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A THESIS
IN
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Approved
August, 200
^ ^ ^ : ;,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
University for accepting me into its graduate program and for providing the financial
support which allowed me to pursue my educafion and to carry out the research work.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Lloyd R. Heinze for ser\ mg as my
thesis committee as the chairman. His constant guidance and valuable advice \\ hile
carrying out this thesis project as well as at different points of my entire slay at Texas
Tech have been a great asset for me. I am also thankful to Dr. James C. Cox for agreeing
to be on my thesis committee and patiently answering all my questions. His suggestions
were very helpful as I worked through my thesis. The valuable advices and the
encouraging words of Dr. Akanni S. Lavval, our graduate ad\isor, were of great help
during my stay at Texas Tech University. His words will continue to encourage me in all
my future endeavors. 1 consider the exchange of knowledge that I had w ith all the facult\
members, particularly Drs. James F. Lea and Scott M. Frailey, to be my life-time
treasure. 1 would also like to thank the staff members of the Department of Petroleum
Engineering who were very supportive and helpful to me.
I thankfully acknowledge the useful communications that I had with Mr. 1 on\
Smith of Unichem, Mr. K. M. Barker of Baker Petrolite, Tony Cunningham of Pctroplex
Acidizing, Dercck Cummings of Guardian Chemicals, J. Brent Johnson and Walt GloNcr
of Halliburton Energy Services and Shaun Mesher of Trysol.
Last but not the least, I proudly acknowledge the encouragement and support that
my parents Mr. Chandra M. Baruah and Mrs. Anjali M. Baruah have given to their son
for pursuing higher educafion at a place half way across the globe. Ponkhi, my only little
sister, brightens my day. when her instant message '"oi! ki koriso'.^" (He\! What are you
doing'.') coming across the globe, over the internet, often pops up h\ the corner ol m\
computer screen in the midst of writing this thesis!
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
ABSTRACT
vi
LIST OF TABLES
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
viii
NOMENCLATURE
ix
II.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.2
Objective
1.3
Necessity
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1
2.1.1
Historical Prospective
2.1.2
Composition of Deposits
2.1.2.1
Paraffin Waxes
2.1.2.2
Microcrystalline Waxes
2.1.2.3
2.1.3
Theory of Deposition/Crystallization
2.1.3.1
Precipitation
2.1.3.2
Deposition
2.1.4
11
2.1.4.1
Naturally Occurring
11
2.1.4.2
Operational Causes
11
2.1.5
Remedial Measures
12
2.1.5.1
Mechanical Methods
12
2T.5.2
Thermal Methods
16
2.1.5.3
Chemical Methods
19
2.1.5.4
Other Methods
23
111
2.1.6
24
2.1.7
Common Terminology
27
2.2
Commercial Survey
29
2.2.1
The Internet
29
2.2.2
Product Catalogue
30
2.2.3
The Outcome
30
EXPERT SYSTEMS
33
m.
3.1
33
3.2
How it works
34
3.3
36
3.4
37
3.4.1
37
3.4.2
38
3.4.3
Expert Master
39
IV.
METHODOLOGY
4.1
40
40
4.1.1
Requirement No. 1
41
4.1.2
Requirement No. 2
41
4.1.3
Requirement No. 3
42
4.2
42
4.3
44
4.4
44
4.4.1
Abundance of Theory
44
4.4.2
45
4.4.3
46
4.4.4
No Analytical Method
46
4.5
47
4.5.1
4"
4.5.2
48
i\
4.6
The Database
48
4.7
Stafisfical Approach
50
V.
4.7.1
The Problem
51
4.7.2
TheSolufion
52
54
5.1
Achievements
54
5.2
Conclusions
54
5.3
Recommendafions
55
REFERENCES
56
ABSTRACT
From the very beginning of the business of hydrocarbon exploitation, the problem
of paraffin deposition was encountered with varying degrees. With oil exploitafion
expanding into exotic frontiers like deep-water and the Arctic Circle, wax deposition
became a greater challenge for the operators. Various mechanical, thermal and chemical
methods are used to remove and prevent wax deposition. Howe\ er, it is often difficult to
select the most effecfive and economic remedial measure for a siven situation. Due to
uniqueness of every crude, there is no single technique that is most effective for all t\ pes
of crude oils.
The main objecfive of this thesis project is to explore the feasibilities of using
computer-based consulting systems, commonly known as expert systems, to select the
best remedial measure of wax deposition in a given situation.
Extensive literature survey was carried out to understand and collect infomiation
on the phenomena of wax deposition and removal/prevention techniques. A separate
survey was conducted to understand expert systems in general and also to find out the
criteria and resources required for building one. Then a feasibility study of building an
envisioned computer system was conducted. Steps were also taken to initiate the building
of an expert svstein.
VI
LIST OF TABLES
31
49
\ II
LIST OF FIGURES
2.2 : Common Tools for Paraffin Removal by Scrapping (a) Paraffin Scratcher and
(b) Paraffin Cutter or Tubing Gage
14
14
15
20
22
29
35
43
50
Mil
NOMENCLATURE
Dbefore = Original paraffin depositional rate of the crude sample before treatment
Dqfrer = Ncw paraffin deposifional rate of the crude sample after treatment
A
=R35,b-R70,b
= R35,a - R70,a
fe,a
Ryoi^
IX
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
From the very beginning of the business of hydrocarbon exploitafion, the problem
of paraffin deposition was encountered with varying degrees. Mention of this problem
can be found in literatures as eariy as in 1865. Eariier, mechanical methods like scrapping
and pigging and thermal methods like hot-oiling, etc., were used to remo\ e paraffin from
producfion strings and flowlines. However, over the years operators started preferring
chemical inhibifion methods rather then these crude and expensix e mechanical and
thermal methods. More sophisficated methods like ultra-sonic removal, magnetic fluid
condifioning, microbial inhibition etc. are also considered.
With oil exploitation expanding into exotic frontiers like deep-water and the
Arctic Circle, wax deposition became a greater challenge for the operators. The\ started
looking for more economic and reliable technique to handle the challenge. Chemical
inhibition is one of these methods that are widely used. However, the characteristics of
crude oil differ from field to field. They may even differ when sampled from the same
well, but from different zones. Therefore, every crude oil is distinct and no single method
is universally effective for all types of crude oils and environments to remove and inhibit
paraffin deposition. Hence, no one additive proves to be effective for all crudes. Selection
of an additive is very crucial for a successful prevention of wax deposition. Laboratory
pre-testing and screening of various chemicals solvents, inhibitors and/or dispersant for
waxy reservoir fluids help eliminate unnecessary and more expensive field practices and
trials. Even such laboratory pre-testing can also be eliminated if a vast database of
experiences exists. Otherw ise, only an experienced person with a vast knowledge of
previous treatment operafions can give a suitable decision.
With the advent of computer systems and tools like artificial intelligence, it is
now possible to capture human expertise into a computer system. In this project, an
1
investigafion will be made to explore the possibilities of using an expert system for help
selecting the best method of paraffin inhibition and removal.
1.2 Objecfive
In addifion to invesfigafing the possibilifies of using an expert system to help selecting
the best method of paraffin inhibifion and removal, a number of other objecti\ es
are also set. The list of all the objecfives of this project is as follows:
To define and/or specify a computer system that has been envisioned to store
and utilize expeilise to help selecting the best remedial measure of paraffin
deposition in a given situation.
To explore the feasibilifies of using expert systems to select the best remedial
measure of paraffin deposifion in a given situafion.
1.3
Necessity
With the deposition of paraffin, the effective diameter of flow path of crude oil
gets reduces. Eventually it may altogether block the flow path that includes flowlines,
production strings, perforations and the connected pores of formation. As a result, the
effectiveness of the natural drive-mechanism(s) and/or any artificial means of
transporfing the crude from the formation to the surface and then to collecting/processing
station are highly reduced. Therefore, for efficient and smooth exploitation oi'
hydrocarbon, it becomes necessary to remove and inhibit precipitation and subsequent
deposition of paraffin and other wax systems.
Significant monies are spent per year to address this problem. To minimize this
unavoidable expense, it is also necessary to select the most efficient and economical
technique. Due to uniqueness of every crude, there is no single technique \iable for all
crude types. One can decide either by experimental trials or from experiences. With the
paucity of human experts, it is necessary to capture their expertise into a computer system
so that it can be used by non-experts. Often the human experts are biased or limited to a
specific technique, so a system with a wider scope that can give neutral but technically
appropiate response is essenfial.
CHAPTER n
LITERATURE SURVEY
One of the most important aspects of this thesis project is to gather infoiTnation.
Particularly to meet requirement discussed in secfion 4.1, an extensi\e literature survey is
required. Moreover, before a funcfional expert system can be built, thorough
understanding of the subject and a sufficiently huge knowledgebase are also required
(details discussed in Chapter IV). Therefore, a vigorous sur\ e\ of available literature and
commercially available products was carried out. The goal was to gather information and
organize it in the form of the following:
The survey was carried out in the following two phases, one after another:
It was a survey of technical literature. Much information was collected from the
SPE image library. Other two sources of technical papers were South Western Petroleum
Short Course and Canadian Journal of Petroleum Technology. These resources were
searched with the following keywords: paraffin, wax and asphaltene. A number of papers
showed up in the search results. This search result w as pnnted and the relevant papers
were selected for further studies. These papers were printed and reviewed lor rele\ant
information.
Bone. The first scienfific invesfigafion of the problem in oil wells was conducted by
Mills'^^ in 1923. Later in 1932, Reistle^^ published a comprehensive report on paraffin
deposifion and other related problems in different areas of the oil industr\. His work has
become a classic reference for the industry and is regarded as one of the most complete
and thorough studies ever presented. Later in the 1960s, laboratory studies canied out
with cold spot testers by Hurt,^^ Jorda^" revealed that roughness is one of the major factor
contributing to paraffin deposition.
Bucaram'^ studied the phenomena along with effect of some chemical inhibitors
using a microscope with a camera attachment. After Bucaram, many other in\ estigators""*
carried out an extensive study on various chemical inhibitors. However, no chemical w as
found to be effective in all kinds of crude oils and often they are environmentally
hazardous or economically prohibifive. The chemicals used so far were either solvents or
dispersants. Knox, Waters and Amold^^ discovered a new class of chemicals called
crystal modifiers. Due to low cost and non-hazardousness, these chemicals were thought
to be a promising option for paraffin control. Moreover, once applied, these chemicals are
effectixe through out the life cycle of crude oil production and transportation. Howexer,
the selection of a suitable crystal modifier has remained a challenge ex en today.
Thermal methods are comparatixely straight forward and effective in all kind o{
crude oils that deposits predominantly paraffin xvax. Its use in various w ays can be found
from the very beginning. In his report, Reistle"^^' mentioned hot-oiling, exothermal
reaction, steam injection and such other thermal methods.
The concept of thermodynamics xxas first used by Erickson. Nicsen and Brown'
m 1993 in an attempt to predict paraffin precipitation in crude oil. Thermodynamic
studies were also carried out by Firoozabadi-' and Mansoori et al.'" Two simulation
studies were carried out in 1994 to predict paraffin deposifion. Simulation of paraffin
deposifion and removal in wellbore was carried out by Keafing,^^ w hile that for
deposition in reservoir was carried out by Ring et al."^'
These predictive models are limited to only thermal methods of removal/
inhibition. The understanding of the phenomena is sfill primifixe to predict a suitable
chemical inhibitor for given crude sample.
Organic
o
o
Inorganic
o
o
Paraffinic
Asphalfic;
Scale, iron sulfide, iron oxide, etc.
Clay, drilling mud, etc.
2.1.2.1
Paraffin Waxes
According to Bucaram,'^ pure paraffinic deposit constitute 40 to 60'/( of an
average crude deposit. They are long chained hydrocarbons xvith about 26 to 50 carbon
atoms. Solid paraffin waxes consist of large, well-formed, needle-shaped crystals that
agglomerate and form large masses.
2.1.2.2
Microcrystalline Waxes
These consfitute about 10% or less of an average paraffin deposit. These are long-
chain hydrocarbon compounds with branched chain and cyclic-ring molecules located at
random along the carbon chain. The crystal structures of these compounds are verx small
and irregular and tend to remain dispersed in fluid and show little tendency to
a^sjlomerate.
2.1.2.3
crude oil insoluble in excess normal alkanes like n-pentane but soluble in excess benzene
and toluene at room temperature. Resins are defined as the fractions of crude oil insoluble
in excess liquid propane at room temperature and are adsorbed on silica, alumina or other
surface-active materials.
la
Monomeric
C ^ -Asphaltene
Monomeric
Resin
(^^^
.Asphaliene-fiee
oil species
Micelle
Precipitated
Phase
deposition. The amount present m crude oil deposits has been reported'' to range from 10
to about 60 %.
2.1.3.1
Precipitafion
The process of precipitafion is defined as the solidification of w ax crystals from
the liquid phase. This process takes place" ^^'- due to either (1) drop of sxstem
temperature below the cloud point, or (2) the solubility of the system get reduced so that
the liquid phase no longer keep the solids in solufion. The causes that lead to these
condifions are discussed in secfion 2.1.
2.1.3.2
Deposition
When the solid particles precipitate out of the liquid phase, it must deposit on a
solid surface for a sizable amount to hamper in the production process. This process lakes
place in two stages: (1) movement of the precipitated solid particles towards the static
pipe wall and then (2) adherence of these particles on the wall. Burger, Perkins and
Striegler'^ extensively invesfigated the mechanism of movement of the solid particles
towards the pipe wall in an attempt to determine the expected nature and thickness of
deposition as a funcfion of time and distance in the Trans Alaska Pipeline System, fhe
theories they and other investigators'^"^^"'" postulated are discussed in the suhsequest
paragraphs.
The mechanism of the second stage, that is, hoxv the solid particles adhere to the
pipe surface is mainly attributed to surface roughness by Hurt" and Jorda."' A process
called 'nucleation' is observed at the rough edges of the pipe wall. The process of crxsial
growth also contribute to this accumulation.
Molecular Diffusion: For all flow condifions, oil will assume a laminar flow
either throughout the pipe or at least in a thin laminar sublayer adjacent to the pipe w all.
When oil is being cooled, there will be a temperature gradient across the laminar
sublayer. If this temperature is below the WAT, a concentration gradient of dissolxed
wax will result and the dissolved material will be transported towards the w all bx
molecular diffusion.
Shear Dispersion: A solid particle in a moving fluid tends to attain the x elocity of
the streamline at its center. However, as the particle approaches a stafic solid boundarx
(the wall), its both linear and angular velocifies are reduced. When the particle
concentration is high and a significant number of multi-particle interactions occur. This
results in a drag force from the pipe wall towards the center of the pipe and exentuallx
leads to a lateral transport and a dispersing of particles toxvards the pipe w all.
Brownian Diffusion: Precipitated wax crystals suspended in oil are continuously
bombarded by thermally acfive oil molecules leading to random Brownian movements. In
presence of a concentration gradient, Brownian motion will lead to a net transport
towards the wall similar to molecular diffusion.
Gravity Effect: Precipitated wax crystals are denser than the suiTOunding liquid
phase. Unless prevented, these particles would settle down in a gravity field and
deposited on the bottom of pipes or tanks.
Electrokinetic Effect: When a crude oil is flowing in a conduit (porous media,
well-tubular or flowline), a electrical potential develops along the conduit due to the
mofion of charged particles present in the fluid."' This electrical potential could then
cause a change in charges of the colloidal particles, which in turn gel electrically attracted
towards the walls of the conduit. Thus, the colloidal particles start depositing on the
sides.
,0
2.1.4.1
Naturally Occuring
Gas Expansion Cooling. When gas seep through a small passage, into a lower
pressure region, it expands and cools. This is known as the Joule-Thompson Effect.
When the well produces, the gas cools at various places like the choke, perforations, etc.
This greatly contribute to wax precipitation at the constrictions.
High Production Levels of Gas and Oil. exen if the proportion of high moleculer
weight wax is very low in the over-all crude oil composition, when produced over a large
period of fime, it will contribute to a large quantity of wax.
Geothermal Gradient. Due to the decrease in temperature as the crude oil flows up
to the surface, wax tends to precipitate and deposit in the tubing.
Presence of Cold Water Zones.'' If the xxell trajectory passes through a cold
water zone, the temperature of the crude oil will reduce so that wax is deposited.
Evaporation of volatile light hydrocarbon.'^ These volatile hydrocarbon acts as
naturally occurring solvents. With their evaporation due to pressure drop, the solubility of
the liquid system become so that less that it no longer hold the solid paraffin in solution.
Surface Roughness/Foreign Matter.''^'"'^'"^''"^" These forms nucleus that help initiate
deposition.
2.1.4.2 Operafional Causes
When a choke is opened for well tests like a draxx-down test, a pressure drop
occurs in the well-bore. It leads to cooling due to Joule-Thompson Effect and subsequcsi
paraffin deposition at the formation face and at perfomations.
Cold Complefion/Frac Fluids. When the well is completed with complefion fluids
or hydraulic fracturing is used to sfimulate the well, hardly any consideration is gix en to
maintain the temperature of the fluid. These cold fliuds goes into the formation main
cools down the formafion the fluids and even the rocks, leading to wax deposition inside
the formation itself
Water/C02 Floods. The low temperature of the huge volume of water during
Water/C02 flooding causes the over-all temperature of the reserx oir to decrease. This
may often lead to wax-deposifion within the reservoir.
Hot-Oiling. If proper precausion is not taken, it may lead to more w ax-problem
rather then cleaning them. It may melt the wax deposited in tubing, but later redeposit
them in the formation. Moreover, the oil used for hot-oiling is often from the stock-tank.
2.1.5
Remedial Measures
The remedial and prevention techniques for paraffin deposition that are in use
and/or previously used are discussed here. These techniques can be broadly classified
into three categories: Mechanical, Thermal and Chemical methods. Mechanical methods
are removal techniques. However, thermal and chemical methods can be either remox al
or preventive techniques. The preventive methods act by txvo mechanism: (1) by
preventing precipitation of solids from the liquid phase, and (2) by preventing deposition
and/or accumulation of precipitated solids on the pipe walls. All the thermal methods fall
under the first category, whereas some of the chemicals methods belong to the first
category, but others fall under the second.
2.1.5.1
Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods are the simplest method of paraffin removal. These methods
are bi-oadly classified into two basic categories: (1) removal of the deposits bx applying
mechanical force and (2) preventtion of accumulation of deposits. The first category
encompasses scrapping, pigging and a comparatixely sophisticated meihtul of ultrasonic
12
removal. Applying smooth coafings inside the pipe comes under the second categoix. All
these are described in the subsequent secfions.
2.1.5.1.1 Scrapping
Scrapping is one of the most common mechanical methods of paraffin remox a!.
Descripfion of various mechanical scrapper like "paraffin scraper,"' "paraffin knife."" etc.
can be found in Reistle's report.^^' The scrapper can be classified as: (1) wireline
Scrapper, (2) Rod Scrapper and (3) Floxxline Scrapper. Some of these tools are presented
in Figures 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4. Over the years, more sophisticated mechanical w ax scrapping
tools were devised. However, this method later appeared less cost effectixe, particulariy
when deposition rate is very high. Moreover, the scrapping process leads to increased
wear on the tubulars.
I !
p-r
' ^
n^
hi
iii
iia,
CIn
(a)
O.Q
(b)
2.1.5.1.3 Pigging
Ward^"^ and Snedeker^" mentioned pigging as a means of paraffin removal in the
mid-1950s. Ward describes an economical method of using a short cylindrical plug made
of a soluble material to pig out paraffin from flow-lines. These plugs are such that they
dissolve when exposed to crude oil for a long fime, but maintain their shape long enough
to push deposited paraffin down a line when fluid pressure is applied behind it.
15
2.1.5.2
Thermal Methods
The main objective of any thermal method is to maintain fluid temperature well
above the Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT). These methods can be broadly
classified as: (1) Heafing and (2) Insulafing. Thermal methods are effectixe only near its
point of applicafion. Further away from the point of application, the problem reoccurs."*^
Moreover, in asphalfic deposits, thermal methods are ineffective.
In the heating process, extra heat energy is supplied to the sxstem to melt the
deposited paraffin xxax and to maintain sufficient temperature in the system to halt further
precipitafion. The most common methods used in supplying the extra heat eneigx to the
system are: (1) heating by a hot fluid (Oil, Water/Steam) (2) deploy downhole heater,
(3) by means of exothermal reactions.
The fluid temperature is also maintained by insulating the pipe and preserving the
heat energy. One oi' the heat loss mechanisms in oilx\ells is free conxeciion in the annular
space. This source of heat loss can be minimized by either (1) wrapping the pipe by some
insulating material, (2) vacuuming the annulus, or (3) Insulafing Packer Fluid.Some of
these thermal methods are discussed in detail in the following sections.
16
The tubing should be full and the well producing oil, not just gas.
Thermodynamics alone should not be the deciding factor in choosing betw een
hot oil and hot water.
17
in the jacket pipe using a mechanical xacuum pump. .After desired lexel of xacuum is
achieved, the port is also sealed. The key benefit of vacuum insulated tubing is supeiior
thermal insulafion that is achieved with a minimal gap between the carrier and the jacket
pipe.
Such vacuum insulated tubings were demonstrated to be technically successful
method of paraffin inhibifion by Purdy and Cheyne.^^ Howexer. they found economic
success only in some limited wells.
2.1.5.3
Chemical Methods
The chemicals used to prevent deposifion of paraffin wax are commonly referred
to as "paraffin inhibitors." Depending upon the mechanism by which thex work to control
paraffin, these chemicals can be broadly classified into there categories: (1) Solvents. (2)
Dispersants, and (3) Crystal Modifiers. The following sections discuss them in detail.
iukilij
"liU
ri
' SviiScr
CcnlQ'j2Cf
1.^
"hfus! Cone
O.rcr Casing
hk).s lutie
,-
- ^ - < .
20
2.1.5.3.1 Solvents
Solvents are are added to the crude oil to restore its ability to dissolve w ax
crystals due to loss of dissolved gasses or reduction in temperature.'^ Some commonlx
used solvents are: Produced condensate, Casing head gasoline, Pentane, Butane, X\ lene.
Toluene, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Carbon Disulfide and Terpenes, etc. Hoxx ex er.
according to Dobbs, some efficient solvents like carbon tetrachloride are refinerx
catalysts poisoning. Some other extremely good paraffin solxents like Carbon Disulfide
are hazardous as they hax e very low flash points.
Solvents are adequate if the problem is only minor; however, for moderate to
severe occurrences of paraffin the quanfifies of solvent required are usually prohibitix e.
Moreover, some best solvents are prohibited because of health hazards and refinery
catalyst poisoning.^^
2.1.5.3.2 Dispersants
Dispersants are also known as Wetting Agents and Emulsifiers. In theory,
dispersant should work like plastic coats. They form a film on the pipe wall to change the
contact angle and thus retard the deposition process.^^ They also neutralize the attractive
forces that bind the paraffin particles together.''^ The chemical structure of these
molecules is such that one end is attracfive to the paraffin molecule, xvhile the other end
is soluble in either oil or vxater, depending upon the phase in w hich the paraffin is to be
dispersed. Thus, they keep the precipitated paraffin particles to disperse in the produced
fluids without deposifing on the walls. Some common dispersants are: naturally occun-ing
asphaltenes in crude oils, sulfonates, alkyl phenol derivatives, ketones, teipenes,
polyamides and naphthalene, etc.
They co-precipitates and co-crystallizes with the wax by taking the place of a wax
molecule in the crystal latfice. While doing so, it prevents the crx stal to grow further b\
placing a steric hindrance that interferes with the proper alignment of new incoming
paraffin molecules' (Figure 2.6). Thus, thex help reducing paraffin deposition
tendency as well as lower the pour point. These chemicals are also knoxx n as Ciystal
Modifier, Pour Point Depressant or Paraffin Inhibitors.
WAX CRYSTAL
ADHESION
IBEIDW CLOUD POINT);
AND OCCLUDED 85 6 W
0
D
D
WtTH WAX CRYSTAL
MODIFIER
i-'t
90
After the successful field trails and promising results, Bilderback and
McDougall' declared in 1969 that,
"The wax crystal modifiers are the only chemicals found thus far to solx'e
irreversibly the paraffin control problem from the point of chemical contact down hole
(or at the wellhead), through the tubing, through thefloxvlinesand through the suri'ace
equipment, storage tanks and pipelines"(p.3).
Typical crystal modifiers are'^: 2-hydroxy-naphthalene, Polyethylene. Copolymer
esters, Ethylene/Vinyl acetate copolymers, Olefin/Ester Copolymers, Ester/\'inyl Acetate
Copolymers, Polyacrylates, Polymethacrylates and Alkyl phenol resins, etc.
One of the problems of crystal modifiers is that these freeze during xvinter months
in geographical areas having cold climate, making it difficult to transport and delixer or
pump at the desired location. Becker^ has come up w ith a nexv blend of product called
'Winterized Paraffin Crystal Modifiers' that remain pumpable even in the cold xveather.
2.1.5.4
Other Methods
Apart from the conventional mechanical, thermal and chemical methods, there are
some other innovative non-conventional methods being tried. The following articles
describe some of them.
glass coafing on the pipewall gained only a one-fime popularity during the earix
1960s.^^'^^ With the advent of cheaper and effecfive chemical methods, particulad}
crystal modifier, popularity of these methods seem to diminished.
Thermal methods are used when the problem area is limited because thex are
effecfive only near the point of applicafion. For examples, if exothermic reaction, hotoiling, etc. are carried out in the wellbore, they will not help if the w ax> oil also needs to
be transported through a long surface flowline in the cold winter (w hen temperature
drops below the cloud point). In case of sub-sea floxvline, flowlines in the arctic region
etc. where maintainfing the heat energy is of importance, vacuum insulated pipe sx stems
are most effecfive due to their superior thermal insulation."" However, economx will
dictate whether such a system is preferable over a chemical treatment.
Among the chemical methods, solvent treatments is used primarily to remox e
already exisfing deposits while crystal modifiers can not be used for such purposes. Thex
are used for only inhibifing or preventing deposition. Dispersants are also less effectix e
for removing existing deposits: however, they are extensivelx used along xvith other
methods like water-based thermal washing, crystal modifier, etc.
The selecfion of a suitable crystal modifier is often a difficult process. Dobbs
describes the generally adopted approach as follows:
'A carefully collected and transported sample is tested for wax content,
asphaltene content and pour point. Next a determination is made of the type of x\ ax that is
causing the deposition problem. This is determined by placing a sample of the crude in a
cold finger apparatus and collecting a sample of the depositing wax. The scraping is
analyzed by gas chromatography. The retesfing of the crude with various paraffin
inhibitors will show this same concentrafion peak, but hopefully the proper inhibitor will
reduce it (Figure 2.7). The best inhibitor will be the one that reduces the peak to its
lowest volume", (p.4)
Another emerging technology is the magnetic fluid conditioners (MFC). .MFC is
not ideal for crudes with high pour point and high wax contents and is generally
economic for wells with more than 50^'^ water-cut.^ Howexer, the possibilitx of using this
economic method is almost always ignored where chemical treatment is administered.
After an extensive study in various oil fields of China, Biao and Lijian^ haxe
made some useful conclusions regarding the criteria of choosing different types of
inhibifion techniques. These conclusions are:
a.
For the oil wells with water cut below 50%, wax content less than 30%
and Carbon Number distribution of the wax in the range of C13-C40. a good efficiencx
may be obtained by using chemical removing and inhibiting techniques and some of
these wells could be effecfively treated with magnetic paraffin-inhibiting technique.
b.
For the wells with water cut more than 50%, the magnetic paraffin-
For the wells xvith xvax content more than 309c, pour point higher than 40
"C, in'espective of the water cut, the best choice is to adopt chemical paraffin-remox al or
thermal washing method.
d.
For the oil wells with very high Carbon Number of wax, both magnetic
and pure chemical paraffin removing techniques are ineffectix e. The best economic
choice is to apply chemical paraffin inhibitor or glass/plastic coating or lining of tubing.
This type of additional unbiased conclusions are needed to make an usable
knowledgebase (discussed in section 4.5), but there are hardly any in the published
literature.
26
^-^1^-131.5.
17
Like other physical properties, viscosity is affected not only by pressure and
temperature, but also by the type and size of the compounds present in a given fluid. The
variafion of liquid viscosity is not known with any exactness, howex er, it is
experimentally shown that viscosity of hydrocarbon increases with the molecular
complexity.'''^
The effecfiveness of a paraffin inhibition technique is a measure of the degree to
which it is successful in inhibifing or prevenfing the deposifion. In the literature, a
number of different ways of defining effecfiveness of an inhibitor can be found.
In terms of deposifion rate. Brown, Niesen, and Erickson'^ defined effectix eness
as
% Inhibifion = e = ^''""' " ^""'' x 100 % .
2.2
^before
into account the effect of flow resistance. To overcome this drawback, Fulford" defined
another effectiveness that takes into account the reduction in flow resistance.
A- B
% Inhibifion (Flow) =
xlOO% .
-3
A
Dobbs'^ tned to define effecfiveness in terms of the composifion of the deposits in
terms of the alteration of concentrafion peaks of their heavier carbon molecules in gas
chromatography analysis chart. (Figure 2.7).
Dong et al.^^ described effecfiveness of chemical control of paraffin in terms of
the change of thermal washing (hot-oiling/watering) intervals. If the treatment is
successful, deposition rate will decrease and the time interval between at which thermal
washing is required will be elongated.
28
250
p
200
h
Z
D
C16
C21
C26
C31
C35
-C2i)
56 4 '
:7 1 - ,
C25
C30
-C35
C40
D IS
n ft
150
DTREATED
<
fit:
z
ill
o
z
o
o
6-CIS
~-rj
CO
Z
0
TREATED
Deposit Rsduction
UNrREATEO
100 UNTREATED
6 C15
C20
CI 6
Ci'5
50
11
<f> ^
1 C26
; C31
C30
C35
C36 - C40
it t.\
6 5^
36 41
2C 8>
1 0'
In addifion to these, the websites specific to the oil industry like vv\\ xv.oil.com,
www.woridoil.com, www.oilandgas.com, www.energy.com. From the search result,
relevant websites were scrufinized, visited and informafion was collected.
30
31
CHAPTER m
EXPERT SYSTEMS
This chapter explores the various aspects of an exofic domain of computer science
called Expert Systems. A number of text-books"''^'"^'^^ were consulted to compile this
chapter and issues like what exactly an expert system is, how it works, resources required
to build one and situafions where use of expert systems are recommended will be
discussed. In addifion to these, a preliminary study of three most common Expert Sx stem
Shells, an important building block of Expert Systems, is also presented in section 3.4.
The purpose of this study and discussion is explained later in Chapter V.
3.1
It was believed that problems such as theorem proving, speech and pattern
recognifions, game playing and highly complex determinisfic and stochastic systems can
only be tackled by humans because their formulafions and solutions require human
abilifies like thinking, observing, memorizing and learning. However, intensive research
since the 1960s by researchers from several fields shows that these problems can be
formulated and solved by machines. The broad area of computer science that deals with
these types of problems is nowadays refeiTcd to as Artificial Intelligence (Al). The
subareas of Al are pattern recognition, neural networks, automatic theorem proving,
automatic game playing, artificial vision, natural language processing, etc.
Expert System is another subarea of Al. Several definifions of expert systems are
found in the literature. The gist of these definitions can be summarized as: "/\// expert
system can be broadly defined as a computer system (hardware and software) that
simidates human experts in a given area of specializatioir (p.24). An expert system
should be able to process and memorize information, learn and reason in both
determinisfic and uncertain situafions, communicate with humans and/or other expert
systems, make appropriate decisions and explain why these decisions have been made.
33
34
Subject Matter
Human Experts
fc-
-^
^
Knowledge
Engineers
Database
Users
^
^
^^
^^
Knowledge
Acquisifion
Subsystem
Learning
Subsystem
^
^
^f
Coherence Control
Subsystem
Information
Acquisifion
Subsystem
User Interface
^
^
1r
^^
Knowledgebase
k.
w\
\ ^
Inference
Engine
^ /
Working Memory
^
^
fc-
Explanation
Subsystem
Action Execution
Subsystem
35
Abstract knowledge consists of a set of objects and a set of rules that gox ems the
relafionships among the objects. Abstract knowledge is stored in knoxvledgebase and is
static and permanent in nature. It does not change from one application to another. On the
other hand, concrete knowledge is the evidence or the facts that are known or gix en in a
particular situation. This type of knowledge is dynamic and changes from one application
to another.
The Information Acquisition Subsystem provides the concrete knoxx ledge to the
Inference Engine. In addition, if the initial knoxvledge is limited and conclusions cannot
be reached, the inference engine ufilizes informafion acquisition subsystem in order to
obtain the required knowledge and resume the inference process until conclusions can be
reached. Often, the user interacfively provides this information through the User Interface
subsystem. This also checks the validity of the user's entry.
The Acfion Execution Subsystem is the component that enables the Expert
System to perform physical action and is available in situations xvhere the Expert Sxstem
is the controlling module of a system that does some physical activities.
When the user demands an explanafion of the conclusions draxvn, the Explanation
Subsystem explains the process followed by the Inference Engine or the Action
Execution Subsystem.
3.3
When the knowledge is difficult to acquire or is based on the rules that can
only be learned through experience.
36
Horn- states that expert system is jusfified when the problem satisfied the
followings:
There are many possible solutions. It would take too long to examine each
one.
The conclusions reached will often be uncertain. The expert system will state
that it has only a certain level of confidence that its answer is correct. It will
rank conclusions by their likelihood of being correct.
Disadvantages are:
It is platform-independent.
38
Excellent Documentafion
39
CHAPTER IV
METHODOLOGY
Even tough, asphaltene invariably deposits with paraffin, the behaxior and the
deposifion mechanisms of paraffin and those of asphaltene are very different. The scope
of this thesis project will be limited to paraffin deposifion only. A computer system that
can assist operators decide a remedial measure for paraffin deposition has been
envisioned. The detailed system requirement has been presented in section 4.1. Then a
project plan has been prepared in an attempt to build a computer system that satisfies
these requirements. This plan takes into account all possible outcomes manx unknown
parameters. It has been discussed in secfion 4.2. In secfion 4.3, the project work that has
18
been done is outlined. A good database can help and even substitute for a human expert.
Therefore, a database has been designed and steps were taken to populate it with
sufficient data. A discussion of this design and the status of the database can be found in
secfion 4.6. With sufficient data, it will be perhaps possible to come up with a
'stafisfically suitable' method of paraffin removal and/or inhibifion. Section 4.7
discusses a stafisfical method that has been devised to make such statistical analysis.
4.1 System Requirements (Defining the 'Envisioned Sxstenf)
One of the objecfives of this thesis project is to define and/or specify a computer
system that has been envisioned to store and ufilize expertise to help selecting the best
remedial measure of paraffin deposifion in a given situafion. With this objective in mind,
a detailed 'system requirement document' has been carefully prepared. A requirement
analysis and the resulting 'requirement document' is very crucial for any software
development project. The first and foremost reason for such a document is to document
the problem in hand. It is also important for accomplishing the project \\ ith limited lime
and recourses. The problem in hand is to materialize an '-envisioned system." In this
requirement document, only the functional requirements of "the final system'' enx isioned
have been depicted. To build this system can be called the long-term ultimate goal of this
40
project. However, the works of this thesis will be limited to accomplishing a small part of
this bigger project.
The "Computer System" that has been envisioned have many challenging
requirements. The system must act as an expert who can answer relevant questions,
explain the mechanism of paraffin deposition and various removal and prevention
methods, determine and suggest the most effecfive and economic removal and prex entix e
methods.
Broadly, they can be stated as follows:
41
If experts in the field will respond or not and if they would freely discuss their
experfise or not.
Therefore, an action plan was prepared that took into considerations not only the
inifiafives required to invesfigate these issues, but also the strategies to be folloxxed in
case of posifive as well as the negafive outcome of such invesfigafions.To build a
computer system that can safisfy the requirements discussed in the eariier sections, an
action plan has been prepared. The plan has been presented in Figure 4 1. According to
this action plan, a preliminary surve>' of literature and software tools xxonld be can-ied
out. After this preliminary survey, an evaluation of whether such softwaic is possible to
build not with the limited recourses will be canied out. At the end o\' this exaluation, if it
42
No
Ves
Specify hurdles of available
aigorlthm/methodoiogy,
attempt to devise new ones
No
43
presented in secfion 2.1 of Chapter III. This information will be helpful in safisfymg
requirement #1 (secfion 4.1.1) of the envisioned system.
45
46
4.5
With the understanding of the problem of paraffin deposifion and its remedial
methods, and with an insight of what is an expert system, hoxv it xvorks and xx hat are the
recourses required to build one, a close scrutiny of feasibility of developing an expert
system to recommend remedial measures for paraffin deposition problems has been
carried out.
The first question that needs to be answered is that whether expert systems are
recommended in solving the problem of paraffin deposifion or not. Secondly, it is
required to invesfigate if the required resources available.
47
4.6
The Database
A relafional database model has been created in MS Access 2000 to handle the
problem by the stafisfical method described in secfion 2.2 or otherwise. This database
consists of three main interlinked data-tables namely chem, samp and eff. The
effectiveness data-table, ^j^^stores an effecfiveness factor (E) and an associated certaintx
factor (C) corresponding to every chemical, details of which are stored in the data-table
cheni, for every type of crude sample, details of which are stored in the data-table samp.
A number of other supporting tables are also incorporated in the database. .A
summary of these data tables can be found in Table while the inter-relationship betxveen
the tables is shown in Figure 4.2
The commercial survey canied out and described in section 2.1 attempts to
populate these tables with as many data as possible. It is hoped that some possible
patterns xvill be recognized after sufficiently large data points xvere gathered, and
translated into rules for the knowledge.
48
Samp
49
flppID
ReP
ChernID
SarnpID
E
C
Result
ChenJD
SairpID
SarnpNarne
ResvID
Ref
APIGravity
Viscosity
CloudPoint
PourPoint
Color
AsphPC
PrPnPC
AromPC
H2S
C02
pH
^SHHH
ResvName
Geographic Regie
GeologicalAge
DepoEnviron
WatDrive
EOR
PI
Pc
BHT
TradNarne
ManufID
RefID
toPrint
ph_state
color
odor
boiling_pt
pour_pt
PlashjDt
sp_gr
viscosity
pH
solj'vat
sol_hc
gendesp
gcc
hazards
mechanism
application
handling
compatibility
features
unit_cost
unit
inhibitor
solvent
dispersant
_pfn
_asp
Max/ID
ManufName
website
Address
askedCatalog
toPnnt
One-to-Many Relationships
<
11
-n\
^ 1 .
im
. e nin
^nl
^i:
CT[
C T)
C,
C,
c ^n\
^ nl
C,
where
Neij = number of experiments that gave effectiveness = c,j z
51
(f = allowable error
Nij = Total number of experiments conducted.
Now, let S^ = (A,^ , A,^, Aj^ A .^} be another crude oil sample that is not tested
with any of the inhibitors f E I.
The problem is to seek the probability distribufion of effectix enesses of all the
inhibitors in crude sample S,^, provided the effecfiveness matrix e and certainty matrix c
are known.
4.7.2 TheSolufion
Let Fxj be the difference between crude sample Sx and Sj and is defined as
_
1/
^ . =
4.1
k=\
where here w^^is the weight given to the ^''' attribute such that
j^^,=i-
4.2
Again, let the probability that ^v will behave exactly same as Sj can be P^j.
When the attributes of 5v and ^S^exactly match, F^j is 0. In this case, the probability
that Sx will behave exactly as Sj is assumed maximum. Let this maximum value be Pnm.\However, when the attributes oi Sx and 5"^ differ the most, the value of Fxj is maximum,
say F,nux and the con'csponding probability is assumed to be minimum, say Pi/.The
following equation reflects these assumpfions
P
-P
"""" '^"^ p
p =p
v/
max
17
max
43
^^ '
The reliability of this equation depends upon the validity of these assumptions and
correct estimations of P,na.x, Pmm, E,ax and Fxj.
Now, using equation (3), Pxj can be calculated for all Sj e S. With respeci to the
given inhibitor f there exists an effectiveness value ieij) for everx Sj If it is assumed that,
the effectiveness of inhibitor /in sample Sx xxill be Cjj with a probability of P, . then a
table of Cij vs. Pxj can be prepared. This table will represent the probabilitx distribufion of
various effectiveness values of Ii in sample Sx.
The expected value the effecfiveness of inhibitor /, in crude sample 5vCan be
estimated as
1^
-y
u ij
These esfimates of e,., for all available /, will give the required probability
distribufion.
53
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Achievements
54
The analysis of the informafion gathered by literature surxex' revealed that there is
abundance of theoiies on the subject of paraffin deposition. Hoxvever, it lacks sufficient
comparafive study of various remedial measures, consistent/ordered information.
The problem of selecfing the best remedial measure for paraffin deposition is an
ideal situafion where Expert Systems can be applied. However, the cun^ently ax ailable
informafion is not adequate to construct the knowledgebase module of an Expert System.
5.3
Recommendafions
> >
REFERENCES
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2.
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3.
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4.
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56
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57
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5S
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website
59
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