension
St Strength in Tension
Sc Strength in Compression
3 = Sc
Compression
Maximum-Normal-Stress Failure
Surface
(Biaxial Condition)
locus of failure states
St
2
1
- Sc
St
- Sc
According to the
Theory, as long as stress
state falls within the box,
the material will not fail.
Maximum-Normal-Stress Failure
Surface
(Three-dimensional Case)
2
~
St
~
- Sc
According to the
Theory, as long as stress
state falls within the box,
the material will not fail.
The Maximum-Normal-Strain
Theory
(Saint-Venants Theory)
Postulate: Yielding occurs when the largest of the
three principal strains becomes equal to the
strain corresponding to the yield strength.
E1 = 1 ( 2 + 3 ) = S y
E 2 = 2 (1 + 3 ) = S y
E 3 = 3 (1 + 2 ) = S y
E Young' s Modulus
Poisson' s Ratio
Maximum-Normal-Strain Theory
(Biaxial Condition)
locus of failure states
1 2 = S y
Sy
2 1 = S y
Sy
1
- Sy
- Sy
As long as the stress

state falls within the
polygon, the material
will not yield.
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
(Tresca Criterion)
Postulate: Yielding begins whenever the maximum shear
stress in a part becomes equal to the maximum
shear stress in a tension test specimen that
begins to yield.
1 > 2 > 3
1/3 = max
1/2
2/3
3
y
1 = S y
Stress State in Part
2 , 3
Tensile Test Specimen
(Continued)
Tensile Test Specimen
Ss = 0.5Sy
The shear yield strength
is equal to one-half of the
tension yield strength.
max
= Ss
1 = S y
2 , 3
(Continued)
Stress State in Part
1/3 = max
1/2
2/3
3
1 > 2 > 3
1 2
1/2 =
2
2 3
2/3 =
2
1 3
1/3 = max =
2
(Continued)
Ss =
1/3 = max
Sy
2
1 3
=
2
Sy = 1 3
From Mohrs circle for a

tensile test specimen
From Mohrs circle for a threedimensional stress state.
(Hydrostatic Effect)
Principal stresses will always
have a hydrostatic component
(equal pressure)
1 = d1 + h
2 = d2 + h
3 = d3 + h
h = 1 I1 = 1 (1 + 2 + 3 )
3
3
d => deviatoric component
h => hydrostatic
1d d2
1/2 =
2
d2 3d
2/3 =
2
d
d
1 3
1/3 =
2
The maximum shear
stresses are independent of
the hydrostatic stress.
(Hydrostatic Effect Continued)
Hydrostatic Stress State
If 1d = d2 = 3d
Then max = 0, and there
is no yielding regardless
of the magintude of the
hydrostati c stress.
The Maximum-Shear-Stress
Theory postulates that
yielding is independent of a
hydrostatic stress.
(Biaxial Representation of the Yield Surface)
Yielding will occur if
any of the following
criteria are met.
For biaxial case

(plane stress)
S y = 1 2
Sy = 1 2
Sy = 2 3
Sy = 2
S y = 1 3
Sy = 1
3 = 0
In general, all three conditions must be checked.
(Biaxial Representation of the Yield Surface)
For biaxial case

(plane stress)
Sy
II
3 = 0
Sy = 1 2
Sy = 2
Sy = 1
locus of
failure states
I
- Sy
Sy
III
IV
- Sy
Note that in the I and III quadrants the Maximum-ShearStress Theory and Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory are
the same for the biaxial case.
(Three-dimensional Representation of the Yield Surface)
failure surface
Hamrock, Fig. 6.9
Assignment
Failure Theories, Read Section 5-9.
(a) Find the bending and transverse shear stress at points A
and B in the figure. (b) Find the maximum normal stress
and maximum shear stress at both points. (c) For a yield
point of 50,000 psi, find the factor of safety based on the
maximum normal stress theory and the maximum shear
stress theory.
Stress Concentration Factors and

Notch Sensitivity
Lecture 4
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Photoelasticity
Photoelasticity is a visual method for viewing the

full field stress distribution in a photoelastic
material.
www.measurementsgroup.com
Photoelasticity
(Continued)
When a photoelastic material is strained and viewed with

a polariscope, distinctive colored fringe patterns are
seen. Interpretation of the pattern reveals the overall
strain distribution.
Components of a Polariscope
Vishay Lecture-Aid Series, LA-101
Radiometric Thermoelasticity
Automobile
Connecting Rod
Hook and Clevis
Crack Tip
When materials are stressed the change in atomic spacing

creates temperature differences in the material. Cameras
which sense differences in temperature can be used to
display the stress field in special materials.
www.stressphotonics.com
Stress Distributions Around

Geometric Discontinuities
Photoelastic fringes in anotched

beam loaded in bending.
Photoelastic fringes in a narrow

plate with hole loaded in tension.
Deutschman, Fig. 5-3
Effect of Discontinuity Geometry
The discontinuity geometry has a significant effect on

the stress distribution around it.
Vishay Lecture-Aid Series, LA-101
Geometric Stress Concentration

Factors
max
Kt =
nom
nom
F
=
A0
A 0 = (w d )t
Geometric stress concentration factors can
be used to estimate the stress amplification
in the vicinity of a geometric discontinuity.
Shigley, Fig. 2-22

Factors
(Tension Example)
r
d
Spotts, Fig. 2-8, Peterson

Factors
(Bending Example)

Factors
(Torsion Example)

Factors
(Tension Example)

Factors
(Bending Example)

Factors
(Torsion Example)

Factors
(Summary)
K t is used to relate the maximum stress at
the discontinuity to the nominal stress.
K t is used for normal stresses
K ts is used for shear stresses
K t is based on the geometry of the discontinuity
nom is usually computed using the minimum cross section
Rotating Beam Fatigue Tests
Spotts, Fig. 2-25
Un-notched and Notched Fatigue

Specimens
Mc
= Kt
I
Comparisons of fatigue test results

for notched and un-notched
specimens revealed that a reduced Kt
was warranted for calculating the
fatigue life for many materials.
Mc
= Kf
I
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factors

Maximum stress in notched specimen
Kf =
Stress in notch - free specimen
or
Endurance limit of a notched specimen.
Kf =
Endurance limit of a notch - free specimen.
Notch Sensitivity Factor

The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure
of how sensitive a material is to notches or
geometric discontinuities.
Kf 1
q=
K t 1
K f = 1 + q(K t 1)
0 q 1
1 Kf Kt
Notch Sensitivity Factors

(Bending Example)
Shigley, Fig. 5-16
Notch Sensitivity Factors

(Torsion Example)
Shigley, Fig. 5-17
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factors

Kf is normally used in fatigue calculations
but is sometimes used with static stresses.
Convenient to think of Kf as a stress
concentration factor reduced from Kt
because of lessened sensitivity to notches.
If notch sensitivity data is not available, it is
conservative to use Kt in fatigue
calculations.
References
Deutschmann, A.D., W.J. Michels, C.E. Wilson, Machine
Design: Theory and Practice, Macmillan, New York, 1975.
Peterson, R.E., Design Factors for Stress Concentrations,
Parts 1 to 5, Machine Design, February-July, 1951.
Shigley, J.E., C.R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design,
5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1989.
Spotts, M.F., Design of Machine Elements, 7th Ed., Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 1998.
Assignment
1. Read Sections 3-21 and 3-22
2. Find the most critically stressed
location on the stepped shaft. Note
that you will need to use the stress
concentration factors contained in
the lecture notes.

(Distortion Energy Theory)
Lecture 6
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Distortion-Energy Theory
Postulate: Yielding will occur when the distortionenergy per unit volume equals the distortionenergy per unit volume in a uniaxial tension
specimen stressed to its yield strength.
Strain Energy
Strain Energy
The strain energy per unit
volume is given by the equation
1
1
1
U = 11 + 2 2 + 3 3
2
2
2
Units
[ ]
[U ] = lb in 2 [in in ] = lb in in 3
The strain energy in a tensile

test specimen is the area under
the stress-strain curve.
Strain Energy
(Elastic Stress-Strain Relationship)
An expression for the strain energy per unit
volume in terms of stress only can be obtained
by making use of the stress-strain relationship
Algebraic Format
1
1 = (1 2 3 )
E
1
2 = ( 2 1 3 )
E
1
3 = ( 3 1 2 )
E
Matrix Format
1 1
1
1

2 = 1 2
E 1
3
3
Strain Energy
(Stress Form of Equation)
1
1
1
U = 11 + 2 2 + 3 3
2
2
2
1 1
= 1 (1 2 3 )
2 E
1 1
+ 2 ( 2 1 3 )
2 E
1 1
+ 3 ( 3 1 2 )
2 E
1 2
U=
1 + 22 + 32 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
2E
Distortion and Hydrostatic

Contributions to Stress State
2
3
Principal Stresses
Acting on Principal
Planes
2 h
h
1 + 2 + 3
h =
3
1 h
3 h
Distortional Stresses
Hydrostatic Stress
The distortional stress components are often called the

deviatoric stress components.
Physical Significance
(Hydrostatic Component)
The hydrostatic stress causes a

change in the volume.
h
h
1 + 2 + 3
h =
3
The cube gets bigger in tension,

smaller in compression.
h = Ke
K Bulk Modulus
e volumetric strain
Physical Significance
(Distortional Stresses)
2 h
1 h
3 h
These unequal stresses act to

deform or distort the material
element.
There is no change in volume,
but there is a change in shape.
These stresses try to elongate
or compress the material more
in one direction than in
another.
Strain Energy Associated with the

Hydrostatic Stress
1 2
2
2
U=
1 + 2 + 3 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
2E
1 2
Uh =
h + 2h + 2h 2( h h + h h + h h )
2E
1
3 2h 6 2h
=
2E
This term is equal to the strain
3 (1 - 2 ) 2
energy per unit volume from the
Uh =
h
hydrostatic stress components.
2 E
Distortional Strain Energy

The distortional strain energy is equal to the difference between
the total strain energy and the hydrostatic strain energy.
Ud = U Uh
1 2
1 + 22 + 32 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
=
2E
2
3 (1 2 ) (1 + 2 + 3 )
2 E
9
1 2
1 + 22 + 32 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
=
2E
12 + 1 2 + 13
1 (1 2 ) 2
+ 2 + 1 2 + 23
2 3E 2
+ 3 + 1 3 + 23
Distortional Strain Energy

(Continued)
Ud = U Uh
1 2
=
1 + 22 + 32 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
2E
1 (1 2 ) 2
1 + 22 + 32 + 2(1 2 + 23 + 31 )
2 3E
1+ 2
Ud =
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
3E
Distortional Strain Energy in Tension

Test Specimen
Postulate: Yielding will occur when the distortionenergy per unit volume equals the distortionenergy per unit volume in a uniaxial tension
specimen stressed to its yield strength.
1+ 2
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
Ud =
3E
1+ 2
Ud =
Sy
3E
Hamrock, Fig. 3.1
Distortion Energy Failure Theory

Equating the distortional strain energy at the point under
consideration to the distortional strain energy in the tensile
test specimen at the yield point yields
1+ 2
Ud =
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
3E
1+ 2
=
Sy
3E
S2y = 12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
eff = Sy
eff = 12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
Alternate Forms of Effective Stress

eff = 12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
eff =
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
Form 1
Form 2
The effective stress is commonly referred

to as the von Mises stress, after Dr. R. von Mises
who contributed to the theory.
Plane Stress Condition

3 = 0
Sy
eff = 12 + 22 1 2
- Sy
eff =
(1 2 )2 + 22 + 12
2
Sy
- Sy
As long as the stress state falls within the shaded area,

the material will not yield.
The surface, blue line, at which the material just begins
to yield is called the yield surface.
3 = 1
Pure Shear Condition

Sy
1,3
2
3
- Sy
45 S
y
- Sy
Mohrs Circle
for Pure Shear
eff = 12 + 32 1 3
= 312 = 3 2max = Sy
This is an important result.
max = 0.577 Sy = Sys
Yield Surface in 3-D Stress State
Hamrock, Fig. 6.9
Other Names for Distortion

Energy Theory
eff =
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
2
1/3
People came up with the same
equation using different starting
points.
Shear Energy Theory
Von Mises-Hencky Theory
Octahedral-Shear-Stress Theory
1/2
2/3
3
1 > 2 > 3
Assignment
Show that the two forms of the equation for the effective stress
are equal.
Show that the effective stress for a hydrostatic stress state is
zero.
Compute the effective stress at the critical location in the
stepped shaft loaded in tension (previous assignment). The
yield strength of the material is 30 ksi. Will the material yield
at the critical location?
eff = 12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 31
eff =
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
2
Assignment
(Continued)
In the rear wheel suspension of the Volkswagen Beetle the spring motion was
provided by a torsion bar fastened to an arm on which the wheel was mounted.
See the figure for more details. The torque in the torsion bar was created by a
2500-N force acting on the wheel from the ground through a 300-mm lever
arm. Because of space limitations, the bearing holding the torsion bar was
situated 100-mm from the wheel shaft. The diameter of the torsion bar was 28mm. Find the von Mises stress in the torsion bar at the bearing.
Hamrock, Fig. 6.12

Comparison with Experimental
Data
Lecture 7
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Important Historical Studies of

Failure Theories
1864 Tresca developed Maximum Shear Stress
Theory while measuring loads required to
extrude metal through dies of various shapes.
1928 von Mises publishes the Maximum Distortion
Energy Theory
1926 Lode publishes comparison of Tresca and von
Mises Theories
1931 Repeat Lode experiments with better technique
Experimental Test Specimen
Thinned walled cylinder loaded with an internal

pressure, axial force, and a torsional moment.
Mendelson, Fig. 6.1.1
Lodes Data
Taylor and Quinney Data
Additional Test Results
Hamrock, Fig. 6-17
More Test Results
Dowling, Fig. 7-11
Conclusions
Both the Distortion Energy Theory and the Maximum
Shear Stress Theory provide reasonable estimates for the
onset of yielding in the case of static loading of ductile,
homogeneous, isotropic materials whose compressive and
tensile strengths are approximately the same.
Shear Stress Theory predict that the onset of yield is
independent of the hydrostatic stress. This agrees
reasonably well with experimental data for moderate
hydrostatic pressures.
Conclusions
(Continued)

Shear Stress Theory under predict the strength of brittle
materials loaded in compression. Brittle materials often have
much higher compressive strengths than tensile strengths.
The Distortion Energy Theory is slightly more accurate than
the Maximum Shear Stress Theory.
Theory The Distortion Energy
Theory is the yield criteria most often used in the study of
classical plasticity. Its continuous nature makes it more
mathematically amenable.
Industry Standards and Codes

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers base the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code on the Maximum Shear Stress Theory.
The American Institute of Steel Construction does not use either in the
Manual of Steel Construction. Buildings, bridges, etc. are dominated
by normal stresses and buckling type failures.
The American Society of Civil Engineers use the Distortion Energy
Theory in Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structures.
There is no single standard that applies to the design of machine
components. Standard industry practice is to use either the Distortion
Energy Theory or Maximum Shear Stress Theory with an appropriate
safety factor.
Failure Versus Yielding

The high stresses around stress concentration factors are often
very localized, and the local yielding will cause a
redistribution of stresses to adjacent material. In many cases
the local yielding will not cause a machine component to fail
under steady load conditions.
It is common to differentiate between local yielding and gross
yielding through the thickness of a member.
Local yielding may lead to early fatigue failure, and stress
concentration effects must always be considered in fatigue
calculations.
Internal Friction Theory

B
Sc
S
s
St
Postulate: For any stress state that creates a Mohrs circle

that is tangent to the line between points B&D,
the stresses and strengths are related by the
equation
1 3
= 1, where 1 > 2 > 3 .

S t Sc
Comparison with Maximum Shear

Stress Theory
Internal Friction Theory
1 3
= 1, where 1 > 2 > 3 .

S t Sc
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
S t = Sc
1 3
= 1, where 1 > 2 > 3 ,

S t Sc
1 3
=1
Sy
Note that the IFT is a

generalization of the
MSST. The MSST is
limited to materials in
which the tensile and
compressive yield
strengths are
approximately equal.
Plane Stress Condition

3
Sut
2 = 0
Suc
Sut
Suc
Whenever the stress state is within the
polygon, the material will not fail.
IFT
MSST
Comparison with Test Data
Colomb-Mohr
Theory is the IFT
Shigley, Fig. 6-28
Brittle Material Failure Summary

Brittle materials typically have significantly different
compressive and tensile strengths.
The Internal Friction Theory or Modified Internal
Friction Theory may be used to estimate the failure
state.
For some materials the Modified Internal Friction
Theory may provide a slightly more accurate
estimate.
Safety Factors
N = Safety Factor
eff 1
=
Sy
N
DET
1 3 1
=
=
St S t N
1st Quadrant IFT
1
= 3 =
- Sc - Sc N
3rd Quadrant IFT
1 3 1
=
S t Sc N
2nd Quadrant IFT
1 3 1
=
S t Sc N
4th Quadrant IFT
Reduced area of allowable

stress states.
Design Margins
eff 1
=
Sy
N
For a stress state to be

acceptable, the margin must be
positive.
S y - eff N = 0
Margin M =
eff N
M = 1
Sy
S y eff N
Sy
A negative margin indicates

that the design objective hasnt
been met.
Provides a measure of how
close a stress state is to the
design maximum.
Design Margins are reported for
all NASA projects.
Assignment
A hot-rolled bar has a minimum yield strength in tension
and compression of 44 kpsi. Find the factors of safety for
the MSST and DET failure theories for the following stress
states.
(a ) xx = 9 kpsi, yy = 5 kpsi
(b ) xx = 12 kpsi, xy = 3 kpsi ccw
(c) xx = 4 kpsi, yy = -9 kpsi, xy = 5 kpsi cw
(d ) xx = 11 kpsi, yy = 4 kpsi, xy = 1 kpsi cw
Assignment
(Continued)
This problem illustrates that the
factor of safety for a machine
element depends on the particular
point selected for analysis. You are
to compute factors of safety, based
upon the distortion-energy theory, for
stress elements at A and B of the
member shown in the figure. The bar
is made of AISI 1020 cold-drawn
steel and is loaded by the forces
F=0.55 kN, P=8.0 kN, and T=30 Nm.
Shigley, Problem 6-6
Assignment
(Continued)
The figure shows a crank loaded by a force F=300 lb which causes
twisting and bending of the 0.75 in diameter shaft fixed to a support
at the origin of the reference system. The material is hot-rolled
AISI 1020 steel. Using the maximum-shear-stress theory, find the
factor of safety based on the stress state at point A.
Shigley, Problem 6-8
Fracture Mechanics and Steady

Load Failure Theory Summary
Lecture 9
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Critical Crack Size
For a given crack size, there is a corresponding

stress that will cause the crack to propagate in a
catastrophic manner.
Non-destructive Testing
Testing methods exist that can detect cracks or flaws
in metallic parts without destroying them. These
methods are called non-destructive testing (NDT).
If the flaw size can be established in a part through NDT,
and the stress state at the location of the crack is known
through analysis or test, then an analysis can be
performed to determine if the crack is close to the critical
crack size for the particular stress state.
The combination of analysis to determine the stress state
and NDT to establish the maximum flaw size are critical
components of fracture prevention programs.
Fracture Mechanics Cases

(NDT Inspected Part)
Case 1:
1 The machine element is inspected and no
cracks are found.
All Nondestructive Testing (NDT) methods have a
minimum crack size that can be detected. In this case, the
crack length is taken to be the minimum detectable crack.
K IC
f =
Y a
Crack geometry
factor
Minimum
detectable
crack length

(Part has been tested)
Case 2:
2 The part is tested and does not fail under a
known load.
In this case, the crack size is assumed to be slightly
smaller than the critical crack size associated with the
stress state caused by the test load.
Possible crack size
1 K IC
a =
Y f
Stress caused by the test load

(Crack is detected)
Case 3:
3 The part is inspected and a crack is found.
The size of the crack is compared to the critical crack size
obtained from the following formula. The stress used is
that to be encountered during service.
a crit
1 K IC
=
Expected service stress
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Parts subjected to continuous static loads in certain corrosive
environments may, over a period of time, develop cracks.
This plot shows a reduction in KIC
over time due to stress-corrosion.
Shigley, Fig. 5-27
Non-destructive Testing
NDT is the examination of engineering materials with
technologies that do not affect the objects future usefulness.
Common NDT Methods

X-radiography
Magnetic particle
Ultrasonic
Liquid penetrant
Eddy current
Acoustic emission
X-radiography
Shackelford, Fig. 8-22.
Ultrasonic Testing
Schakelford, Fig. 8-23.
Summary of Steady Load

Failure Theories
Ductile Materials
Brittle Materials
Fracture Mechanics
Distortion Energy
(von Mises)
Maximum Normal
Stress
Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM)
Maximum Shear Stress

(Tresca)
Internal Friction
(Coulomb-Mohr)
Modified Internal
Friction
When do I apply these

failure theories?
Design Governed
by Industry
Design Standard
Follow formulas in standard.
Formulas can often be derived
based on a knowledge of the
failure theory incorporated in
the standard.
Factor of safety is included in
the standard.
Design Not Governed by

Industry Design
Standard
Choose a factor of safety
that the design is to be
based on.
Use appropriate failure
theory during the design of
machine elements.
Compute failure margins at
all critical locations.
Flow Chart for

Typical Analysis
Norton, Fig. 5-22
Material Failure Mechanisms

Ductile fracture failure that involves a significant amount of
plastic deformation prior to fracture
Brittle fracture failure without a significant amount of
macroscopic plastic deformation prior to
fracture.
Fatigue failure failure associated with slow crack growth due
to changing stress states.
Corrosion-fatigue failure failure due the combined actions of
changing stress and corrosive environments.
Stress-corrosion cracking failure in which a steady tensile stress
leads to the initiation and propagation of
fracture in a relatively mild chemical
environment.

(Continued)
Wear failure
broad range of relatively complex, surfacerelated damage phenomena.

Liquid-erosion failure type of wear failure in which liquid is
responsible for removal of material.
Liquid-metal embrittlement involves the material losing some
degree of ductility below its yield strength due
to its surface being wetted by a lower-meltingpoint liquid metal.
Hydrogen embrittlement notorious cause of catastrophic failure
in high strength steels exposed to hydrogen
environment which leads to lose of ductility
(few parts per million of hydrogen is enough).

Creep and stress rupture failures failure due to
continued strain growth under steady
load.
All of these mechanisms are associated with the
failure of the material. They do not include one
of the most important structural failure
mechanisms that must be considered in
compressive stress environments Buckling.
Buckling
Assignment
A high - strength steel has a yield strength of 1,460 Mpa and
a K IC of 98 Mpa m . Calculate the size of a surface crack that
will lead to catastrophic failure at an applied stress of 0.5 Sy .
An NDT inspection is used that can ensure that a structural

ceramic part will have no flaws greater that 25 m in size.
Calculate the maximum service stress that can be used.
K IC = 9 Mpa m .
Introduction to Fracture
Mechanics
Lecture 8
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fracture Mechanics
every structure contains small flaws whose size and
distribution are dependent upon the material and its
processing. These may vary from nonmetallic inclusions
and micro voids to weld defects, grinding cracks, quench
cracks, surface laps, etc.
The objective of a Fracture Mechanics analysis is to
determine if these small flaws will grow into large enough
cracks to cause the component to fail catastrophically.
T.J. Dolan, Preclude Failure: A Philosophy for

Material Selection and Simulated Service Testing,
SESA J. Exp. Mech., Jan. 1970.
WW II Tanker Failure
Small cracks and defects can lead to catastrophic

failure of large structural systems.
Norton, Fig. 5-13
Rocket Case Failure
Norton, Fig. 5-14
Stress State at Plane

Crack Tip
K
3

x =
cos 1 sin sin + L
2 r
2 2
2
K
3

y =
cos 1 + sin sin + L
2 r
2 2
2
K
3
xy =
cos sin sin + L
2 r
2 2 2
z = 0 (Plane Stress)
z = ( x + y )
(Plane Strain)
yz = zx = 0
Norton, Fig. 5-15
Stress Intensity Factor

K Stress Intensity Factor
K = nom a
for
a << b
nom Stress in the absence of the crack
ksi
MPa
or
[k] =
in
m
Norton, Fig. 5-15
Crack Tip Plastic Zone
Norton, Fig. 5-16
Experimental Examples
Felbeck, D.K., A.G. Atkins, Strength and Fracture of

Engineering Solids, Prentice-Hall, 1984, Fig. 14-17.
Crack Displacement Modes
Mode I
Opening
Mode II
Sliding
Mode III
Tearing
Hamrock, Fig. 6.8
Fracture Toughness
K Stress Intensity Factor
K = nom a
for
a << b
As long as the stress intensity

factor K stays below a critical value
called the fracture toughness, Kc,
the crack is considered stable.
If K reaches K c , the crack
will propagate and lead to
nom Stress in the

absence of the crack
[k] =
MPa
ksi
or
m
in
sudden failure. Propagation

rates can reach 1 mile/sec.
Fracture toughness is a
material property.
Brittle to Ductile Transition

Temperature
Low temperatures and
high strain rates
generally promote brittle
behavior (i.e. low
fracture toughness).
Felbeck, Fig. 14-4
Transition Temperature
Examples
Felbeck, Fig. 14-5
Temperature Sensitivity of KIC
Sailors, R.H., H.T. Corten, Relationship Between Material Fracture Toughness Using Fracture
Mechanics & Transition Temperature Tests, Stress Analysis and Growth of Cracks, ASTM
STP514, Am. Society of Testing Materials, 1972.
Comparison with Charpy

V-Notch Test Data
Sailors, R.H., H.T. Corten,

Relationship Between Material
Fracture Toughness Using Fracture
Mechanics & Transition Temperature
Tests, Stress Analysis and Growth of
Cracks, ASTM STP514, Am. Society of
Testing Materials, 1972.
Stress Intensity Factors for Different

Crack Geometries
Relationships between KIC
and other crack geometries
and loading conditions may
be found in text books and
industry publications.
K o = nom a
Shigley contains several
examples.
Shigley, Fig. 5-22
Yield Failure Before Fracture

K IC = nom a
2024 Aluminum
K IC = Sy a
K IC = 26 MPa m
Sy = 455 MPa
1 K IC
a=
Sy
a = 0.001 m
= 1 mm = 0.04 inch
The cross section will yield before unstable
fracture for any crack less than 2 mm in
total length.
Assignment
It is determined that a high strength alloy plate
has a inch long through crack running normal
to the direction of loading. Material tests
indicate that the Mode I fracture toughness, KIC,
is 80 ksi/in1/2. A stress analysis indicates that the
plate will experience a steady stress of 100 ksi.
Will the plate experience unstable crack
propagation.
Fatigue
Lecture 10
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Load Histories and

Design Objectives
Failure
, F
, F
Failure
t, time
t, time
Monotonic, Static, or Steady
Dynamic, Cyclic, or Unsteady
Design for Strength
Design for Life
Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Dynamics, Inc. rotating

beam test equipment.
Mott, Fig. 5-2 & 5-3
www.fdinc.com
S-N Curve
Completely reversed cyclic stress, UNS G41200 steel

Shigley, Fig. 7-6
Fatigue Strength
The Fatigue Strength, Sf(N), is the stress level that a
material can endure for N cycles.
The stress level at which the material can withstand an
infinite number of cycles is call the Endurance Limit.
The Endurance Limit is

observed as a horizontal
line on the S-N curve.
Shigley, Fig. 7-6
Representative S-N Curves
Note that non-ferrous materials often exhibit no

endurance limit.
Mott, Fig. 5-7
Endurance Limit
Vs Tensile Strength
Conservative
Lower Bound
for Ferrous
Materials
Se = 0.3Sut
Se Endurance Limit of Test Specimen

Sut Tensile Strength of Test Specimen
Shigley, Fig. 7-7
Endurance Limit
Multiplying Factors
(Marin Factors)
Se = k a k b k c k d k e Se
Se Endurance limit of part
Se Endurance limit of test specimen
k a Surface factor
k b Size factor
There are several

factors that are known
to result in differences
between the endurance
limits in test specimens
and those found in
machine elements.
k c Load factor
k d Temperature factor
k e Miscellaneous - effects factor
See sections 7-8 & 7-9 in

Shigley for a discussion on
each factor.
Mean Stress Effects

The S-N curve obtained from a
rotating beam test has completely
reversed stress states.
Many stress histories will not have
completely reversed stress states.
Shigley, Fig. 7-12
Definitions
Stress Range
r = max min
Alternating Stress
max min
a =
2
Mean Stress
Stress Ratio
min
R=
max
Amplitude Ratio
a
A=
m
max + min
m =
2
Note that R=-1 for a
completely reversed
stress state with zero
mean stress.
Mean Stress Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Dynamics, Inc.,

fluctuating fatigue stress
testing equipment.
www.fdinc.com
Fluctuating Stress Failure Data

Note that a tensile
mean stress results
in a significantly
lower fatigue
strength for a given
number of cycles to
failure.
This plot shows the fatigue strength of

several steels as a function of mean
stress for a constant number of cycles to
failure.
Note that a curved

line passes through
the mean of the
data.
Shigley, Fig. 7-14
Master Fatigue Plot
Shigley, Fig. 7-15
Fluctuating Stress Failure

Interaction Curves
Shigley, Fig. 7-16
Soderberg Interaction Line

k f Sa S m
+
=1
Se
S yt
Any combination of mean and

alternating stress that lies on or
below the Solderberg line will
have infinite life.
Factor of Safety Format
k f Sa S m
1
+
=
Se
S yt N f
Note that the fatigue stress
concentration factor is applied
only to the alternating
component.
Goodman Interaction Line

k f Sa S m
+
=1
Se
Sut

below the Goodman line will
have infinite life.
k f Sa Sm
1
+
=
Se
Sut N f
component.
Gerber Interaction Line

2
k f Sa S m
+ = 1
Se
Sut

below the Gerber line will have
infinite life.
2
k f N f Sa N f S m
= 1
+
Se
Sut
component.
Modified-Goodman
Interaction Line
The Modified-Goodman
Interaction Line never exceeds
the yield line.
Example No. 1
A 1.5-inch round bar has been machined from AISI 1050 colddrawn round bar. This part is to withstand a fluctuating tensile
load varying from 0 to 16 kip. Because of the design of the
ends and the fillet radius, a fatigue stress-concentration factor
of 1.85 exists. The remaining Marin factors have been worked
out, and are ka=0.797, kb=kd=1, and kc=0.923. Find the factor
of safety using the Goodman interaction line.
Shigley, Example 7-5
Example No. 1
(Continued)
Sut = 100. ksi
Se 0.50 Sut = 50. ksi
max + min
= 4.52 ksi
m =
2
d2
= 1.77 in 2
A=
4
Se = k a k b k c k dSe
16 kip
= 9.04 ksi
max =
2
1.77 in
min = 0 ksi
max min
= 4.52 ksi
a =
2
= (0.797 )(1)(0.923)(1)(50 ksi )
Se = 36.8 ksi
Example No. 1
(Continued)
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sut N f
1.85 4.52 ksi 4.52 ksi
1
+
= 0.272 =
36.8 ksi
100. ksi
Nf
N f = 3.67
Example
5 in
1
Pmax = 1000 lb
5 in
Pmin = 350 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
Will the beam have infinite life?
4
4
D 1 = (1.5) = 0.249 in 4
I1 =
64
64
4
4
I2 =
D 2 = (0.875) = 0.088 in 4
64
64
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
I1 0.249 in 4
S1 = =
= 0.332 in 3
c1
0.75 in
I 2 0.088 in 4
S2 = =
= 0.201 in 3
c 2 0.438 in
Example
(Continued)
5 in
1
5 in
2
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
kf 1
q=
k t 1
k f = 1 + q(k t 1)
D
1.5 in
=
= 1.71
d 0.875 in
r 0.125
=
= 0.143
d 0.875
Ref. Peterson
Pmax = 1000 lb
Pmin = 350 lb
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
k t = 1.61
k f = 1 + q(k t 1)
= 1 + 0.3(1.61 1)
= 1.18
Example
(Continued)
5 in
Pmax = 1000 lb
5 in
Pmin = 350 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
Section 1 (Base)
max
M1 (1000 lb )(10 in )
=
=
= 30.1 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
min =
M1 (350 lb )(10 in )
=
= 10.5 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
max min
= 9.8 ksi
a =
2
max + min
m =
= 20.3 ksi
2
Example
(Continued)
5 in
Pmax = 1000 lb
5 in
Pmin = 350 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
Section 2 (Fillet)
max
M1 (1000 lb )(5 in )
=
=
= 24.9 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
min =
M1 (350 lb )(5 in )
=
= 8.71 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
max min
= 8.10 ksi
a =
2
max + min
= 16.8 ksi
m =
2
Example
(Continued)
Section 1 (Base)
max
(1000 lb)(10 in ) = 30.1 ksi

M
= 1=
S1
0.332 in 3
min =
M1 (350 lb )(10 in )
=
= 10.5 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
Sut = 116 ksi

Se = 30 ksi = Se
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sult N f
max min
a =
= 9.8 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 20.3 ksi
2
1.0(9.8 ksi ) 20.3 ksi
+
= 0.502
30 ksi
116 ksi
1
Nf =
= 1.99
0.502
Part has infinite life.
Example
(Continued)
Section 2 (Fillet)
max
(1000 lb)(5 in ) = 24.9 ksi

M
= 1=
S1
0.201 in 3
min =
M1 (350 lb )(5 in )
=
= 8.71 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
Sut = 116 ksi

Se = 30 ksi = Se
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sult N f
max min
a =
= 8.10 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 16.8 ksi
2
1.18(8.10 ksi ) 16.8 ksi
+
= 0.463
30 ksi
116 ksi
1
Nf =
= 2.16
0.463
Part has infinite life.
Assignment
Problem 1
Assignment
(Continued)
Problem 2
Fatigue II
Lecture 11
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Finite Life Estimates
Alternating S yt
Stress, a
Se
How can the life

of a part be
estimated if the
mean stressalternating stress
pair lie above the
Goodman line?
Finite Life
(Cycles to failure?)
Infinite Life
Stress State
Mean Stress, m
S yt
Goodman Diagram
Sut
S-N Curve
The S-N curve gives
the cycles to failure
for a completely
reversed (R=-1)
uniaxial stress state.
What do you do if
the stress state is not
completely
reversed?
Completely reversed cyclic
stress, UNS G41200 steel
Shigley, Fig. 7-6
Definitions
Stress Range
r = max min
Alternating Stress
max min
a =
2
Mean Stress
Stress Ratio
min
R=
max
Amplitude Ratio
a
A=
m
max + min
m =
2
Note that R=-1 for a
completely reversed
stress state with zero
mean stress.
Fluctuating-Stress Failure
Interaction Curves
The interaction curves
provide relationships between
alternating stress and mean
stress.
When the mean stress is
zero, the alternating
component is equal to the
endurance limit.
The interaction curves are
for infinite life or a large
number of cycles.
Shigley, Fig. 7-16
Goodman Interaction Line

k f Sa S m
+
=1
Se
Sut

below Goodman line will have
infinite life.
k f Sa Sm
1
+
=
Se
Sut N f
component.
Master Fatigue Plot
Constant
cycles till
failure
interaction
curves.
Shigley, Fig. 7-15
Equivalent Alternating Stress

a
m =0
Alternating S yt
Stress, a
Se
Alternating stress at zero

mean stress that fails the part
in the same number of cycles
as the original stress state.
105 cycles
106 cycles
Mean Stress, m
S yt
Sut
The red and blue lines are estimated fatigue interaction curves
associated with a specific number of cycles to failure.
Number of Cycles to
Failure
Once the equivalent

alternating stress is
found, the S-N curve
may be used to find
the number of cycles
to failure.
Equivalent Alternating Stress

Formula
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sut N f
k f a
m
1
+
=
a =0 Sut N f
m
m =0
k f a
=
1 m
N f Sut
Goodman Line
m =0
Equivalent completely reversed

(R = -1) stress that causes fatigue
failure in the same number of cycles
as the original a and m pair.
Example
5 in
1
5 in
Pmax = 3000 lb
Pmin = 2000 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
4
4
D 1 = (1.5) = 0.249 in 4
I1 =
64
64
4
4
I2 =
D 2 = (0.875) = 0.088 in 4
64
64
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
I1 0.249 in 4
S1 = =
= 0.332 in 3
c1
0.75 in
I 2 0.088 in 4
S2 = =
= 0.201 in 3
c 2 0.438 in
Example
(Continued)
5 in
1
5 in
Pmax = 3000 lb
Pmin = 2000 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
kf 1
q=
k t 1
k f = 1 + q(k t 1)
D
1.5 in
=
= 1.71
d 0.875 in
r 0.125
=
= 0.143
d 0.875
Ref. Peterson
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
k t = 1.61
k f = 1 + q(k t 1)
= 1 + 0.3(1.61 1)
= 1.18
Example
(Continued)
5 in
5 in
Pmin = 2000 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
Section 1 (Base)
max
M1 (3000 lb )(10 in )
=
=
= 90.4 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
min =
Pmax = 3000 lb
M1 (2000 lb )(10 in )
=
= 60.2 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
max min
a =
= 15.1 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 75.3 ksi
2
Example
(Continued)
5 in
1
5 in
Pmax = 3000 lb
Pmin = 2000 lb
1.5 in. dia.

0.875 in. dia.
0.125 in. rad.
Section 2 (Fillet)
max
M1 (3000 lb )(5 in )
=
=
= 74.6 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
min =
M1 (2000 lb )(5 in )
=
= 49.8 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
Material UNS
G41200 Steel
Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
max min
= 12.4 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 62.2 ksi
2
a =
Example
(Continued)
Sut = 116 ksi

Se = 30 ksi = Se
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sult N f
Completely reversed cyclic
stress, UNS G41200 steel
Shigley, Fig. 7-6
Example
(Continued)
Section 1 (Base)
max
(3000 lb)(10 in ) = 90.4 ksi

M
= 1=
S1
0.332 in 3
min =
M1 (2000 lb )(10 in )
=
= 60.2 ksi
3
S1
0.332 in
Sut = 116 ksi

Se = 30 ksi = Se
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sult N f
max min
a =
= 15.1 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 75.3 ksi
2
Nf = 1
1.0(15.1 ksi ) 75.3 ksi
+
= 1.15
30 ksi
116 ksi
Part has finite life at base.
Example
(Continued)
Section 2 (Fillet)
max
M1 (3000 lb )(5 in )
=
=
= 74.6 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
min =
M1 (2000 lb )(5 in )
=
= 49.8 ksi
3
S1
0.201 in
Sut = 116 ksi

Se = 30 ksi = Se
k f a m
1
+
=
Se
Sult N f
max min
= 12.4 ksi
2
max + min
m =
= 62.2 ksi
2
a =
Nf = 1
1.18(12.4 ksi ) 62.2 ksi
+
= 1.02
30 ksi
116 ksi
Part has finite life.
Calculation of Equivalent
Alternating Stress
a
m =0
k f a
=
1 m
N f Sut
Base
Fillet
a = 15.1 ksi
a = 12.4 ksi
m = 75.3 ksi
(1.0)15.1
a =0 =
m
1 75.3
1.0 116
= 43.0 ksi
m = 62.2 ksi
(1.18)12.4
a =0 =
m
1 62.2
1.0 116
= 31.5 ksi
Cycles to Failure Estimate
90
70
50
30
20
10
Base
Fillet
Multi-axis Fluctuating
Stress States
Everything presented on fatigue has been based on
experiments involving a single stress component.
What do you do for problems in which there are
more than one stress component?
Marin Load Factor, kc

Se = k a k b k c k d Se
The endurance limit is a function of the
load/stress component used in the test.
Axial loading
Sut 220 ksi (1520 MPa)
0.923
1
Axial loading
Sut > 220 ksi (1520 MPa)
kc =
Bending
1
0.577 Torsion and shear
Alternating and Mean Von

Mises Stresses
1. Increase the stress caused by an axial force by
1/kc.
2. Multiply each stress component by the
appropriate fatigue stress concentration factor.
3. Compute the maximum and minimum von Mises
stresses.
4. Compute the alternating and mean stresses based
on the maximum and minimum values of the von
Mises stress.
5. Use the Goodman alternating and mean stress
interaction curve and S-N curve to estimate the
number of cycles to failure. Use the reversed
bending endurance limit.
Complex Loads
A part is subjected
to completely reversed
, F
stresses as follows
1 for n1 cycles,
2
1
2 for n 2 cycles,
t, time
3 for n 3 cycles,
M
m for n m cycles,
What is the cumulative effect of these different load cycles?
Minors Rule
Cumulative Damage Law
n1 n 2 n 3
nm
+
+
+K +
=C
N1 N 2 N 3
Nm
n i number of cycles for stress level i
N i cycles to failure at stress level i
C Constant ranging from 0.7 to 2.2.
C is usually taken as 1.0
Minors Rule is the simplest and most widely used
Cumulative Damage Law
Example
Stress Cycles
State
(n)
Life
(N)
1,000 2,000
0.5
5,000 10,000
0.5
10,000 100,000 0.1

1.1
Part will fail
Assignment
(Problem No. 1)
A rotating shaft is made of 42 x 4 mm AISI 1020 cold-drawn

steel tubing and has a 6-mm diameter hole drilled transversely
through it. Estimate the factor of safety guarding against
fatigue failure when the shaft is subjected to a completely
reversed torque of 120 N-m in phase with a completely
reversed bending moment of 150 N-m. Use the stress
concentration factor tables found in the appendices, and
estimate the Marin factors using information in the body of the
text.
Assignment
(Problem No. 2)
A solid circular bar with a 5/8 inch diameter is subjected to a

reversed bending moment of 1200 in-lb for 2000 cycles,
1000 in-lb for 100,000 cycles and 900 in-lb for 10,000
cycles. Use the S-N curve used in this lecture. Determine
whether the bar will fail due to fatigue. Assume all Marin
factors are equal to 1.0.
Assignment
(Problem No. 3)
Same as Problem No. 2 except there is a constant

axial force of 5,000 lb acting on the bar in
addition to the completely reversed bending
moment.
Thick Walled Cylinders

Lecture 13
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Axisymmetric Equation of
Equilibrium
(Geometry)
p i internal pressure
angular position coordinate
r radial position coordinate
u displacement in r - direction
v displacement in - direction
Axisymmetric Nothing varies in the - direction.
=0
Ugural, Fig. 8.1(a)
Equilibrium
(Differential Element)
r
d
r +
r
r
= 0, due to axisymmetric constraint
r = 0, due to stress compatibility
Ugural, Fig. 8.1(b)
Equilibrium
r
d
dr (r + dr )d dz - 2 sin drdz - r rd dz + Fr rd dr dz = 0
r +
r
2
d r
+ r + rFr = 0
dr
d r r
+
+ Fr = 0
dr
r
Fr radial body force per unit volume
Strain Displacement Equations

u
dr + dr dr
du
r
=
r =
dr
dr
(
r + u )d - rd u
=
=
du
u
r =
, =
dr
r
rd
Constitutive Equations
Hookes Law
r =
1
( r )
E
1
= ( r )
E
E
( r + )
r =
2
1
=
E
( + r )
2
1
Stress-Strain equations are often

referred to as constitutive
equations, because they depend
on what the part is made of.
The equilibrium and straindisplacement equations are
independent of the material.
Webster, constitutive - making
a thing what it is, essential
Summary of
Axisymmetric Equations
Equilibrium Equation
d r r
+
+ Fr = 0
r
dr
1
r = ( r )
E
Strain-Displacement Equations
du
u
r =
, =
r
dr
1
= ( r )
E

(Displacement Differential Equation)
E
( r + )
r =
2
1
E
( + r )
=
2
1
E du
u
r =
+
2
1 dr
r
a inside radius
b outside radius
p i internal pressure
p o external pressure
E u
du
=
+
2
1 r
dr
d 2 u 1 du u
+
2 =0
2
dr
r dr r
Ugural, Fig. 8.2

(General Solution & Boundary Conditions)
r =
E du
u
2
1 dr
r
E u
du
=
+
2
1 r
dr
d 2 u 1 du u
+
2 =0
2
dr
r dr r
General Solution
C2
u = C1r +
r
E
r =
1 2
1
C1 (1 + ) C 2 r 2
E
=
1 2
1
C1 (1 + ) + C 2 r 2
Ugural, Fig. 8.2

(Boundary Conditions)
r =
E
1 2
1
(
)
C
1
C
+
2
1
2
a
E
1
C (1 + ) C 2 2
po =
2 1
1
b
pi =
Boundary Conditions
r
r
r =a
r =b
= p i
= p o
1
(
)
C
1
C
+
2
1
2
r
E
1 2
1 a 2 pi b 2 po
C1 =
E b2 a 2
1 + a 2 b 2 (p i p o )
C2 =
E b2 a 2
Ugural, Fig. 8.2

(Lame Equations)
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
r =
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
=
+
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
1 a 2 p i b 2 p o r 1 + (p i p o )a 2 b 2
u=
+
2
2
E
b a
E
b2 a 2 r
Ugural, Fig. 8.2
Longitudinal Strain
(Unconstrained and Open Ends)
1
z = ( z r )
E
2E
r + =
[C1 (1 + )]
2
1
Ends are unconstrained
and open, z = 0
2 C1
z =
1
z = ( r + )
E
2 a 2 p i b 2 p o
z =
2
2
E
1
E b a
(
)
+
C
1
C
r =
1
2
2
1 2
r
E
1
=
C (1 + ) + C 2 2
Note that r + = Constant
2 1
1
r
Longitudinal Stress
(Constrained Ends)
1
z = 0 = ( z r )
E
z = ( r + )
1
C1 (1 + ) C 2 r 2
E
1
=
C (1 + ) + C 2 2
2 1
1
r
E
r =
1 2
2E
[C1 (1 + )]
r + =
2
1
2EC1
z =
1
a 2pi b2po
z = 2
2
2
b a
Note that z = Constant
Longitudinal Stress
(Closed and Unconstrained Ends)
z
po
pi
z b 2 a 2 + po b 2 pi a 2 = 0
pi a 2 p o b 2
z =
b2 a 2
Special Cases
External Pressure Only
Internal Pressure Only

a 2 pi b 2
1 2
r = 2
2
b a r
b2po a 2
1 2
r = 2
2
b a r
a 2 pi b 2
1 + 2
= 2
2
b a r
b2po a 2
1 + 2
= 2
2
b a r
z = 0, unconstrained
z = 0, unconstrained
2
b
po
2 a p i
=
, constrained
, constrained
z = 2
z
2
2
2
b a
b a
2
2
b
po
a pi
, closed & unconstrained
z = 2
2
,
closed
and
unconstrai
ned
z = 2
b a
b a2
Stress Variation
b/a=4
Internal Pressure Only
External Pressure Only

Ugural, Fig. 8.3
Assignment
1. Show that the Lame equations for the case of
internal pressure reduce to the equations for a thin
walled cylinder when the ratio b/a approaches 1.
2. A thick walled cylinder with 12 and 16 inch internal
and external diameters is fabricated of a material
whose tensile yield strength is 36 ksi and Poissons
ratio is 0.3. Calculate the von Mises stress when the
internal pressure is 10 ksi. The cylinder has closed
but unconstrained ends. Will the material yield?
Crack Propagation
Lecture 12
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Evidence of Crack Growth
Crack Growth
Striations in shaft with
keyway
Crack Growth
Striations in
crankshaft
Norton, Fig. 6-4
Crack Propagation Striations

Concentric pattern is characteristic
of fatigue failures in which a
crack propagates (grows) under
cyclic loading.
Norton, Fig. 6-3
Varying Alternating Stress

Beachmarks
The ripples are called
beachmarks and can often
be distinguished by the
unaided eye. In some cases
they can only be seen with the
aided of and electron
microscope. These fine
markings represent stepwise
advances of the crack front.
These beachmarks show the
progression of a crack front
due to an alternating stress
having different magnitudes.
Bela I. Sandor, Fundamentals of Cyclic Stress and
Strain, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1972, p. 143.
Crack Opening
Displacement (COD) Tests
COD Tests are used to determine the change in crack size in
compact tension specimens subjected to cyclic loads.
www.testresources.com
Stress Intensity Factor

Range
Stress Intensity Equation
K = Y nom a
(Refer to Class 7 Notes)
Stress Intensity Factor Range
K max = Y max a
K min = Y min a
K = Y a ( max min )
If K min < 0, K = K max
Norton, Fig. 5-15
Crack Growth Rate Curve

Phase III
da
log
dN
K c is reached
Phase I
Phase II
Kth
log(K )
Phase I: Crack initiation

Phase II: Stable crack-growth
Phase III: Unstable crack-growth (fracture)
Example da/dN Curve

Phase II crack
growth data for 316
and 317 stainless
steel at 452 oF.
Stainless steels are used
extensively at cryogenic
temperatures.
Griffith-Irwin Formula
Empirical equation used to fit da/dN data
da C(K K th )
=
dN (1 R )K c K
C, m empirical constants
min
R stress amplitude ratio =
max
K c Fracture toughness
K th threshold value, crack growth is not
expected for values of K less than K th.
Griffith-Irwin Formula Plots
Norton, Fig. 6-20
Stable Crack Growth Regime

da C(K K th )
=
dN (1 R )K c K
da
= C K m
dN
Griffith-Irwin formula
Phase II simplified formula
These equations can be integrated (usually numerically)

to obtain the number of cycles to failure. There are
several commercially available programs containing
material libraries that make this a fairly straight forward
process. NASA uses a program called FLAWGRO.
Compound Cylinders
&
Discontinuity Stresses
Lecture 14
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Lame Equations for Thick

Walled Cylinders
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
r =
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
=
+
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
1 a 2 p i b 2 p o r 1 + (p i p o )a 2 b 2
u=
+
2
2
E
b a
E
b2 a 2 r
Compound Cylinders
Civil War Parrott Guns
Compound cylinders are used

to increase the pressure that
can be contained in cylinders.
www.wwd.net/steen
Compound Cylinders
(Assembly)
Outer Cylinder (2)
Inner Cylinder (1)
c
a
The inside diameter of cylinder 2 is undersized by a small

amount (interference) and must be heated to fit over
cylinder 1. This is often referred to as a shrink fit.
Compound Cylinders
(Interference Equations)
Lames Equation
1 a 2 p i b 2 p o r 1 + (p i p o )a 2 b 2
+
u=
2
2
E
b a
E
b2 a 2 r
pb b 2 + a 2
i
u1 =
2
2
Ei b a
pb b 2 + c 2
2
+ o
u2 =
2
Eo c b
The interface pressure is

directly proportional to the
interference.
Inner
Cylinder
Outer
Cylinder
pb b 2 + a 2
pb b 2 + c 2
2
+ o + 2
i
=
2
2
Eo c b
Ei b a
Compound Cylinders
(Interference Pressure)
pb b 2 + a 2
pb b 2 + c 2
+ o + 2
i
=
2
2
2
Eo c b
Ei b a
)(
E b 2 a 2 c 2 b 2
p=
b
2b 2 c 2 a 2
For same
materials
The interference pressure is that

pressure needed to compress the
inner cylinder and expand the outer
cylinder so that the two cylinders
can be assembled.
Ugural, Fig. 8.5
Compound Cylinder
(Shrink Fit Stresses)
Hoop stress due
to interference
pressure
Hoop stress due
to an internal
pressure
Total Hoop Stress

Harvey, Fig. 2.23
Example Problem
Determine the tangential (hoop) stresses at the inner, outer,
and mating surfaces of a compound cylinder subjected to an
internal pressure of 20,000 psi. The radii are: a=6 in, b=8 in,
and c=10 in. The material is steel with a modulus of
elasticity of E=30x106 psi, and the interference is 0.004 in.
Example Problem
(Interference Pressure)
)(
E b 2 a 2 c 2 b 2
p=
b
2b 2 c 2 a 2
p = 1,850 psi
a=6 in E = 30x10 6 psi

b=8 in = 0.004 in
c=10 in
Example Problem
(Inner Cylinder)
Lame Equation
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
=
+
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
External Pressure
b2p
pa 2 b 2
= 2
+ 2
2
b a
b a2 r2
a=6 in
b=8 in
c=10 in
E = 30x10 psi
6
= 0.004 in
p = 1,850 psi
r =a
r =b
Interference Stresses
2pb 2
= 2
= 8,440 psi
2
b a
2p(b 2 + a 2 )
=
= 6,590psi
2
2
b a
Example Problem
(Outer Cylinder)
Lame Equation
b 2 p i c 2 p o (p i p o )b 2 c 2
+ 2
=
2
2
c b
c b2 r 2
External Pressure
b2p
pb 2 c 2
+ 2
= 2
2
c b
c b2 r 2
Interference Stresses
a=6 in
b=8 in
c=10 in
E = 30x10 6 psi
= 0.004 in
p = 1,850 psi
b2 + c2
= 8,410 psi
r = b = p 2
2
c b
2pb 2
= 6,560 psi
r =c = 2
2
c b
Example Problem
(Shrink-fit Stress Distribution)
Outer Cylinder
Inner Cylinder
a=6 in
b=8 in
c=10 in
E = 30x10 6 psi
= 0.004 in
p = 1,850 psi
Harvey, Fig. 2.23(a)
Example Problem
(Internal Pressure)
Lame Equation
a 2 p i c 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 c 2
=
+ 2
2
2
c a
c a2 r2
Internal Pressure
a 2 pi
pia 2c 2
+ 2
= 2
2
c a
c a2 r2
a=6 in
b=8 in
c=10 in
E = 30x10 6 psi
= 0.004 in
p i = 20,000 psi
r =a
Radial Locations
= 42,500 psi
r =b
= 28,830 psi
r =c
= 22,500 psi
Example Problem
(Internal Pressure Stress Distribution)
Outer Cylinder
c
b
a=6 in
b=8 in
c=10 in
E = 30x10 6 psi
Inner Cylinder
= 0.004 in
p i = 20,000 psi
Harvey, Fig. 2.23(b)
Example Problem
(Total Stresses)
Note that the total

stress on the inside of
the cylinder is
approximately 20%
less than what it
would have been
without the shrink-fit
stresses.
Harvey, Fig. 2.23
The stresses in thick and thin walled cylinders (pressure
vessels) considered so far have considered only the
cylinder.
There are often high stresses at geometric
discontinuities in cylinders.
These high stresses are similar to stress concentrations.
(Example)
Discontinuity at Hemispherical Head and

Cylindrical Shell Juncture
The force and moment required to cause the head and shell to
displace and rotate the same amount will cause local bending
stresses in both the head and shell.
Harvey, Fig. 4.8
(Example)
Discontinuity at Flat Head and

Cylindrical Shell Juncture
Hand stress analysis or finite element methods may
be used to accurately compute the stresses around
geometric discontinuities.
Assignment
1. What is the required thickness of a 6 ft inside
diameter cylinder, considering it as a thin wall
vessel, to withstand an internal pressure of 1,000 psi
if the allowable tangential stress is 20,000 psi.
2. A cylinder with a 48 in inside diameter and a 60 in
outside diameter is subjected to an internal pressure
of 5,000 psi. Determine value and place of
occurrence the maximum tangential stress, the
maximum radial stress, and the maximum shear
stress.
Assignment
(Continued)
3. Determine the tangential (hoop) stresses at the inside
radius of a compound cylinder subjected to an internal
pressure of 32,000 psi. The radii are: a=10 in, b=12 in, and
c=13 in. The material is steel with a modulus of elasticity of
E=30x106 psi, and the interference is 0.005 in.
Interference Fits
Lecture 15
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Standards
US Customary
Preferred Limits and Fits for Cylindrical
Parts, ANSI B4.1-1967.
Metric
Preferred Metric Limits and Fits, ANSI
B4.2-1978.
Limits and Fits

(Metric Nomenclature)
D basic size of hole

d basic size of shaft
u upper deviation
l lower deviation
F fundamental deviation
D tolerance grade for hole
d tolerance grade for shaft
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grade Numbers

Tolerance difference
between the maximum and
minimum size limits of a part.
International Tolerance
Grade Numbers are used to
specify the size of a tolerance
zone.
In the ANSI standard, the
tolerance is the same for both
the internal (hole) and external
(shaft) parts having the same
Tolerance Grade Numbers.
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grade Numbers

IT0 through IT16 are
contained in the
standard.
Grade Number
IT11
International Tolerance
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grades Table
Shigley, Table A-11
Fundamental Deviations
Example of Fit Specification
32H7 Hole
32g6 Shaft
Upper Case => Hole
Lower Case=> shaft
F , Fundamental Deviation
32g6
Tolerance Grade, IT6

D = d = 32 mm (Basic Size)
Shigley, 4-9
Fundamental Deviations
for Shafts
Shigley, Table A-12
Lower and Upper Deviations

Shaft letter codes c,d,f,g, and h
Upper deviation = fundamental
deviation
Lower deviation = upper deviation
tolerance grade
Shaft letter codes k,n,p,s, and u

Lower deviation = fundamental
deviation
Upper deviation = lower deviation +
tolerance grade
Hole letter code H

Lower deviation = 0
Upper deviation = tolerance grade
Shigley, 4-9
Preferred Fits Using the

Basic-Hole System
Shigley Table 4-5
Loose Running Fit

(Example)
Determine the loose running fit tolerances for a
shaft and hole that have a basic diameter of 32 mm.
From Table 4-5, Specification is 32H11/32c11
Hole
Shaft
Tolerance Grade 0.160 mm
0.160 mm (0.0063 in)
Upper deviation
0.160 mm
-0.120 mm
Lower deviation
0.000 mm
-0.280 mm
Max Diameter
32.160 mm (1.266 in) 31.880 mm (1.255 in)
Min Diameter
32.000 mm (1.260 in) 31.720 mm (1.225 in)
Ave Diameter
32.080 mm (1.263 in) 31.800 mm (1.252 in)
Max Clearance
Min Clearance
C max = D max d min = 0.44 mm (0.017 in )

C min = D min d max = 0.12 mm (0.005 in)
Loose Running Fit

(Example Continued)
Dimension Tolerances Shown on Drawing
Hole
32.080 +00..080
080
Shaft
31.800 +00..080
080
Force Fit
(Example)
Determine the force fit tolerances for a shaft and
hole that have a basic diameter of 32 mm.
From Table 4-5, Specification is 32H7/32u6
Tolerance Grade
Upper deviation
Lower deviation
Max Diameter
Min Diameter
Ave Diameter
Max Clearance
Min Clearance
Hole
0.025 mm (0.001 in)
0.025 mm
0.000 mm
32.025 mm (1.261 in)
32.000 mm (1.260 in)
32.013 mm (1.260 in)
Shaft
0.016 mm (0.0006 in)
0.076 mm
0.060 mm
32.076 mm (1.262 in)
32.060 mm (1.262 in)
32.068 mm (1.263 in)
C max = D max d min = 0.035 mm (- 0.001 in )

C min = D min d max = 0.076 mm (-0.003 in)
Force Fit
(Example Continued)
Dimension Tolerances Shown on Drawing
Hole
32.013+00..012
013
Shaft
32.068+00..008
008
Interference Pressures
& Torques
How much pressure exists in a force

fit, and how much torque can it
transmit?
Lame Equations for Thick

Walled Cylinders
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
r =
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
a 2 p i b 2 p o (p i p o )a 2 b 2
=
+
2
2
b a
b2 a 2 r 2
1 a 2 p i b 2 p o r 1 + (p i p o )a 2 b 2
u=
+
2
2
E
b a
E
b2 a 2 r
Shaft Displacement and

Stresses
For external pressure and
zero inside radius, Lames
equations reduce to -
r = p
= p
1 s
us =
pa
Es
Hub Displacement and

Stresses
a 2 - b2
r = p 2
b a2
a 2 + b2
= p 2
b a2
po = 0
pa a 2 + b 2
2
uh =
+ h
2
Eh b a
Interference Pressure Equation

b2 + a 2
+ h
2
1 s
b
a
+
C = u h u s = ap
Eh
Es
p=
C
b2 + a 2
+ h
2
1 s
+
a b a
Eh
Es
Maximum Torque without

Slipping
Fn = p 2 a L
a
Ff = Fn
p
L= Hub Thickness
Torque = Ff a
Assignment
1. A 4-in diameter, 2-in face width, 20-tooth cast iron
pinion gear is to transmit a maximum torque of 1200 inlb at low speed. Find the required radial interference on
1 in diameter steel shaft and the stress in the gear due to
the press fit. Use the dedendum radius as the outside
radius of the pinion gear.
2. Determine the dimension and tolerance to be specified
on a drawing for a shaft and hole having a basic size of
50 mm. The fit must allow a snug fit but be freely
assembled and disassembled.
Stresses in Rotating Disks

Lecture 16
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Summary of
Axisymmetric Equations
d r r
+
+ Fr = 0
r
dr
Strain-Displacement Equations
du
u
r =
, =
r
dr
r =
1
( r )
E
1
= ( r )
E
or
E
( r + )
r =
2
1
=
E
( + r )
2
1
Rotating Disk
Fr
Equilibrium Diff Equation
dr
r
d r r
+
+ Fr = 0
r
dr
Fr = r2
d r r
+
+ r2 = 0
dr
r
Fr radial body force per unit volume
Displacement Base Equilibrium

Equation
Combining the equilibrium and

constitutive equations yields
d r r
+
+ r2 = 0
dr
r
E
( r + )
r =
2
1
E
( + r )
=
2
1
2
d 2 u 1 du u
2 r
+
r = 1
2
dr
r dr r
E
This equation is the

differential equation of
equilibrium written in terms
of the radial displacement
component.
General Solution
Differential Equation of Equilibrium
2
d u 1 du u
2 r
+
r = 1
2
dr
r dr r
E
Homogeneous Solution
C2
u h = C1r +
r
The homogeneous solution
is the same as the general
solution for the thick walled
cylinder.
Particular Solution
3 2
r
u p = 1 2
8E
General Solution
3 2
C2
r
2
1
u = C1r +
r
8E
Stress Distributions
r =
E
( r + )
2
1
E
( + r )
2
1
Displacement Based
E du
u
r =
+
2
1 dr
r
=
E u
du
2
1 r
dr
General Solution - Displacement
3 2
C2
r
2
1
u = C1r +
r
8E
General Solution - Stress
E (3 + ) 1 2 r 22
C2
+
+
(
)
(
)
r =
1
C
1
1
1 2
8E
r 2
E (1 + 3 ) 1 2 r 22
C2
+ (1 + )C1 + (1 ) 2
=
2
1
8E
r
Annular Rotating Disk

Boundary Conditions
r (a ) = 0
b
r (b ) = 0
This disk has a hole in the center.
Constant Determination for Annular

Rotating Disk
E (3 + )(1 )a
C
+ (1 + )C (1 )
(a ) =
2
=0
1 2
8E
2
2
E (3 + ) 1 2 b 22
C2
(
)
(
)
(
)
=
+
+
r b
1 C1 1 2
2
1
8E
b
=0
Multiplying the top equation by a2 and the bottom by b2

and then subtracting the two equations yields
C1 =
(a
+ b 2 (1 )(3 + )
E
8
Constant Determination
(Continued)
(3 + ) 1 2 a 22
C2
+ (1 + )C1 (1 ) 2 = 0
8E
a
E (3 + ) 1 2 b 22
C2
r (b ) =
+ (1 + )C1 (1 ) 2 = 0
2
1
8E
b
E
(
)
r a =
1 2
C1 =
(a
+ b 2 (1 )(3 + )
E
8
2 2
2 a b (1 + )(3 + )
C2 =
8
E
Annular Rotating Disk Equations

2 2
3+ 2
a
b 2
2
2
a + b r 2
r =
r
8
2 2
+
3+ 2
1
3
a
b 2
2
2
a + b
=
r + 2
8
3+
r
2 2
(
+
+
3 + )(1 ) 2
1
a
b
2
2
a + b
r2
u=
r +
8E
3+
1 r 2
Note that r=a and r=b, that the radial

stress component is zero.
Stress and Displacement Variation

Through the Thickness
Ugural, Fig. 8.6
Solid Rotating Disk

Boundary Conditions
b
(b ) = 0
u (0 ) = 0
Solid Rotating Disk

(Continued)
3 2
C2
r
2
1
u = C1r +
r
8E
E
r =
1 2
(3 + ) 1 2 r 22
C2
+ (1 + )C1 (1 ) 2
8E
r
Since the displacement must be finite at r = 0, C2 = 0

2
(
b
1 )(3 + )
2
C1 =
E
8
Solid Rotating Disk Stress and

Displacement Equations
3+ 2 2
r =
b r 2
8
3 + 2 1 + 3 2 2
=
r
b
8
3+
1
(3 + )b 2 (1 + )r 2 r2
u=
8E
Note that these equations satisfy the boundary conditions.
Stress and Displacement Variation
Other Solutions
Solutions to the governing differential equations exist
for variable thickness geometries and for constant
stress conditions.
Variable Thickness
Constant Stress
Ugural, Fig. 8.8 & 8.9
Complex Geometries
Complex geometries must be solved using numerical methods.
Assignment
A flat 20 inch outer diameter, 4 inch inner diameter,
and 3 inch thick steel disk is shrunk onto a steel
shaft. If the assembly is to run safely at 6900 rpm,
determine: (a) the required interference (inches), (b)
the maximum stress when not rotating, and (c) the
maximum stress when rotating. The material
properties are =0.00072 lb-sec2/in4, E=30x106 psi,
and =0.3.
Shaft Analysis
Lecture 18
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Bending Stresses Due to

Stationary Loads
3
M3
Combining Eq3 1,3, and 4
c2
c3
M 2 r sin M 3 r cos
b =
I
I
M2
M r sin M 3 r cos
b = 2
I
I
M = M 22 + M 32
sin =
M2
cos =
M3
Eq. 1
M 22 r M 32 r
b =
I
I
Eq. 3
Eqs 4
M 22 + M 32 r
b =
I
Shaft Stress Equations

(Bending and Torsion Only)
Reference
Bending Stress
Torsional Stress
M = M 2y + M 2z
Mc
x =
I
Tc
xy =
J
c=d 2
x =
d 4
I=
64
d 4
J = 2I =
32
64Md 32 M
=
4
2 d
d 3
xy =
Td
2 = 16T
d 4 32 d 3
Principal Stresses
2
x
x
1 , 2 =
+ 2xy
2
2
2
16M
16M 16T
3 + 3
3
d
d d
16
1 , 2 = 3 M M 2 + T 2
d
1 , 2 =
Yielding in Ductile Material

(No Stress Concentration)
Distortion Energy Theory
2
1
+ 1 2
2
2
Syt
3 = 0
ns
Circular Shaft
16
1 , 2 = 3 M M 2 + T 2
d
Distortion Energy Theory for Shaft
16
2
2
4M
+
3T
d 3
Syt
ns
Static Loading Minimum

Diameter
16
2
2
4M
3T
+
d 3
32n s
d=
S
yt
Syt
ns
3 2
2
M + T
4
This equation is useful in

coming up with an initial
shaft size early in the
design process.
Shaft Stress Equations

(Bending, Axial, and Torsional Loading)
Axial Stress
32M 4P
+ 2
x =
3
d
d
Principal Stresses
2
1 , 2 = 3
d
8M + Pd
(8M + Pd )2 + (8T )2
Distortion Energy Theory

Syt
4
2
2
(8M + Pd ) + 48T
3
d
ns
Fatigue Analysis of Shafts

Bending Stresses
Torsional Stresses
Shear Stress
Time
Shaft von Mises Stress

Equation
Von Mises Equation
1
Syt
2
2
2
1 + 2 1 2
ns
Principal Stress
Equation
2
1 , 2 =
x

x + 2xy
2
2
x
x
x x
2
2
1 = + 2 + xy + + 2xy
2 2
2
2
x
x x
x
2
2
2 = 2 + xy + + 2xy
2
2 2
2
2
2
x x
2
1 2 = + xy = 2xy
2 2
Shaft Equivalent Stress
eff = + 3
2
x
2
xy
Syt
ns
Effective Alternating and

Mean Stresses
eff = 2x + 3 2xy
eff,a = x
eff,m = 3 xy
Since the bending stress is

completely reversed, the only mean
stress component is due to the shear
stress. Since the shear stress is
constant, the only alternating is
equal to the maximum bending
stress.
ANSI Standard Fatigue

Curve
A
B
C
D
E
F
ANSI Standard B106.1M-1985, Design of Transmission

Shafting, American National Standards Institute, 1985, is
based on the ASME Elliptic Fatigue Interaction Curve.
ASME Elliptic
Fatigue Equation
2
n sk f a n sm
=1
+
S
S
e
yt
This equation is used to determine whether the shaft will
have infinite life. Note that the fatigue stress concentration
factor has only been applied to the alternating stress. Also,
the Marin factors need to be used to estimate the endurance
limit.
Minimum Diameter Equation

d 3
S=
32
=M
=T
2
n s k f M n sT 3
=1
+
S Se 2S S yt
2
2
n
k
M
3
T
s f
=1
+

S Se 4 S yt
2S
2
n sk f a n sm
=1
Se S yt
32n s
d 3
kf M 3 T
+ = 1

Se 4 Syt
Minimum Diameter Equation

32n s
d 3
kf M 3 T
+ = 1

Se 4 S yt
32n s
d=

kf M 3 T
+

Se 4 S yt
This equation gives the

minimum diameter
shaft that will result in
infinite fatigue life,
and appears in the
ANSI Standard.
Summary of Shaft Stress

Analysis Methodology
32n s
d=

kf M 3 T
+

Se 4 S yt
1. Establish factor of safety that will be used in the design.

2. Draw axial,shear, bending, and torsion diagrams. May
require orthogonal shear and bending diagrams.
3. Determine loads acting on the shaft (M,P, and T) at
critical locations.
4. Compute stress concentration factors.
5. Estimate endurance limit using test data or 0.5Sut and
the Marin factors.
6. Use above equation or equivalent to determine if shaft is
acceptable.
Assignment
The shaft shown in the figure receives 110 hp from a
water turbine through a chain sprocket at point C. The
gear pair at E delivers 80 hp to an electrical generator.
The V-belt sheave at A delivers 30 hp to a bucket
elevator that carries grain to an elevated hopper. The
shaft rotates at 1,700 rpm. The sprocket, sheave, and
gear are located axially by retaining rings. The sheave
and gear are keyed with sled runner keyseats, and there
is a profile keyseat at the sprocket. The shaft is made
from AISI 1040 cold-drawn steel, and has a yield
strength of 71 ksi and and ultimate strength of 80 ksi.
Using a design factor of safety of 3, determine the
minimum diameters at each section on of the shaft.
Assignment
(Continued)
Mott, Figure 12-13
Shaft Loading
Lecture 17
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Shaft Design Issues

Material
Se
Sut
Shaft:
Shaft Rotating machine element
that transmits power.
K IC Syt
RC
Loads
Stationary
Rotating
Interfaces
Press Fits
Keyways
Splines
Bearings
Environment
Temperature
Corrosion
Magnetic
Assembly
Tolerances
Stiffness
Shafts are one of the most commonly
encountered machine components.
Mott, Fig. 5-1
Parallel Shaft Gear Box
Shaft design spans most topics taught

in a Machine Design Course.
Mott, Fig. 15-7
Design Detail Needed to

Specify a Shaft
Significant detail is
required to completely
specify the geometry
needed to fabricate a
shaft.
Mott, Fig. 15-5
Common Shaft
Loading Mechanisms
Spur Gears
Chain Drives
Unbalanced Mass
Helical Gears
Spiral Bevel Gears
Belt Drives
Spur Gear Loads

T = 63,000 P
T
Wt =
D
2
Wr = Wt tan
P transmitted power [hp]
n rotational speed [rpm]

T shaft torque [in lb]
D pitch diameter [in ]
pressure angle
Mott, Fig. 12-3
Helical Gear Loads
Mott Figs 10-3 & 10-4(a)
Helical Gear Loads

(Continued)
n Normal pressure angle

t Transverse pressure angle
Helix angle
Wn Resultant normal force
Wt Transmitted force
Wr Radial force
Wx Axial force
tan n = tan t cos

Mott Figs 10-4(a)
Helical Gear Loads

(Continued)
Mott Fig 10-4
Helical Gear Loads

(Continued)
T = 63,000 P
T
Wt =
D
2
Wr = Wt tan n /cos
Wx = Wt tan
Mott Fig 10-4
Chain Drive Loads
Mott Fig 12-4
Belt Drive Loads

Net Driving Force
Fn = F1 F2
T
D
2
Total Bending Force
Fn =
Fb = F1 + F2
Mott, Fig. 12-5
Belt Drive Loads

(Bending Force)
Net Driving Force
Fn = F1 F2
T
D
2
Total Bending Force
Fn =
Fb = F1 + F2
F1
F2
F2
= 5.0
= 3.0
5F2 + F2
C=
= 1.5 (V-belts)
5F2 F2
3F2 + F2
C=
= 2.0 (Flat-belts)
3F2 F2
Tension Ratio
F1
FB F1 + F2
C=
=
Fn F1 F2
(V-belts)
(Flat-belts)
FB = 1.5 Fn
FB = 2.0 Fn
(V-belts)
(Flat-belts)
Stationary Loads
F2
F2
F1
F1
F2
F2
F1
F1

Stationary Loads
3
M 2 c 3 M 3c 2
b =
I 22
I33
M3
c2
c3
2
M2
I 22 = I 33 = I
c 2 = r cos
c 3 = r sin
M 2 r sin M 3 r cos
b =
I
I
Eq. 1
b M 2 r/ cos M 3 r/ sin
=
+
=0
I/
I/
M2
tan = M3
Eq. 2

Stationary Loads
3
M = M 22 + M 32
Eq. 3
M3
c2
Combining with Eq. 2,

c3
M2
sin
M
=
tan =
M3
cos
M
M2
b =
M 2 r sin M 3 r cos
I
I
M
tan = - 2
M3
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
sin =
M2
cos =
M3
Eq. 4

Stationary Loads
3
M3
Combining Eq3 1,3, and 4
c2
c3
M 2 r sin M 3 r cos
b =
I
I
M2
M r sin M 3 r cos
b = 2
I
I
M = M 22 + M 32
sin =
M2
cos =
M3
Eq. 1
M 22 r M 32 r
b =
I
I
Eq. 3
Eqs 4
M 22 + M 32 r
b =
I

Stationary Loads
b,max
M 22 + M 32 r
=
I
b,min
M 22 + M 32 r
=
I
Mott, Fig. 5-3(e)
Torsional Stresses Due to

Stationary Loads
3
M 1r
=
J
M3
r
M1
M2
time
The torsional stress at a point will be
constant under steady state conditions.
Axial Stresses Due to

Stationary Loads
Helical, worm, and spiral
gears will generate axial
loads in the shaft. Under
steady state conditions,
the axial stress from
these loads will be
constant.
Wx
x =
A
Mott Fig 10-4
Unbalanced Mass Loads
Bending stresses in a shaft due to in-balance loads are

complicated by whether the rotational speed is lower or
higher than the critical speeds of the shaft. In practice, the
in-balance loads are minimized by balancing the shaft and
attached components as a system. Rotordynamics theory is
required if the magnitudes of the stresses at a particular
operating speed is required.
Synchronous Whirl
(Due to Unbalanced Mass)
m=unbalanced mass
xs =
me cos(t - )
2
ys =
(k m ) + (c)
2 2
OS = x + y =
2
s
2
s
me
(k m ) + (c)
2 2
me 2sin (t - )
(k m ) + (c)
2 2
c
tan =
k m 2
Thomson, Fig. 3.4-2
Assignment
(Problem 1)
The shaft rotating at 550 rpm
carries a spur gear B having
96 teeth and a diametral pitch
of 6. The teeth are of the
20o, full-depth, involute
form. The gear receives 30
hp from a pinion directly
above it.
Compute the torque delivered
to the shaft and the tangential
and radial forces exerted on
the shaft by the gear.
Mott, Fig. 12-20
Assignment
(Problem 2)
carries a 20-in-diameter flatbelt pulley at A that receives
10 hp from below.
Compute the torque delivered
by the pulley to the shaft and
the force exerted on the shaft
by the pulley.
Mott, Fig. 12-21
Assignment
(Problem 3)
The shaft is rotating at 650 rpm and
receives 7.5 hp through a flexible
coupling. The power is delivered to
an adjacent shaft through a single
helical gear B having a normal
pressure angle of 20o and a helix
angle of 15o.
(a) draw free-body diagrams for the
shaft in both the vertical and
horizontal planes, (b) find the
magnitude of the forces shown, (c)
draw the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams for the shaft in
both planes.
DB=4.141 in
Mott, Fig. 12-29
Assignment
(Problem 4)
carries a 10-in-diameter chain
sprocket at C that receives 11 hp
from a mating sprocket below
and to the left as shown.
Compute the torque delivered to
the shaft by the sprocket and the
total force exerted on the shaft
by the sprocket. Resolve the
force into its horizontal and
vertical components, and show
the net forces acting on the shaft
at C in the vertical and
horizontal directions.
Mott, Fig. 12-22
Splines
Lecture 20
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fundamental Problem in
Shaft Design
How do I connect stuff to the shaft?
Interference Fits
Keys & Keyseats
Integral Shaft
Pins
Hubs/Collars
Splines/Polygons
Splines
G Splines can be thought of as
a series of axial keyways
with mating keys machined
onto a shaft.
G There are two major types of
splines used in industry: 1)
straight-sided splines, and 2)
involute splines.
G Splines provide a more
uniform circumferential
transfer of torque to the
shaft than a key.
Mott, Fig. 11-6
Splined Shaft and Hub
External Spline
Internal Spline
www.advanceadapters.com
Spline Standards
G ANSI B92.1-1970 (R1982), Involute Splines,
American National Standards Institute.
G ANSI B92.2-1980, Metric Module Involute
Splines, American National Standards Institute.
G SAE Straight Tooth Splines
Straight-Tooth Spline
Geometry
G SAE straight-tooth
splines usually contain
4,6,10, or 16 splines.
G Parameter dimensions
are controlled by the fit
needed for a particular
application.
Mott, Fig. 11-4
Straight-Tooth Spline Strength

G The torque capacity per unit
length of an SAE spline is
based on a 1,000 psi bearing
stress on the sides.
G Depending on the class of fit, a
spline is able to accommodate
axial movement along the
shaft and still transmit torque.
Splines have the same
failure mechanisms as keys:
1) shear or 2) bearing.
Straight-Tooth Spline Strength

(Continued)
T = 1,000 N R h
1D d D+d
R= + =
2 2 2
4
1
h = (D d )
2
D+d 1
T = 1,000 N
(D d )
4 2
T = Torque per unit length

N = Number of teeth
D = Major spline diameter
d = Minor spine diameter
d = f (D)
D2 d 2
T = 1,000 N
8
Torque Capacity Curves

(SAE Straight-Tooth Splines)
Note that an involute spline has a higher torque

capacity than does a straight-tooth spline of the same
major diameter.
Mott, Fig. 11-7
Involute Splines
Involute splines generally

have a 30o pressure angle.
Mott, Fig. 11-8
Standard Diametral Pitches

and Lengths
Diametral Pitches
There are seventeen diametral pitches in common use:
2.5
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
24
32
40
48
64
80
128
Standard Lengths
Common designs use spline lengths of 0.75 D to 1.25 D,
where D is the pitch diameter of the spline. When these
standard lengths are used, the shear strength of the splines
will exceed that of the shaft from which they are made.
Spline Manufacturing Methods

Splines are either cut (machined) or rolled. Rolled
splines are stronger than cut splines due to the cold
working of the metal. Nitriding is common to achieve
very hard surfaces which reduce wear.
Rolled Spline Process
Forged blank is rolled under tons
of pressure prior to heat treating.
The finished spline is more accurate
and stronger (35%) than cut spines.
www.drivetraindirect.com
Spline Failure Example
Note the yielding of the shaft outside of the engagement area

due to a torsional load. The mating internal spline forced the
external slines to remain parallel. In this case the spline is
stronger than the shaft.
www.4wdonline.com
Splined Linear Bearing
Circular shaped splines

have been combined with
ball bearings to create linear
bearings that can resist a
torsional load.
www.tsubaki.com
Polygons
An alternative to splines that has significantly
lower stress concentration is the polygon. Four
and three lobed polygons are shown.
Design information on polygons is
available from General Polygon.
www.generalpolygon.com
Retaining Rings
G Retaining rings are used on shafts to
maintain the axial position of
components.
G There are many types of retaining rings.
In general, they may be classified as: 1)
External
internal and 2) external.
Internal
www.rotorclip.com
Different Types of Retaining

Rings
www.mdmetric.com
Spring Loaded Retaining Rings

GBowed retaining rings provide restoring
forces to the components being held.
GFlat retaining rings allow small amounts of
axial motion of the held component.
Bowed Internal
Retaining Ring
Bowed External
Retaining Ring
www.rotorclip.com
Smalley Compression Spring

Retaining System
Higher restoring forces can be obtained

using compression rings manufactured by
Smalley.
www.smalley.com
Retaining Ring Stress

Concentrations
G External retaining rings used
on shafts require that grooves
be cut into the shaft.
G The grooves generally have
sharp corners or very small
fillet radii which result in
significant stress concentration
factors.
Mott, Fig. 11-5
Retaining Ring Stress

Concentration Factors
G The high stresses at the root of
the retaining ring groove will be
highly localized and will not
significantly effect the static
strength of a shaft made from a
ductile material.
G The stress concentration factors
will be important in determining
the life of the shaft and must be
included in life calculations.
Shigley, Fig. A15-14 & 15
Retaining Ring Design

Dimensions and design guidelines for retaining rings
are contained in catalogs and literature published by
retaining ring manufacturers.
Rotoclip, Inc.
Smalley
Waldes Truarc, Inc.
Designs that use retaining rings must take into account

how the rings will be installed and make sure that
sufficient assembly clearance is provided.
Integral Shafts
G An alternative to attaching
components to shafts is to
machine the components
directly onto the shaft.
G This higher priced approach is
often the only approach
available when tight space
constraints exist.
G Complex combinations of
components can be obtained
using modern CNC turning
centers.
www.astas.co.za/shafts.html
Assignment
1) Make a drawing of an SAE straight-tooth- 4-spline
connection having a major diameter of 1.5000 in
and a class A fit. Show all critical dimensions.
What is the torque capacity of the spline?
2) Identify two applications of retaining rings used

in mechanical equipment. Describe the
applications and discuss why you think retaining
rings of the type used were chosen by the
designer.
Keys & Keyways

Lecture 19
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fundamental Problem in
Shaft Design
How do I connect stuff to the shaft?
Interference Fits
Keys & Keyseats
Integral Shaft
Pins
Hubs/Collars
Splines/Polygons
Interference Fits
Interference Fits Hole is undersized and part is heated to
allow it to slide over shaft. Compressive interface pressure
develops when part cools. Reference Lecture 15 Notes.
Notes
Keys and Keyseats
Keyseat
Keys are used to transmit torque
from a component to the shaft.
Mott, Figure 11-1
Types of Keyseats
Keyseats are classified according to

the process by which they are made.
Olivo, Fig. 40-3
Keyway Fabrication Methods
End Mill on Vertical

Milling Machine
Key Cutter on Horizontal

Milling Machine
Chang, Fig. 5.8, Mott, Fig. 12-6
Fillet Radii and Key Chamfers
45o chamfer
Not to Scale
Better Practice
General Practice: Zero

root fillet and chamfer
Standard contains recommended fillet

radii and key chamfer combinations to
provide lower stress concentration
factors.
Keys and Keyseats, ANSI

Standard B17.1-1967.
1967
Fillet Radii Fabrication

R0.3125
A Bull end mill can be used to

machine fillet radii in keyways.
Bull End Mill

MSC Catalog, Fanfara, Figure 3-6
Square and Rectangular

Parallel Keys
The hub is slightly larger than the shaft and key to allow it to
slide over the shaft during assembly. The set screw is used to
take up the slack. The resulting friction is used to provide
resistance to axial motion. Thread adhesive may be required to
ensure that vibration doesnt cause the set screw to loosen.
Mott, Figure 11-1
Square and Rectangular

Key Geometry
Keys and Keyseats, ANSI
Standard B17.1-1967.
1967
Width is approximately
the diameter of the shaft.
Standard contains tables of
recommended key sizes versus
shaft diameter.
Set Screws
Flat Point
Oval Point
Cup Point
Cone Point
Holding Power
Resistance to axial or
rotary motion of the hub or
collar relative to the shaft.
Holding power is a
function of friction
between contacting
portions of hub or collar
and shaft and any
penetration of the setscrew
into the keyway or shaft.
Half-dog Point
Shigley, Fig. 8-26
Representative Holding
Power Values
Based on alloy steel screw
against steel shaft, class
3A coarse or fine threads
in class 2B holes, and cuppoint socket setscrews.
Shigley, Table 8-13
Tapered Keys
Designed to be inserted from the end of the shaft after the hub
is in position. The taper will impart a compressive contact
pressure between the hub and the shaft. Friction will help
transmit torque and provide resistance to axial motion of the
hub relative to the shaft. Tapered keys do not require set
screws. Access to both ends of tapered keys are required so
that the key can be inserted and driven out when the key is
being removed.
Mott, Figure 11-3
Gib Head Keys
Installation is similar to standard tapered keys.

The extended head provides a holding method for
removing the key by pulling instead of driving it
out.
Mott, Figure 11-3, Shigley, Fig. 8-28
Woodruff Keys
Circular groove in shaft holds the key in place while the hub
is slid over the shaft. The Woodruff key will have less shear
strength than a rectangular or square key.
ANSI Standard B17.2-1967 lists recommended dimensions
for Woodruff Keys.
Mott, Figure 11-3
Circular (Pin) Keys
Significantly lower stress concentration factors result from

this type of key as compared to parallel or tapered keys. A
ball end mill can be used to make the circular key seat.
Fanfara, Figure 3- 6, Mott, Figure 11-3
Tapered Bushings
Tapered hub causes split bushing to be drawn down on
shaft. Higher strength alternative to set screws.
Key is used to transmit torque,

friction keeps system from
sliding axially along shaft.
Mott, Fig. 11-10, www.emerson-ept.com
Stress Analysis of
Parallel Keys
A key has two failure mechanisms: 1) it can be
sheared off, and 2) it can be crushed due to the
compressive bearing forces.
Bearing Surface
Shear Plane
F
F
Shear Stress Analysis of Square

and Rectangular Parallel Keys
F=
T
D
2
A s = WL
ave =
T
F
=
D (WL )
As
2
ave =
2T
DWL
( )
Mott, Fig. 11-4(b)
Required Key Length

(Shear)
From Maximum Shear
Stress Failure Theory,
the shear yield strength
is given by:
The minimum length of the

key can be found by setting
the average shear stress equal
to the allowable shear stress.
Sys = 0.5Syt
ave
all =
0.5Syt
N sf
0.5S yt
2T
=
=
DWL
N fs
4TN fs
Ls =
Syt DW
Bearing Stress: Square and

Rectangular Parallel Keys
F
b =
Ab
b,all =
T
F=
D
2
A b = HL
KSyc
N fs
4TN fs
Lb =
KSyc DH
Triaxial Stress Factor
1.0 K 1.5
2
Mott, Fig. 11-4(a)
Comparison of Shear and

Bearing Length Equations
Minimum Required
Length to Prevent
Shear Failure
Minimum Required
Length to Prevent
Bearing Failure
4TN fs
Ls =
S yt DW
4TN fs
Lb =
KSyc DH
If K=1, these equations give the same result for a square key. In
general K will be greater than 1.0 and more shear failures will be
observed in the field. Keys are generally designed to fail before
overloads can cause damage to the shaft or attached component.
In this respect they act like a mechanical fuse.
Stress Analysis of
Woodruff Keys
B
B
ds
2
A
Shear Area
ds
2
B B
2
= ds + A
2 2
Shear Analysis of
Woodruff Keys
2
B
B
ds
2
B B
2
= ds + A
2 2
A = d s (B d s )
A
ds
A s Shear Area = 2W d s (B d s )
ave
2T
=
DA s
s,all =
0.5S yt
N fs
Shear Pins
The strength analysis of shear pins is similar to that

used to find the strength of a fastener. Well defer the
strength analysis until we cover fasteners.
Mott, Fig. 11-9
Stress Concentration Factors

Key seats create stress concentrations in the shaft. There are
different stress concentration factors for bending and torsional
loads. Peterson contains a compilation of stress concentration
factors that includes key seat geometries. For flat end mills,
Peterson gives Kt=2.14 for bending and Kt=2.62 for torsion.
These may be reduced by using key seats made with bull end
mills. The stress concentration factor for a sled runner key seat
is significantly lower than for a profile key seat. A circular key
and keyseat will have lower stress concentration factors any
other key geometry.
R.E. Peterson, Stress Concentration
Factors, Wiley, New York, 1974.
Assignment
1. Determine the length of a parallel key for a gear to be
mounted on a shaft with a 2.00 in-diameter shaft. The
key is made from AISI 1020 cold-drawn steel. The gear
transmits 21,000 lb-in of torque and has a hub length of
4.00 inch.
2. A V-belt sheave transmits 1,112 lb-in of torque to a 1.75
in-diameter shaft. The sheave is made form ASTM class
20 cast iron and has a hub length of 1.75 in. Design a
parallel key and key seat. The key material is AISI 1020
cold-drawn steel. Create an AutoCAD drawing that
would enable a machinist to make the key seat.
Involute Gear Tooth Bending

Stress Analysis
Lecture 21
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Gear Interaction
Base Circle
Line of Centers
Line Tangent to
Base Circles
Line Normal to
Line of Centers
Base Circle
1st Close Up of Meshed Teeth

Line of Contact
H
W
H
W
Line Tangent to Base Circles
2nd Close Up of Meshed Teeth

Line of Contact
Base Circle
H
W
H
W
Base Circle
3rd Close Up of Meshed Teeth

Base Circle
Base Circle
Line of Contact
Line of Action/Pressure Angle

Line of Action Line tangent to both base circles
Pressure Angle Angle between the line normal to the line of
centers and the line of action.
Pitch Point Intersection of the line of centers with the line of
action
Line of Contact
Base Circle
Pitch Point
H
W
Line of Action
H
W
Base Circle
Pressure
Angle
Line of Centers
Pitch Circle
Pitch Circle Circle with origin at the gear center and
passing through the pitch point.
Pitch Circle
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
Base Circle
Relationship Between Pitch

and Base Circles
rb = rcos( )
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
Pitch Circle
rb
r
Base Circle
Torque Relationship
Power
P
T
=
Angular Velocity
P(hp)
550 lb ft sec 1.0 rev 60 sec 12 in
T=
n (rev/min)
1.0 hp
2 rad min
ft
P
T = 63,000 (lb in )
n
Tooth Load Equations

T
Wt =
d/2
Wr = Wt tan
H
W = Wt cos
Line of Contact
Base Circle
Wr
Line of Action
H
W
Base Circle
H
W
Wt
Line of Centers
Pressure
Angle
Gear Tooth Failure

Mechanisms
The primary failure mechanisms for involute gear teeth are:
1) excessive bending stresses at the base of the tooth and, 2)
excessive bearing or contact stress at the point of contact.
Mott, Fig. 9-14
The American Gear Manufacturers Association

(AGMA) has developed standard methods for
addressing both failure mechanisms.
AGMA Publications
Standand 1010-95, Nomenclature of Gear Tooth Failure
Modes, AGMA, Alexandria, VA, 1995.
Standard 6010-E88, Standard for Spur, Helical, Herringbone,
and Bevel Enclosed Drives, AGMA, Alexandria, VA, 1989.
Standard 2001-C95, Fundamental Rating Factors and
Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and Helical Gear
Teeth, AGMA, Alexandria, VA, 1994.
Standard 908-B89, Geometry Factors for Determining the
Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Spur, Helical
and Herringbone Gear Teeth, AGMA, Alexandria, VA 1989.
Lewis Equation
=
M
Ic
M = Wt L
1
I c = bt 3
12
2
bt
t =
2
6
6Wt L
=
bt 2
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
6Wt L
=
bt 2
Wt 1
Wt 1 1
=
=
2
2
b t 6L b t 4L 4 6
t 2 L
=
x
t 2
t2
x=
4L
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
Wt 1 1
=
2
b t 4L 4 6
t2
x=
4L
p circular pitch
W 1 1 p

= t
b x 2 3 p
y=
2x
3p
Wt
bpy
Lewis Form
Factor
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
y=
2x
3p
Wt
bpy
P Diametral Pitch = p
Y y
Wt P
=
bY
Y can be determined graphically

or by a computer.
Most
commonly
used form of
Lewis
Equation
Lewis Form Factor

(Example Values)
Values are for a normal
pressure angle of 20
degrees, full-depth teeth,
and a diametral pitch of
one.
Wt P
=
bY
Shigley, Table 14-2
Limitations of the Lewis

Equation
1. Assumes that maximum bending load occurs at the tip.
Maximum load occurs near the pitch circle when one
tooth carries all of the torque induced load.
2. Considers only bending component of the force acting
on the tooth. The radial force will cause a compressive
stress over the base cross section.
3. Doesnt consider contact stresses.
4. Assumes that the loads are static.
The AGMA has developed a number of factors to be
used with the Lewis Equation that will lead to an
acceptable design.
The AGMA Equations

=
Wt Pd
Ka Ks Km K v
FJ
F face width (b)

K a Application factor
K s Size factor
K m Load distribution factor
K v Dynamic factor
J Geometry factor
Pd Diametral Pitch = N d
d Pitch Diameter
N Number of Teeth
Wt Tangential Load
Sat K L
all =
KTKR
Sat AGMA Allowable
Stress Number
K L Life factor
K T Temperature Factor
K R Reliability Factor
Factors are used to adjust the
stress computed by the Lewis
equation. Factors are also used to
adjust the strength due to various
environmental conditions.
Shigley contains tables and charts
for many of these factors.
AGMA Form Factor

Note that the
AGMA Form
Factor will result
in a lower stress
than the Lewis
Equation.
Mott, Fig. 19-5
AGMA Allowable Bending

Stress Numbers
Grade 1 is the
basic or standard
material
classification.
Grade 2 requires
better than normal
microstructure
control.
Mott, Fig. 9-8
AGMA Dynamic Factor

The AGMA Dynamic Factor is used to correct the bending
stress number for dynamic effects associated with:
1. Inaccuracies in tooth profile, tooth spacing, profile lead,
and run-out,
2. Vibration of the tooth during meshing due to tooth
stiffness;
3. Magnitude of the pitch-line velocity,
4. Dynamic unbalance of the rotating members,
5. Wear and permanent deformation of contacting
surfaces,
6. Shaft misalignment and deflection, and
7. Tooth friction.
Dynamic Factor Chart

Q v AGMA Quality Number
The AGMA standards contain
tolerances for each quality number.
Pitch Line Velocity = r
The dynamic factor in

Shigley is equal to the
reciprocal of the dynamic
factor given in this chart.
Mott, Fig. 9-19
Assignment
1. A spur pinion has a pitch of 6 teeth/in, 22 full-depth
teeth, and a 20 degree pressure angle. This pinion
runs at a speed of 1200 rev/min and transmits 15 hp
to a 60-tooth gear. If the face width is 2 in, estimate
the bending stress.
2. A steel spur pinion has a module of 1.25 mm, 18 full
depth teeth, a pressure angle of 20 degrees, and a
face width of 12 mm. At a speed of 1800 rev/min,
this pinion is expected to carry a steady load of 0.5
kW. Determine the resulting bending stress.
Involute Gear Tooth Contact

Stress Analysis
Class 20
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Pitting In Gear Teeth

G Pitting phenomenon in which
small particles are removed from the
surface of the tooth because of the
high contact forces that are present
between mating teeth.
G Pitting is actually the fatigue failure
of the tooth surface.
G Hardness is the primary property of
the gear tooth that provides
resistance to pitting.
www.xteknic.com/products/gearproducts
Contact Stress Between

Two Cylinders
F
Contact Zone
2b
d1
L
y
p Contact
Pressure
d2
Contact Force
b
F=total contact force
F = 2L p(y)dy
0
Hertz Contact Stress

Equations
Contact Zone
2b
Contact Width
p max
b=
2F 1 12 E1 + 1 22 E 2
L
1 d1 + 1 d 2
y
Maximum Contact Pressure
z
p max
2F
=
bL
Reference Shigley, Page 73-74
Hertz Contact Stress

Equations
(Continued)
2
z
z
x = 2 p max 1 + 2
b
b
1
y = p max 2
2
1+ 2
b
z =
p max
z2
1+ 2
b
z
z
1+
2
2
b
b
Z-axis Stress
Components
Hertz Contact Stress Equations

(Continued)
This graph shows the
variation of the stress
components along
the z-axis.
Note that the
maximum shear
stress is much less
than the maximum
contact pressure.
Shigley, Fig. 2-35
Hertz Contact Stress Equations

(Continued)
Von Mises stress
variation along the z-axis.
Note that the von Mises
stress is much less than
the maximum contact
pressure.
eff = 0.26 p max
Syt
N fs
= 0.26 p max
if N fs = 1.0
then allowable p max 3.85 S yt
Equivalent Contacting Cylinders

Line of Contact
Base Circle
H
W
r1
H
W
Base Circle
Equivalent
Cylinder # 1
Equivalent
Cylinder # 2
r2
Radii of Equivalent Cylinders
r1 =
d psin
2
d p pinion pitch diameter

d g gear pitch diameter
pressure angle
r2 =
d g sin
2
r1 radius of equivalent cylinder #1

r2 radius of equivalent cylinder #1
Contact Stress in Gear Teeth

Contact Zone
2b
Contact Width
p max
b=
2F 1 12 E1 + 1 22 E 2
L
1 d1 + 1 d 2
y
Maximum Contact Pressure
z
p max
2F
=
bL
Contact Stress
p max
b=
Elastic Coefficient
2F
=
bL
) (
Cp =
1 2p 1 g2

E p
E
g
2F 1 12 E1 + 1 22 E 2
L
1 d1 + 1 d 2
F 1 1 12
1 22
b=
+
L E1
E2
4
1 1
+
r1 r2
p max
F 1 1
= Cp +
L r1 r2
1
2
Contact Stress
(Continued)
p max
F 1 1
= Cp +
L r1 r2
m g speed ratio =
1 1
2 1
1
+ =
+
r1 r2 sin d p d g
dp
(external gears)
1 1
2 m g + 1
+ =
r1 r2 d p sin m g
F = Wn = Wt cos
Wt 1 1
+
c = C p
L cos( ) r1 r2
dg
Wt
c = C p
d p LI
cos sin m g + 1
I=
2
mg
Contact Stress Summary

Wt
c = C p
d p LI
Form Factor
cos sin m g + 1
I=
2
mg
mg =
dg
(external gears)
dp
d g gear pitch diameter
d p pinion pitch diameter

pressure angle
Elastic Coefficient
Cp =
1 2p 1 g2

E p
E
g
L face width
Wt tangential force
1
2
AGMA Contact Stress Formulas

Wt C a Cs C m C f
c = C p
C v Fd I
c,all
Sc C L C H
=
CT C R
c absolute value of contact stress
c,all allowable contact stress
C p elastic coefficient
C L life factor
C a application factor
C H hardness ratio factor
C v dynamic factor
C T temperature factor
Cs size factor
C R reliability factor
d pitch diameter of pinion

C m load distribution factor
C f surface - condition factor
I geometry factor
Allowable Contact Stress Values
Hardness Ratio Factor
Assignment
Web reading assignments
www.xtekinc.com/products/gearproducts
(look under product information)
http://hghouston.com/case012.html
1. A speed reducer has 20 degree full-depth teeth and consists of a
22-tooth steel spur pinion driving a 60-tooth cast-iron gear. The
horsepower transmitted is 15 at a pinion speed of 1200 rev/min.
For a diametral pitch of 6 teeth/in and a face width of 2 in, find
the contact stress.
2. A gearset has a diametral pitch of 5 teeth/in, a 20 degree pressure
angle, and a 24-tooth cast iron spur pinion driving a 48-tooth cast
iron gear. The pinion is to rotate at 50 rev/min. What horsepower
input can be used with this gearset if the contact stress is limited
to 100 kpsi? and F=2.5 in?
Rolling Contact Bearings

Lecture 23
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Why Rolling Contact

Bearings?
Rolling contact bearings are used to
minimize the friction associated with
relative motion performed under load.
Typical applications
include supporting
shafts.
Bearing Nomenclature
Retainer
or Cage
Outside
Diameter Bore
Rolling Element
(Ball)
Inner Race
Outer Race
Inner and outer races are typically pressed onto the shaft or
hub with a slight interference fit to make them move with the
shaft (inner race) or remain stationary (outer race).
Ball Bearings
Thrust
Force
Radial
Force
Radial Ball
Angular Ball
Angular ball bearings have higher thrust load capacity

in one direction than due radial ball bearings.
www.torrington.com/products
Roller Bearings
Radial Cylindrical
Roller bearings have

higher load capacity
than ball bearings.
Radial Tapered
Thrust
Needle Bearings
Drawn Cup
Thrust
Heavy Duty
Gage
Needle bearings have very high load

ratings and require less space.
Other Types of Bearings
Sperical
Polymer
Bearings
www.igus.com/iglide/iglide.htm
Bronze Bushings
Rolling Contact Bearing

Materials
The space shuttle uses silicon nitride balls

in the oxygen and hydrogen turbopumps.
Mott, Table 14-2
Static Load Capacity

G The static load rating is the load at which permanent
deformation of a race or ball will occur.
G The bearing is not rotating when this measurement is
made.
G The static load rating is usually designated at C0.
Bearing Life
Bearings of the same type, size, and material
will exhibit wide variations in life.
Life number of revolutions (or hours of operation at
design speed) of the inner race that a certain
percentage of the bearings will survive at a known
load.
L10 Life - 10% of the bearings tested at or fail before a rated
number of revolutions of the inner race at the
rated load.
Statistical Nature of Life

Estimates
10% of the bearings
tested had failed by
18 million cycles.
50% of the bearings
tested had failed by
100+ million cycles.
Typical Weibull Plot of Bearing Fatigue Failures

B.J. Hamrock and W.J. Anderson, Rolling-Element
Bearings, NASA Reference Publication 1105, 1983.
Load/Life Relationship
L 2 F1
=
L1 F2
k = 3 for ball bearings

= 3.33 for roller bearings
Basic Dynamic Load Rating
L1 = 1,000,000 revolutions
F1 = C = Basic Dynamic Load Rating
The Basic Dynamic Load Rating is that load which will
cause 10% of a sample of bearings to fail at or before 1
million revolutions. (i.e. 90% of bearings would achieve at
least 1 million revolutions at this load).
Rated Load/Life
Relationship
L 2 F1
=
L1 F2
Bearing manufacturers
provide one set of data
relating load and life.
C
This equation is used to
6
L 2 = 10 Revolutions find the life at different
F2
loads.
Example Bearing Data
SKF Catalog
Outer Race Rotation

Manufacturers data is normally based on a rotating
inner race and a stationary outer race.
A rotating outer race and a stationary inner race
will have a lower life.
The Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers
Association (AFBMA) has developed a standard
equation for computing an equivalent radial load
that takes this into account.
Fe = XVFr
V = 1.0 Rotating Inner Race
V = 1.2 Rotating Outer Race
Combined Radial and

Thrust Loads
The AFBMA has also developed a standard equation
for computing an equivalent radial load.
Fr
Fe = XVFr + YFa
V = 1.0 Rotating Inner Race
V = 1.2 Rotating Outer Race
Fa
X and Y depend on the bearing

geometry and are given in
manufacturers data books
Variable Loads
Fe,1 , n1
T1
Fe,3 , n 3
Fe,2 , n 2
T2
T3
Fe,4 , n 4
T4
Fe,i Equivalent radial load for ith event

n i Speed of the ith event
Ti Time period of the ith event
k
(
)
T
n
F
i i e,i
Fe i =1 j
T
n
i i
i =1
j
1k
Mounting Bearings
Most manufacturers catalogs specify the limiting
dimensions for the shaft and housing bore. These are
generally controlled to within a few thousands of an
inch.
Mott, Fig. 14-13
Assignment
1. A certain application requires a bearing to last for 1800 h
with a reliability of 90 percent. What should be the rated
life of the bearing?
2. A ball bearing is to be selected to withstand a radial load
of 4 kN and have an L10 life of 1200 h at a speed of 600
rev/min. The bearing makers catalog rating sheets are
based on an L10 life of 3800 h at 500 rev/min. What load
should be used to enter the catalog?
3. Read Shigley, Chapter 11
4. Read www.timken.com/bearings/fundamen/
Plane Surface Bearings

Lecture 24
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Examples of Plain Surface

Bearings
In plain surface bearings the shaft moves relative to the
stationary bearing surface there is sliding contact versus
rolling contact.
Bronze Bearings
Bronze and Polymer Bearings are
two examples of plain surface
bearings.
Polymer Bearings
www.igus.com/iglide/iglide.htm
Journal Bearings
Plain Surface Bearings are often called journal bearings.
Journal bearings
usually employ a
lubricating fluid
between the bearing
and the journal.
Polymer bearings are
often self-lubricating
and do not employ a
lubricant.
Mott, Fig. 16-1
Lubrication Zones
Boundary
Lubrication
Contact between
journal and bearing
Mixed-film Lubrication
Intermittent contact
Coefficient of Friction
Boundary Lubrication
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Journal rides on a fluid
film. Film is created by the
motion of the journal.
Mixed-film
Lubrication
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
Bearing Parameter
n
Bearing Parameter
p
dynamic viscosity, lb - sec/in 2
n rotational speed, rev/sec
p pressure (force/projected area), psi
Hydrostatic Bearings
Pressure is used to lift the journal off of the bearing surface.
Mott, Fig. 16-9
Boundary Lubrication - Bearing

Materials
Bronze copper with tin, lead, zinc, or
aluminum alloying elements
Babbit lead or tin with copper and
antimony alloying elements
Aluminum
Powdered Metals (Sintered metals)
Polymers (plastics)
Manufacture of Powdered
Metals
Metal granules are
formed by cooling liquid
metals in jets of water.
www.mpif.org
P/M Compaction Cycle
P/M Design Guide, Metal

Powder Industries Foundation
P/M Sintering
During the sintering
process,
metallurgical bounds
are made between
the particles at a
temperature less than
the materials
melting point.
Volatile liquids are
evaporated out during the
delubrication stage.
Sintering is normally done in an inert

environment to prevent oxidation of
the material at the high temperatures.
www.mpif.org
PV Factor
(Used for Boundary Lubrication Design)
PV (PV )all.
P Force/Projected Area [psi]
V Journal Surface Speed [ft/min]
PV defines the maximum

combination of pressure
and speed that a bearing
material is capable of
withstanding.
Velocity Calculation
d
V = r =
2
rads rev 2 rads
= n
min min rev
1
ft rev 2 rads
V = (d in )
2
12 in min rev
V = dn
12
V
r
Temperature Adjustments
G PV factors are determined at a specific ambient
temperature.
G If an application is at a temperature significantly
different than that at which the PV factor was
determined, a temperature adjustment factor will be
required.
G Consult with the bearing manufacturer to obtain
appropriate values for a specific material.
Sample Manufacturers Data
Sample Dimensional Data
Assignment
Design a plain surface bearing for a radial load of 300
lb on a 1.5 inch diameter shaft rotating at 625 rpm.
Use an L/D ratio of approximately 1.0-1.5. Consider
both bronze and a polymer material for your design
decision. Explain the advantages of the design using
one material over the other. You will need to find
allowable PV data from manufacturers data
(recommend looking at www.igus.com).
Review information provided by Metal Powder
Industries Foundation at www.mpif.org.
Hydrodynamic Bearings Theory

Lecture 25
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Lubrication Zones
Boundary
Lubrication
Contact between
journal and bearing
Mixed-film Lubrication
Intermittent contact
Boundary Lubrication
Journal rides on a fluid
film. Film is created by the
motion of the journal.
Mixed-film
Lubrication
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
Bearing Parameter
n
Bearing Parameter
p
dynamic viscosity, lb - sec/in 2
n rotational speed, rev/sec
p pressure (force/projected area), psi
Stable/Unstable Lubrication
Boundary
Lubrication
Mixed-film
Lubrication
Bearing Parameter
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
n
p
is often referred to as stable
lubrication.
If the lubrication temperature
increases, the viscosity
drops. This results in a
lower coefficient of friction,
that causes the lubrication
temperature to drop. => Self
Correcting.
Mixed-film lubrication is unstable an increase in lubrication

temperature causes further increases in lubrication temperature.
Newtonian Fluid
A Newtonian fluid is any fluid whose shear stress and
transverse rate of deformation are related through the
equation.
du
=
dy
Dynamic Viscosity
du
=
dy
Units
ips
lbf
in 2
lbf sec
=
= reyn
2
in
in
sec
in
SI
N
m2
m
sec
m
N sec
m2
Other common units are discussed in the text.
Pumping Action
When dry, friction will cause the
journal to try to climb bearing
inner wall.
When lubricant is introduced, the

climbing action and the viscosity of
the fluid will cause lubricant to be
drawn around the journal creating a
film between the journal and bearing.
The lubricant pressure will push the
journal to the side.
Journal Bearing Nomenclature

is equal to 2 for a
full bearing
If is less than 2, it is
known as a partial
bearing.
We will only be
considering the full
bearing case.
Analysis Assumptions
1. Lubricant is a Newtonian fluid
2. Inertia forces of the lubricant are
negligible
3. Incompressible
4. Constant viscosity
5. Zero pressure gradient along the
length of the bearing
6. The radius of the journal is large
compared to the film thickness
Analysis Geometry
Actual Geometry
Unrolled Geometry
From boundary layer theory, the pressure

gradient in the y direction is constant.
X-Momentum Equation
dp

Fx = 0 = p + dx dx dydz + dxdz + y dy dxdz pdydz
dp
=
dx y
u
=
y
dp
2u
= 2
dx
y
X-Momentum Equation
(Continued)
X-Momentum Eq.
dp
2u
= 2
dx
y
General Solution
2 u 1 dp
=
2
y
dx
u 1 dp
=
y + C1 (x )
y dx
1 dp 2
y + C1 (x )y + C2 (x )
u=
2 dx
Boundary Conditions
y = 0, u = 0
y = h(x), u = -U
X-Momentum Equation
(Continued)
1 dp 2
u=
y + C1 (x )y + C2 (x )
2 dx
y = 0, u = 0
C2 (x ) = 0
U
h (x ) dp
C1 (x ) =
h (x ) 2 dx
y = h(x), u = -U
1 dp 2
U
u=
y h (x )y
y
2 dx
h (x )
Note that h(x) and

dp/dx are not known
at this point.
Mass Flow Rate
h (x )
= udy
m
0
=
m
h (x )
1 dp 2
U
y h (x )y
y dy
h (x )
2 dx
h (x )3 dp Uh (x )
=
m
2
12 dx
Conservation of Mass
h (x )3 dp Uh (x )
=
m
2
12 dx
Conservation of Mass Requires

dm
=0
dx
d h (x ) dp U dh

=0
dx 12 dx 2 dx
3
d h (x ) dp
dh
= 6 U
dx dx
dx
Reynolds Equation
h(x) Relationship
cr = radial clearance
e
=
cr
h ( ) = c r (1 + cos )
h min = c r (1 )
h max = c r (1 + )
2x
h (x ) = c r 1 + cos
D
Sommerfeld Solution
3
d h (x ) dp
dh
= 6 U
dx dx
dx
A. Sommerfeld solved these

equations in 1904 to find the
pressure distribution around the
bearing.
2x
h (x ) = c r 1 + cos
D
It is known as a long bearing

solution because there is no flow
in the axial direction.
Ur 6 sin (2 + cos )
p= 2
+ po 0
2
2
c r 2 + (1 + cos )
r is the journal radius, is a chosen design parameter.
Ocvirk Short-Bearing Solution

A short bearing allows lubricant flow in the longitudinal
direction, z, as well as in the circumferential direction, x.
3
3
h (x ) dp h (x ) dp
h

= 6U
x dx z dz
x
Governing
Equation
The Ocvirk solution (1955) neglects the first term

as being small compared to the axial flow.
U l2
3 sin
2
p = 2 z
3
rcr 4
(
)
1
+
cos
Short-Bearing Pressure Distributions
Norton Fig. 10-8 & 10-9
Short & Long Bearing

Comparisons
Assignment
Use Matlab to plot the pressure distribution predicted by the
Sommerfeld equation for a journal bearing having a
clearance ratio of 0.0017, journal radius of 0.75 in, of 0.6,
=2.2reyn, shaft rotational speed=20 rev/sec, and po=o.
First, generate the plot only for the range equals 0 to .
Second, generate the plot for the range equals 0 to 2.
What happens to the pressure distribution from to 2. Is
this physically possible? Discuss what would happen to the
lubricant if this pressure distribution occurred.
Hydrodynamic Bearings Design

Lecture 26
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Governing Equation
In the previous lecture, the momentum and continuity
equations were used to develop the following equation
3
h (x ) dp
dh (x )
= 6U
x dx
dx
This equation was generalized to include lubricant flow

in both the circumferential and longitudinal directions
3
3
(
)
(
)
h x dp
h x dp
dh (x )

= 6U
x dx z dz
dx
This equation is generally solved using

specialty computer programs.
Design Variables
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Viscosity,
Load, P (W/projected Area)
Speed, N
Dimensions r, c, , and L
Friction, f
Temperature rise, T
Volumetric flow rate, Q
Minimum film thickness, ho
The objective of the design engineer is to select the

independent variables necessary to achieve desired
performance criteria. The dependent variables will
be dictated by the selections made for the
independent variables.
Graphical Data
Raimondi and Boyd (1958) did extensive numerical studies
on the relationships between the various parameters that
govern the design of fluid film bearings and published
graphical data to facilitate the design of such bearings.
The charts presented in this lecture are for long bearings
with =360o (full bearings).
Albert Raimondi and John Boyd, A Solution for the Finite
Journal Bearing and Its Application to Analysis and Design,
Parts I, II, and III, Transactions of American Society of
Lubrication Engineers, Vol. 1, No. 1, in Lubrication Science
and Technology, Pergamon, New York, 1958, 159-209.
Viscosity-Temperature Charts
The viscosity of lubricants
used in fluid-film bearings
are very temperature
dependent.
As work is done on the fluid
as it moves through the
bearing it heats up.
The viscosity used in the
design/analysis of a fluidfilm bearing should be based
on the average temperature.
Shigley, Fig. 12-11
Average Temperature
Tout = Tin + T
Tave =
Tave
Tin + Tout
2
T
= Tin +
2
An initial T is estimated
at the start of an analysis.
Iteration will be required
based on the actual T.
Shigley, Fig. 12-11
Sommerfeld Number
The Sommerfeld Number is used extensively
in journal bearing design.
r N
S=
c P
r
c
N
P
journal radius
clearance
dynamic viscosity
rotational speed (rev/sec)
bearing load/projected area
Note that consistent units must be used. The

unit for the Sommerfeld number is Rev.
A. Sommerfeld, Zur Hdrodynamischen Theorie der SchmiermittelReibung, Z. Math. Physik, vol. 50, 1904, pp 97-155.
Example Problem
Given design parameters:
SAE 30 Oil
Tin = 150 oF
N = 30 rev/sec
W = 500 lb
r = 0.75 in
c = 0.0015 in
L = 1.50 in
(oil inlet temperature)

(journal rotational speed)
(total load acting on bearing)
(journal radius)
(clearance between journal and bearing)
(length of bearing)
Use the Raimondi-Boyd charts to determine the

bearing performance parameters.
Step 1 Estimate Average

Lubricant Temperature
Assume a temperature rise in the oil of 34oF.
Tave
T
= Tin +
2
Tave
34F
= 150F +
= 167F
2
Step 2 Find Average Viscosity
= 2.2 reyn
Shigley, Fig. 12-11
Step 3 Compute Force/Projected

Area (P)
W
500 lb
P=
=
2 r L 2 0.75 in 1.5 in
P = 222 lb/in 2
Step 4 Compute L/D and Bearing

Characteristic Number
1.5 in
= 1.0
L/D =
2(0.75 in)
r
S=
c
0.75 in
=
0.0015 in
S = 0.0743
2.2x106 lb sec/in 2 (30 rev/sec)
2
222 lb/in
Step 5 Find Minimum Film

Thickness and Eccentricity
h0
= 0.28
c
=
e
= 0.7
c
Contact
Light Load
Shigley, Fig. 12-14
Step 5 Continued
h0
= 0.28
c
=> h 0 = 0.28(0.0015 in ) = 0.00042 in
=
e
= 0.72
c
=> e = 0.72(0.0015 in ) = 0.00108 in
Step 6 Find Position of Minimum

Film Thickness
= 44 degrees
Step 7 Find the Maximum Film

Pressure
P
= 0.36
Pmax
Pmax = 222/0.36 = 617 psi
Step 8 Find Location of Maximum

Pressure
= 18
p max
po = 65
Shigley Fig 12-21
Step 9 Find Coefficient of Friction

r
f = 2.5
c
0.0015 in
f = 2.5
0.75 in
f = 0.005
Step 10 Find Horsepower Required

to Overcome Friction
W
r
T = f Wr
T (in - lb ) = 63,000
ff = f W
Pwr(hp)
N (rev/min )
T (in lb ) N (rev/min )
Pwr(hp) =
63,000
T = 0.005 500 lb 0.75 in

T = 1.88 in - lb
(
1.88 )(30 60 )
Pwr =
63,000
Pwr = 0.054 hp
Step 11 Find the Lubricant Flow

Rate
Q
= 3.5
r c NL
Q = 3.5 r c N L
Q = 3.5 (0.75 in )(0.0015 in )

(30 rev/sec)(1.5 in )
3
in
Q = 0.177
sec
Step 12 Find Side Flow Leakage

Qs
= 0.8
Q
3
in
Qs = 0.8 0.177
3
in
Qs = 0.142
sec
sec
Step 13 Find Temperature Rise of

Lubricant
It is assumed that all of the frictional energy is
converted to heat and carried away by the lubricant.

=Q
W
f
= T
W
f
f
=m
c T
Q
p
Tf
T =
cp
m
Tf = f W r
= 2 N
= Q
m
2 f W r N
T =
Q c p
Temperature Rise
(Continued)
2 f W r N
T =
Q cp
f = 0.005
W = 500 lbf
lbf R
= 0.86
H 2O
sec
9,338lbf in = BTU
T = 16.4 F
r = 0.75 in
N = 30 rev/sec
c = 0.42 BTU
3
in
Q = 0.177
ft
lb
= 62.4
3
3
ft 1728 in
Note that a temperature rise

of 34 oF was assumed when
the average temperature was
estimated.
The analysis needs to be
repeated with an improved
estimate for Tave.
Assignment
A journal bearing has a diameter of 3 in and is 1.5 in
long; it supports a load of 800 lbf. The journal speed is
600 rev/min and the radial clearance is 0.0025 in. Find
the minimum oil-film thickness and the maximum film
pressure for both SAE 10 and SAE 40 lubricants if the
operating temperature is 150 oF.
Discuss why one has a larger film thickness than the
other.
Mechanical Fasteners
Tension Connections
Lecture 29
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Tension Connection
A threaded fastener
connection has clearance gaps
that are used to assemble the
connection.
A connection can be loaded in
either tension/compression or
shear.
Because of the clearance gaps,
dowel pins are often used for
accurately positioning of
mating parts.
Shigley, Fig. 8-12
Proof Load & Proof Stress

Proof Load : Maximum force that a fastener can withstand
without acquiring a permanent set.
Proof Stress:
Stress Proof Load divided by the tensile-stress-area
of the fastener.
The proof stress is slightly less than the yield stress

of the material due to stress concentrations in the
threads.
Bolt Preload
grip
Purpose of bolt is to clamp

two parts together.
Turning the nut on the
threads will stretch the bolt
to create a clamping force.
The clamping force will
impart a compressive force
on the mating parts.
The clamping force is called
preload or initial tension.
Shigley, Fig. 8-12
Bolt Stiffness
= d + t
grip
Fi
d =
kd
Ld
kd
Lt
kt
Fi
t =
kt
kdk t
Fi =
kd + kt
Fi = k b
Clamped Part Stiffness

Fi = k m
L1
L2
1
1 1
1
= + +
k m k1 k 2 k 3
L3
k1 = A1E L1
k 2 = A2E L2
k 3 = A 3E L3
Pressure-Cone Equations
Reference Shigley, page
339-340 for derivation
0.577 Ed
k=
(1.15t + D d )(D + d )
ln
(1.15t + D + d )(D d )
Shigley, Fig. 8-14
External Load Interaction

Preloaded Connection
Pb Pm
=
=
kb km
kb
Pb = Pm
km
P = Pb + Pm
Pb =
k bP
kb + km
Fb = Pb + Fi
k bP
Fb =
+ Fi
kb + km
k mP
Fm =
Fi
kb + km
Fm < 0
Shigley, Fig. 8-12
External Load Interaction

Preloaded Connection
Let
C=
kb
kb + km
Fb = CP + Fi
Fm = (1 C )P Fi
C is the ratio of the bolt stiffness to the total stiffness

(bolt plus clamped material).
Sample Data
Bolt: -13 UNC-2A
Material: Steel
Bolt Grip
(in)
2
3
4
C=
kb
kb + km
Mlb/in
kb
kp
2.57
1.79
1.37
12.69
11.33
10.63
C
0.168
0.136
0.114
1-C
0.832
0.864
0.886
Most of the external load, P, is carried by the

mating parts.
Making the grip longer decreases the bolts
share of the the load.
Bolt Force Displacement

Diagram
Fb
kb
Fm=0
Fi
kb
kb
kb + km
When the mating

parts and bolt are
made from the same
material, an external
load will not cause
an appreciable
increase in the bolts
total force until
separation of the
mating parts occurs.
Recommended Preload
Fp = Sp A t
Disassembly Required
Fi = 0.75 Fp
Permanent Connection
Fi = 0.90 Fp
Fp Bolt proof load

Sp Bolt proof strength
At Tensile stress area
Fi Bolt preload
These recommendations assume
that the nut or threaded part has
sufficient shear strength in the
threads (i.e. steel bolts and steel
nuts).
Bolt Failure Criteria

Fb = CP + Fi
kb
C=
kb + km
CP Fi
b =
+
At At
CnP Fi
Sp =
+
At
At
n Load Factor
Sp Proof Stress
n=
Sp A t Fi
CP
Connection Separation
Criteria
Fm = (1 C )P Fi
Let Po = nP, where

n is a load factor, then
At separation, Fm = 0
0 = (1 C )Po Fi
Po =
Fi
1 C
Po External load that

will cause separation
Fi
n=
P(1 C )
It is necessary to check both bolt
stress and connection separation
when designing a tension
connection. Separation often
occurs first.
Assignment
In the figure, the bolts have a diameter of inch and the cover
plate is steel, with D=1/2 inch. The cylinder is cast iron, with
E=5/8 inch and a modulus of elasticity of 18 Mpsi. The inch
SAE washer to be used under the nut has OD=1.062 inch and is
0.095 inch thick. Find the stiffness of the bolt and the mating
members and the joint constant.
Assignment
(Continued)
In addition to the information given in problem 1, the
dimensions of the cylinder are A=3.5 inch and an effective
seal diameter of 4.25 inch. The internal static pressure is
1,500 psi. The outside diameter of the head is C = 8 inch.
The diameter of the bolt circle is B = 6 inch, and a bolt
spacing in the range of 3 to 5 bolt diameters would require
8 to 13 bolts. Select ten SAE grade 5 bolts and find the
resulting load factor n.
Tensile and Shear Stress Areas
Lecture 28
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Threaded Fasteners
Bolt Threaded fastener designed to
pass through holes in mating members
and to be secured by tightening a nut
from the end opposite the head of the
bolt.
Screw Threaded fastener designed to

be inserted through a hole in one
member and into a threaded hole in a
mating member.
Mott, Fig. 18-1
Bolts
Mott, Fig. 18-2
Machine Screws
Mott, Fig. 18-3
Sheet Metal and

Lag Screws
Sheet metal screws are often self-tapping.
Mott, Fig. 18-4
Set Screws
Set screws are used to develop a normal force

between two objects (e.g. collar and shaft).
Mott, Fig. 18-5
Thread Standards
(Inch Series)
American Standard B1.1-1949
First American standard to cover the Unified Thread
Series agreed upon by the United Kingdom, Canada,
and the United States. Represents the basic American
standard for fastener threads. Threads made to this
standard are called unified threads.
ANSI B1.1-1989/ASME B1.1-1989
Revised standard that still incorporates much of the
original standard.
Thread Standards
(Metric Series)
ANSI B1.13M-1983 (R1989)
Contains system of metric threads for general
fastening purposes in mechanisms and structures.
Fasteners made to this standard are often referred
to as M-series.
Thread Profiles
The pitch line or diameter is located at the height of the

theoretical sharp v-thread profile.
Thread Series
Thread Series groups of diameter-pitch combinations
distinguished from each other by the number of threads per inch
applied to a specific diameter.
Unified Coarse-Thread Series (UNC or UNRC)
Most commonly used in the bulk production of bolts,
screws, nuts for general engineering applications.
Unified Fine-Thread Series (UNF or UNRF)
Use when more threads per inch are required (i.e.
where are short length of engagement is available).
M-Series
Metric system of diameters, pitches, and
tolerance/allowances.
Thread Classes
Thread Classes Define the amount of tolerance
and allowance associated with a particular thread.
Classes 1A, 2A, 3A apply to external threads.
Class 2A is the most commonly used.
Classes 1B, 2B, 3B apply to internal
threads. Class 2B is the most commonly used.
Thread Designations
(Inch Series)
The following is an example of the standard method used to
designate bolt and screw thread requirements on a drawing or
in a specification.
Threads per inch
Thread Class
1 4 20UNC 2A
External Thread
Nominal Size
Thread Series
Thread Designations
(Metric Series)
The following is an example of the standard method used to
designate bolt and screw thread requirements on a drawing or
in a specification.
Pitch (mm)
Nominal Diameter
Lowercase=> external
thread
M6x1 4g6g(22)
Metric Series
Tolerance Classification
Material and Strength

Designations
Mott, Table 18-1

Designations
(Continued)
Mott, Table 18-2

Designations
Mott, Table 18-3
Tensile Stress Area

The average axial stress in a fastener is
computed using a tensile stress area.
ave
F
=
At
Dr + Dp
At =
4 2
F Axial Force
D r Root Diameter
2
D p Pitch Diameter
A t Tensile Stress Area
ave Average axial stress
Tests of threaded rods have shown that an unthreaded rod having a

diameter equal to the mean of the pitch diameter and the minor diameter
will have the same tensile strength as the threaded rod.
Tensile Stress Area

(Continued)
3
3
D t = d b 2 H + H
16
8
1
tan (60)
H=
2n
D t diameter at critical plane

d b diameter of bolt
H theoretical height of thread
n 1 p = threads/in
Matt Scolforo, Sverdrup Technology
Tensile Stress Area

(Continued)
3
3
D t = d b 2 H + H
16
8
H=
1
tan (60)
2n
tan (60) 3 3
Dt = db
+
n
8 16
Dt = db
9 3
16n
2
At = Dt
4
0.9743
At = db
4
n
This is the formula used by

manufacturers of inch series
fasteners to publish the tensile
area in their catalogs.
Tensile Stress Area

(Continued)
The following formula may be obtained in

a similar manner for metric series threads.
0.9328
At = db
4
n
Shear Area of External

Thread
Consideration of the interaction between mating threads must
be considered to establish the shear area of an external thread.
Shear Area of External Threads

(Continued)
A s,e = K n,max t e n
A s,e shear area of external thread

K n,max maximum minor diameter of internal thread
0.5t e
tan (30) =
0.75H gap
t e thickness of external thread at critical shear plane

n threads per inch

Threads
(Continued)
A s,e = K n,max t e n
1
1 3
gap = K n,max +
E s,min
2
2 2n
0.5t e
tan (30) =
0.75H gap
Es,min=minimum pitch diameter of the external thread
H=
3
1
tan (60) =
2n
2n
1 3 3 1
1 3
te = 2
K n,max +
E s,min
2 2n
3 4 2n 2
te =
3
t e = 2 tan (30) 0.75
gap
2n
1
1
(E s,min K n,max )
+
2n
3
The gap equation is based on

tolerance data.

Threads
(Continued)
A s,e
1
1
(E s,min K n,max )
= n K n,max +
3
2n
This equation appears in the ANSI standards and gives

the shear area per unit length of engagement. It must be
multiplied by the length of engagement, Le, to obtain the
actual shear area. This area is often reported in
manufacturers data sheets for bolts and screws.
A s,e
1
1
(E s,min K n,max ) Le
= n K n,max +
3
2n
Shear Area of Internal

Threads
A s,i = D s,min t i n
Ds,min Minimum major diameter (external thread)

t i thickness of internal thread (critical plane)
Shear Area of Internal

Threads
(Continued)
Similar to the previous derivation, an equation that takes
into account the tolerances of the thread system can be
derived to compute the shear area of the internal thread.
1
1
(Ds,min E n,max )
A s,i = D s,min n +
3
2n
E n,max maximum pitch diameter of the internal threads
Length of Engagement
(Equal Strength Materials)
If the internal thread and external thread material have
the same strength, then
Tensile Strength
(External Thread)
Fmax
St =
At
Shear Strength
(Internal Thread)
Fmax
0.5St =
A s,i L e
Fmax = St A t = 0.5St A s,i L e

2A t
Le =
A s,i
Length of Engagement
(Unequal Strength Materials)
If the internal thread and external thread do not have
the same material, then
Tensile Strength
(External Thread)
Fmax
St,e =
At
Shear Strength
(Internal Thread)
Fmax
0.5St,i =
A s,i L e
Fmax = St,e A t = 0.5St,i A s,i L e

Le =
2A t St,e
A s,i St,i
Bolt/Nut Design Philosophy

ANSI standard bolts and nuts of equal grades are
designed to have the bolt fail before the threads
in the nut are stripped.
The engineer designing a machine element is
responsible for determining how something should
fail taking into account the safety of the operators
and public. Length of engagement is an important
consideration in designing machine elements with
machine screws.
Assignment
A 5/16-18UNC-2A fastener is made from a material having a
yield strength of 120 ksi. The fastener will be engaged with a
nut made from the same material. Compute the tensile stress
area, shear stress area per length of engagement, and
minimum length of engagement. Dimensional information on
the threads is given below.
The minimum pitch diameter of the external thread is 0.2712
in., and the maximum minor diameter of the internal thread is
0.265 inch, minimum major diameter of the external thread is
0.3026 in, and the maximum pitch diameter of the internal
threads is 0.2817 (reference Table 4, page1544, Machinerys
Handbook).
Torque Vs Preload Relationship
Lecture 30
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Tension Connection
A threaded fastener connection
has clearance gaps that are used
to facilitate assembly of the
connection.
A connection can be loaded in
either tension/compression or
shear.
Because of the clearance gaps,
dowel pins are often used for
accurately positioning of mating
parts and prevent sliding motion.
Shigley, Fig. 8-12
How Much Torque to Achieve

Preload Requirement?
Fb
kb
Fm=0
Fi
kb
kb
kb + km
In the previous lecture, it was shown that a high

preload is a very desirable in a tension connection.
Torque-Preload Relationship
Modified for
Thread Angle
Alpha
Square Tooth
Power Screw
Equation
FD p l + D p
Tu =
2 D p l
FDp l + Dpsec
T=
2 D p l sec
These equations give the torque

required to impart an axial force
and overcome thread friction.
Torque-Preload Relationship
(Continued)
Nut Surface
Friction Torque
F d
Tn = n n
2
n = Coefficient of Friction
between nut and part
d n mean annulus diameter
of nut
Fi D p l + D psec Fi n d n
+
T=
2 D p l sec
2
d n 1.5D p (Standard Washer)
T = kFi d
D p tan + sec
+ 0.625 c
k =
2d 1 tan sec
l
tan =
D p
Experimental Data
Given
T=90 N-m
Measure
Preload, Fi
Bolt
M12x1.25
There is considerable
scatter in torque-versus
preload data.
Unlubricated
Ave. Fi=34.3 kN
Std. Dev. = 4.91 kN
2
= 29%
Fm
Lubricated
Ave. Fi=34.2 kN
Std. Dev. = 2.9 kN
2
= 17%
Fm
J.C. Blake and H.J. Kurtz,Uncertainties in Measuring Fastener Preload,

Machine Design, Vol. 37, Sept. 30, 1965, pp. 128-131.
Typical Values of K
Bolt Condition
Black oxide finish
Zinc-plated
Lubricated
k
0.3
0.2
0.18
Bolt manufacturers often list recommended

k values with their product data.
Maximum Torque Values

It is very easy to twist off a small diameter fastener ( < 5/16
inch) when preloading a connection.
Design organizations often establish maximum torque
values than can be applied to a fastener during installation.
Assignment
An initial preload of 50 ksi is needed in a -13UNC2A steel fastener. The coefficient of friction for the
threads is estimated to be 0.4, and the coefficient of
friction between the bolt head and part is estimated to
be 0.3. What torque should you specify on the
drawing to assure that the fastener is installed with the
correct preload?

Engineering 473

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Mechanical Properties of

Ductile Metallic Materials

H. Schwartzbart, W.F. Brown,

Stress-Strain Curves for

Manjoine, M.J., Influence of Rate of

Experimental Data for

Hoge, K.G., Influence of Strain

Skrzypek, J.J., Plasticity and Creep:

Skrzypek, J.J., Plasticity and Creep:

Typical curves obtained from constant stress/temperature tests.

Load Direction (Tensile or Compressive)

Metals are complex materials when used throughout

Things that Affect Metal Strength

Load Direction (Tensile or Compressive)

Common Fabrication Processes

Microstructure Changes due to Hot

The granular structure of the material

Hot Working Temperatures

Temperature Range (oF)

Example of Microstructure Changes

Allen, Fig, 16-18.

Beneficial Effects of Hot Rolling

A hot working process

A blacksmith uses a hammer and

The curvature on the

Allen, Fig. 16-19

Directional Nature of Forged Material

Flow lines in upset forging of 1.5 dia. AISI 1045

Strength of Forged Materials

Allen, Fig. 16-25

Example of Extruded Aluminum

Allen, Fig. 16-24

Directional Nature of Extrusion

Flow Lines in Extruded Section

Allen, Figs 16-26 and 16-27

Extrusion Conditions for Typical

Allen, Table 16-2

Strength of Extruded Materials

Conventional Spin Forming

Shear Spin Forming

(No change in material thickness)

(Significant material thickness changes)

Used to produce rocket motor casings and missile nose cones.

Directional Nature of Spin Formed

Grid Flow Lines in Shear Spun Copper Cone

Effect of Cold Working on

Strength of Spin Formed Materials

Spin formed products have increased strength in the

Flinn, Fig. 3-19

Fabrication Processes Summary

Fabrication Processes Summary

Moment equilibrium requires that

Tensor Sign Convention

This sign convention must be

Stresses acting in a positive

The sign convention used

All equations for a 2-D

F in the x- and ydirections yields the

The transformation-of-axis equations can be used to

We will use these equations extensively during this class.

Note that the shear

Comments on Shear Stress

The sign convention is

The same answer is obtained