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INVESTIGATION OF AN ADVANCED TECHNIQUE TO SELECT

AN OPTIMAL INHIBITION AND REMOVAL METHOD


OF PARAFFIN DEPOSITION IN OIL WELLS
by
BIKRAM M. BARUAH, B.Tech.

A THESIS
IN
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Approved

August, 200

^ ^ ^ : ;,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Department of Petroleum Engineering at Texas Tech

University for accepting me into its graduate program and for providing the financial
support which allowed me to pursue my educafion and to carry out the research work.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Lloyd R. Heinze for ser\ mg as my
thesis committee as the chairman. His constant guidance and valuable advice \\ hile
carrying out this thesis project as well as at different points of my entire slay at Texas
Tech have been a great asset for me. I am also thankful to Dr. James C. Cox for agreeing
to be on my thesis committee and patiently answering all my questions. His suggestions
were very helpful as I worked through my thesis. The valuable advices and the
encouraging words of Dr. Akanni S. Lavval, our graduate ad\isor, were of great help
during my stay at Texas Tech University. His words will continue to encourage me in all
my future endeavors. 1 consider the exchange of knowledge that I had w ith all the facult\
members, particularly Drs. James F. Lea and Scott M. Frailey, to be my life-time
treasure. 1 would also like to thank the staff members of the Department of Petroleum
Engineering who were very supportive and helpful to me.
I thankfully acknowledge the useful communications that I had with Mr. 1 on\
Smith of Unichem, Mr. K. M. Barker of Baker Petrolite, Tony Cunningham of Pctroplex
Acidizing, Dercck Cummings of Guardian Chemicals, J. Brent Johnson and Walt GloNcr
of Halliburton Energy Services and Shaun Mesher of Trysol.
Last but not the least, I proudly acknowledge the encouragement and support that
my parents Mr. Chandra M. Baruah and Mrs. Anjali M. Baruah have given to their son
for pursuing higher educafion at a place half way across the globe. Ponkhi, my only little
sister, brightens my day. when her instant message '"oi! ki koriso'.^" (He\! What are you
doing'.') coming across the globe, over the internet, often pops up h\ the corner ol m\
computer screen in the midst of writing this thesis!

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ii

ABSTRACT

vi

LIST OF TABLES

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

viii

NOMENCLATURE

ix

II.

INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background

1.2

Objective

1.3

Necessity

LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1

Technical Paper Survey

2.1.1

Historical Prospective

2.1.2

Composition of Deposits

2.1.2.1

Paraffin Waxes

2.1.2.2

Microcrystalline Waxes

2.1.2.3

Resins and Asphaltenes

2.1.3

Theory of Deposition/Crystallization

2.1.3.1

Precipitation

2.1.3.2

Deposition

2.1.4

Causes of Paraffin Problems

11

2.1.4.1

Naturally Occurring

11

2.1.4.2

Operational Causes

11

2.1.5

Remedial Measures

12

2.1.5.1

Mechanical Methods

12

2T.5.2

Thermal Methods

16

2.1.5.3

Chemical Methods

19

2.1.5.4

Other Methods

23
111

2.1.6

Selecfion of Treatment Methods

24

2.1.7

Common Terminology

27

2.2

Commercial Survey

29

2.2.1

The Internet

29

2.2.2

Product Catalogue

30

2.2.3

The Outcome

30

EXPERT SYSTEMS

33

m.
3.1

What is an Expert System

33

3.2

How it works

34

3.3

When Expert System Is Recommended?

36

3.4

Survey of Expert System Shells

37

3.4.1

C Language Integrated Production System

37

3.4.2

Java Expert System Shell

38

3.4.3

Expert Master

39

IV.

METHODOLOGY

4.1

40

System Requirements (Defining the 'Envisioned Sxstenf)

40

4.1.1

Requirement No. 1

41

4.1.2

Requirement No. 2

41

4.1.3

Requirement No. 3

42

4.2

The Project Plan

42

4.3

The Project Work

44

4.4

Anal\sis of the Literature Surveyed

44

4.4.1

Abundance of Theory

44

4.4.2

Lack of Comparison Among Different Treatment Options

45

4.4.3

Lacking and Inconsistent Information

46

4.4.4

No Analytical Method

46

4.5

Feasibility of Applying Expert Systems

47

4.5.1

Is Expert S\ stems justified'^

4"

4.5.2

Are The Resources Available?

48

i\

4.6

The Database

48

4.7

Stafisfical Approach

50

V.

4.7.1

The Problem

51

4.7.2

TheSolufion

52

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

54

5.1

Achievements

54

5.2

Conclusions

54

5.3

Recommendafions

55

REFERENCES

56

ABSTRACT

From the very beginning of the business of hydrocarbon exploitation, the problem
of paraffin deposition was encountered with varying degrees. With oil exploitafion
expanding into exotic frontiers like deep-water and the Arctic Circle, wax deposition
became a greater challenge for the operators. Various mechanical, thermal and chemical
methods are used to remove and prevent wax deposition. Howe\ er, it is often difficult to
select the most effecfive and economic remedial measure for a siven situation. Due to
uniqueness of every crude, there is no single technique that is most effective for all t\ pes
of crude oils.
The main objecfive of this thesis project is to explore the feasibilities of using
computer-based consulting systems, commonly known as expert systems, to select the
best remedial measure of wax deposition in a given situation.
Extensive literature survey was carried out to understand and collect infomiation
on the phenomena of wax deposition and removal/prevention techniques. A separate
survey was conducted to understand expert systems in general and also to find out the
criteria and resources required for building one. Then a feasibility study of building an
envisioned computer system was conducted. Steps were also taken to initiate the building
of an expert svstein.

VI

LIST OF TABLES

2.1: List of Manufacturers and Their Products

31

4.1: Details of the Data-Tables in The Database

49

\ II

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1: SchemaUc representafion of a crude/precipitate system

2.2 : Common Tools for Paraffin Removal by Scrapping (a) Paraffin Scratcher and
(b) Paraffin Cutter or Tubing Gage

14

2.3: Pipe-line or flow-line scraper

14

2.4: Casing Scraper

15

2.5: Details of a vacuum insulated tubing

20

2.6: The idea of wax crystal modificafion

22

2.7: Chromatogram showing effect of inhibitor to hold paraffin in solution

29

3.1: Typical Components of an Expert System


4.1: The Acfion Plan

35
43

4.2: The Inter-Relationships of the Data-Tables in the Database

50

Mil

NOMENCLATURE

= specific gravity of the crude oil at 60 F

Dbefore = Original paraffin depositional rate of the crude sample before treatment
Dqfrer = Ncw paraffin deposifional rate of the crude sample after treatment
A

=R35,b-R70,b

= R35,a - R70,a

fe,a

= Flow Resistance (pressure drop / flow rate) at 35 "F after treatment

Ryo.a = Flow Resistance (pressure drop / flow rate) at 70 F after treatment


7^35^

= Flow Resistance (pressure drop / flow rate) at 35 F before treatment

Ryoi^

= Flow Resistance (pressure drop / flow rate) at 70 F before treatment

IX

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
From the very beginning of the business of hydrocarbon exploitafion, the problem
of paraffin deposition was encountered with varying degrees. Mention of this problem
can be found in literatures as eariy as in 1865. Eariier, mechanical methods like scrapping
and pigging and thermal methods like hot-oiling, etc., were used to remo\ e paraffin from
producfion strings and flowlines. However, over the years operators started preferring
chemical inhibifion methods rather then these crude and expensix e mechanical and
thermal methods. More sophisficated methods like ultra-sonic removal, magnetic fluid
condifioning, microbial inhibition etc. are also considered.
With oil exploitation expanding into exotic frontiers like deep-water and the
Arctic Circle, wax deposition became a greater challenge for the operators. The\ started
looking for more economic and reliable technique to handle the challenge. Chemical
inhibition is one of these methods that are widely used. However, the characteristics of
crude oil differ from field to field. They may even differ when sampled from the same
well, but from different zones. Therefore, every crude oil is distinct and no single method
is universally effective for all types of crude oils and environments to remove and inhibit
paraffin deposition. Hence, no one additive proves to be effective for all crudes. Selection
of an additive is very crucial for a successful prevention of wax deposition. Laboratory
pre-testing and screening of various chemicals solvents, inhibitors and/or dispersant for
waxy reservoir fluids help eliminate unnecessary and more expensive field practices and
trials. Even such laboratory pre-testing can also be eliminated if a vast database of
experiences exists. Otherw ise, only an experienced person with a vast knowledge of
previous treatment operafions can give a suitable decision.
With the advent of computer systems and tools like artificial intelligence, it is
now possible to capture human expertise into a computer system. In this project, an
1

investigafion will be made to explore the possibilities of using an expert system for help
selecting the best method of paraffin inhibition and removal.

1.2 Objecfive
In addifion to invesfigafing the possibilifies of using an expert system to help selecting
the best method of paraffin inhibifion and removal, a number of other objecti\ es
are also set. The list of all the objecfives of this project is as follows:

To carry out extensive literature survey.

To understand the phenomena of paraffin deposition.

To investigate remedial inhibition and removal techniques in vogue.

To understand various aspects of expert systems.

To define and/or specify a computer system that has been envisioned to store
and utilize expeilise to help selecting the best remedial measure of paraffin
deposition in a given situation.

To study various commercially available software which can be used to


implement the envisioned system.

To explore the feasibilifies of using expert systems to select the best remedial
measure of paraffin deposifion in a given situafion.

1.3

Necessity

With the deposition of paraffin, the effective diameter of flow path of crude oil
gets reduces. Eventually it may altogether block the flow path that includes flowlines,
production strings, perforations and the connected pores of formation. As a result, the
effectiveness of the natural drive-mechanism(s) and/or any artificial means of
transporfing the crude from the formation to the surface and then to collecting/processing
station are highly reduced. Therefore, for efficient and smooth exploitation oi'
hydrocarbon, it becomes necessary to remove and inhibit precipitation and subsequent
deposition of paraffin and other wax systems.

Significant monies are spent per year to address this problem. To minimize this
unavoidable expense, it is also necessary to select the most efficient and economical
technique. Due to uniqueness of every crude, there is no single technique \iable for all
crude types. One can decide either by experimental trials or from experiences. With the
paucity of human experts, it is necessary to capture their expertise into a computer system
so that it can be used by non-experts. Often the human experts are biased or limited to a
specific technique, so a system with a wider scope that can give neutral but technically
appropiate response is essenfial.

CHAPTER n
LITERATURE SURVEY

One of the most important aspects of this thesis project is to gather infoiTnation.
Particularly to meet requirement discussed in secfion 4.1, an extensi\e literature survey is
required. Moreover, before a funcfional expert system can be built, thorough
understanding of the subject and a sufficiently huge knowledgebase are also required
(details discussed in Chapter IV). Therefore, a vigorous sur\ e\ of available literature and
commercially available products was carried out. The goal was to gather information and
organize it in the form of the following:

Theorefical aspects of the deposifion process;

A list of available remedial measures;

A list of manufacturers and companies involved in producing tools, chemicals


pertaining to paraffin/asphaltene inhibition/removal;

A database of commercially available chemicals;

The survey was carried out in the following two phases, one after another:

technical Paper Survey, and

commercial Literature Survey.

All these phases are discussed in the subsequent secfions.


2.1

Technical Paper Survey

It was a survey of technical literature. Much information was collected from the
SPE image library. Other two sources of technical papers were South Western Petroleum
Short Course and Canadian Journal of Petroleum Technology. These resources were
searched with the following keywords: paraffin, wax and asphaltene. A number of papers
showed up in the search results. This search result w as pnnted and the relevant papers
were selected for further studies. These papers were printed and reviewed lor rele\ant
information.

This survey attempts to invesfigate the problem from a historical prospecti\ e,


idenfify the composifion of deposits, understand the theory of deposifion. identify the
remedial measures available and review some common relevant terminolocries

2.1.1 Historical Prospectixe


Menfion of paraffin related problem can be found in eari> literatures of 1865 by
19

Bone. The first scienfific invesfigafion of the problem in oil wells was conducted by
Mills'^^ in 1923. Later in 1932, Reistle^^ published a comprehensive report on paraffin
deposifion and other related problems in different areas of the oil industr\. His work has
become a classic reference for the industry and is regarded as one of the most complete
and thorough studies ever presented. Later in the 1960s, laboratory studies canied out
with cold spot testers by Hurt,^^ Jorda^" revealed that roughness is one of the major factor
contributing to paraffin deposition.
Bucaram'^ studied the phenomena along with effect of some chemical inhibitors
using a microscope with a camera attachment. After Bucaram, many other in\ estigators""*
carried out an extensive study on various chemical inhibitors. However, no chemical w as
found to be effective in all kinds of crude oils and often they are environmentally
hazardous or economically prohibifive. The chemicals used so far were either solvents or
dispersants. Knox, Waters and Amold^^ discovered a new class of chemicals called
crystal modifiers. Due to low cost and non-hazardousness, these chemicals were thought
to be a promising option for paraffin control. Moreover, once applied, these chemicals are
effectixe through out the life cycle of crude oil production and transportation. Howexer,
the selection of a suitable crystal modifier has remained a challenge ex en today.
Thermal methods are comparatixely straight forward and effective in all kind o{
crude oils that deposits predominantly paraffin xvax. Its use in various w ays can be found
from the very beginning. In his report, Reistle"^^' mentioned hot-oiling, exothermal
reaction, steam injection and such other thermal methods.
The concept of thermodynamics xxas first used by Erickson. Nicsen and Brown'
m 1993 in an attempt to predict paraffin precipitation in crude oil. Thermodynamic

studies were also carried out by Firoozabadi-' and Mansoori et al.'" Two simulation
studies were carried out in 1994 to predict paraffin deposifion. Simulation of paraffin
deposifion and removal in wellbore was carried out by Keafing,^^ w hile that for
deposition in reservoir was carried out by Ring et al."^'
These predictive models are limited to only thermal methods of removal/
inhibition. The understanding of the phenomena is sfill primifixe to predict a suitable
chemical inhibitor for given crude sample.

2.1.2 Composition of Deposits


A wide range of different materials is deposited in oil xvells. Broadly, thex can be
classified as organic and inorganic. A detailed classification was done by New benV'
classified these deposits as follows;

Organic
o
o
Inorganic
o
o

Paraffinic
Asphalfic;
Scale, iron sulfide, iron oxide, etc.
Clay, drilling mud, etc.

In this thesis, organic deposits, especially paraffin will be studied. According to


Bucaram,'^ organic deposits range from almost pure white paraffin wax to pure asphaltic
in nature. However, most deposits are between these two extremes and contain paraffin
waxes, microcrystalline waxes, asphaltic material, resin, oil, water, sand and silt.'^"^''

2.1.2.1

Paraffin Waxes
According to Bucaram,'^ pure paraffinic deposit constitute 40 to 60'/( of an

average crude deposit. They are long chained hydrocarbons xvith about 26 to 50 carbon
atoms. Solid paraffin waxes consist of large, well-formed, needle-shaped crystals that
agglomerate and form large masses.

2.1.2.2

Microcrystalline Waxes
These consfitute about 10% or less of an average paraffin deposit. These are long-

chain hydrocarbon compounds with branched chain and cyclic-ring molecules located at
random along the carbon chain. The crystal structures of these compounds are verx small
and irregular and tend to remain dispersed in fluid and show little tendency to
a^sjlomerate.

2.1.2.3

Resins and Asphaltenes


Asphaltic materials are sficky, dark, semi-solid amorphous substances.'^ The> are

heterocyclic geomacromolecules consisfing of carbon, hydrogen and minor components


like sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen. They also contain nickel, iron and x anadium in trace.
Resm molecules are little smaller and have higher proportion of paraffinic chains
attached to aromatic rings. However, the exact chemical structure and physicochemical
properties of these materials are not well understood. Their operational definition are
based on the solubility in different diluents.

Asphaltenes are defined as the fraction of

crude oil insoluble in excess normal alkanes like n-pentane but soluble in excess benzene
and toluene at room temperature. Resins are defined as the fractions of crude oil insoluble
in excess liquid propane at room temperature and are adsorbed on silica, alumina or other
surface-active materials.

la

Monomeric

C ^ -Asphaltene
Monomeric
Resin

(^^^

.Asphaliene-fiee
oil species

Micelle

Precipitated
Phase

Figure 2.1: Schematic representation of a crude/precipitate sxstem


Source: Firoozabadi"'
The amorphous, polar asphaltene molecules do not ha\ c melting points and
decompose on heafing above 300-400 C. Asphaltene molecules are insoluble in crude
oil. A commonly accepted viexv is that, in crude oil, asphaltenes form micelles that are
stabilized by absorbed resins kept in solufion by aromafics-'" (Figure 2.1).
.At ^'normal" reservoir conditions, asphaltenes, resins and other chemicals remain
in thermodynamic equilibrium with the oil phase.^^ When this equilibrium is disturbed,
either by change in pressure, temperature or many other parameters like pH and
concentration of resin, etc., can lead to flocculation of asphaltene. Flocculation of
asphaltene in crude oil is known to be irreversible. Due to their size and their adsoiption
affinity to the solid surfaces, flocculated asphaltenes ofien cause such inexersible

deposition. The amount present m crude oil deposits has been reported'' to range from 10
to about 60 %.

2.1.3 Theory of Deposition/Crystallization


Paraffin to accumulate as deposit, it must go though two processes"^^: (a)
Precipitafion and (b) Deposifion.

2.1.3.1

Precipitafion
The process of precipitafion is defined as the solidification of w ax crystals from

the liquid phase. This process takes place" ^^'- due to either (1) drop of sxstem
temperature below the cloud point, or (2) the solubility of the system get reduced so that
the liquid phase no longer keep the solids in solufion. The causes that lead to these
condifions are discussed in secfion 2.1.

2.1.3.2

Deposition
When the solid particles precipitate out of the liquid phase, it must deposit on a

solid surface for a sizable amount to hamper in the production process. This process lakes
place in two stages: (1) movement of the precipitated solid particles towards the static
pipe wall and then (2) adherence of these particles on the wall. Burger, Perkins and
Striegler'^ extensively invesfigated the mechanism of movement of the solid particles
towards the pipe wall in an attempt to determine the expected nature and thickness of
deposition as a funcfion of time and distance in the Trans Alaska Pipeline System, fhe
theories they and other investigators'^"^^"'" postulated are discussed in the suhsequest
paragraphs.
The mechanism of the second stage, that is, hoxv the solid particles adhere to the
pipe surface is mainly attributed to surface roughness by Hurt" and Jorda."' A process
called 'nucleation' is observed at the rough edges of the pipe wall. The process of crxsial
growth also contribute to this accumulation.

Molecular Diffusion: For all flow condifions, oil will assume a laminar flow
either throughout the pipe or at least in a thin laminar sublayer adjacent to the pipe w all.
When oil is being cooled, there will be a temperature gradient across the laminar
sublayer. If this temperature is below the WAT, a concentration gradient of dissolxed
wax will result and the dissolved material will be transported towards the w all bx
molecular diffusion.
Shear Dispersion: A solid particle in a moving fluid tends to attain the x elocity of
the streamline at its center. However, as the particle approaches a stafic solid boundarx
(the wall), its both linear and angular velocifies are reduced. When the particle
concentration is high and a significant number of multi-particle interactions occur. This
results in a drag force from the pipe wall towards the center of the pipe and exentuallx
leads to a lateral transport and a dispersing of particles toxvards the pipe w all.
Brownian Diffusion: Precipitated wax crystals suspended in oil are continuously
bombarded by thermally acfive oil molecules leading to random Brownian movements. In
presence of a concentration gradient, Brownian motion will lead to a net transport
towards the wall similar to molecular diffusion.
Gravity Effect: Precipitated wax crystals are denser than the suiTOunding liquid
phase. Unless prevented, these particles would settle down in a gravity field and
deposited on the bottom of pipes or tanks.
Electrokinetic Effect: When a crude oil is flowing in a conduit (porous media,
well-tubular or flowline), a electrical potential develops along the conduit due to the
mofion of charged particles present in the fluid."' This electrical potential could then
cause a change in charges of the colloidal particles, which in turn gel electrically attracted
towards the walls of the conduit. Thus, the colloidal particles start depositing on the
sides.

,0

2.1.4 Causes of Paraffin Problems


There might be several reasons why paraffin related problems occurs. Some of
these reasons are occurs naturally in the process of producing and storing the crude oil.
However, in many cases, these are artificially created by various operational
procedures.^^^ The following paragraphs describe some of them.

2.1.4.1

Naturally Occuring
Gas Expansion Cooling. When gas seep through a small passage, into a lower

pressure region, it expands and cools. This is known as the Joule-Thompson Effect.
When the well produces, the gas cools at various places like the choke, perforations, etc.
This greatly contribute to wax precipitation at the constrictions.
High Production Levels of Gas and Oil. exen if the proportion of high moleculer
weight wax is very low in the over-all crude oil composition, when produced over a large
period of fime, it will contribute to a large quantity of wax.
Geothermal Gradient. Due to the decrease in temperature as the crude oil flows up
to the surface, wax tends to precipitate and deposit in the tubing.
Presence of Cold Water Zones.'' If the xxell trajectory passes through a cold
water zone, the temperature of the crude oil will reduce so that wax is deposited.
Evaporation of volatile light hydrocarbon.'^ These volatile hydrocarbon acts as
naturally occurring solvents. With their evaporation due to pressure drop, the solubility of
the liquid system become so that less that it no longer hold the solid paraffin in solution.
Surface Roughness/Foreign Matter.''^'"'^'"^''"^" These forms nucleus that help initiate
deposition.
2.1.4.2 Operafional Causes
When a choke is opened for well tests like a draxx-down test, a pressure drop
occurs in the well-bore. It leads to cooling due to Joule-Thompson Effect and subsequcsi
paraffin deposition at the formation face and at perfomations.

Cold Complefion/Frac Fluids. When the well is completed with complefion fluids
or hydraulic fracturing is used to sfimulate the well, hardly any consideration is gix en to
maintain the temperature of the fluid. These cold fliuds goes into the formation main
cools down the formafion the fluids and even the rocks, leading to wax deposition inside
the formation itself
Water/C02 Floods. The low temperature of the huge volume of water during
Water/C02 flooding causes the over-all temperature of the reserx oir to decrease. This
may often lead to wax-deposifion within the reservoir.
Hot-Oiling. If proper precausion is not taken, it may lead to more w ax-problem
rather then cleaning them. It may melt the wax deposited in tubing, but later redeposit
them in the formation. Moreover, the oil used for hot-oiling is often from the stock-tank.

2.1.5

Remedial Measures

The remedial and prevention techniques for paraffin deposition that are in use
and/or previously used are discussed here. These techniques can be broadly classified
into three categories: Mechanical, Thermal and Chemical methods. Mechanical methods
are removal techniques. However, thermal and chemical methods can be either remox al
or preventive techniques. The preventive methods act by txvo mechanism: (1) by
preventing precipitation of solids from the liquid phase, and (2) by preventing deposition
and/or accumulation of precipitated solids on the pipe walls. All the thermal methods fall
under the first category, whereas some of the chemicals methods belong to the first
category, but others fall under the second.

2.1.5.1

Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods are the simplest method of paraffin removal. These methods

are bi-oadly classified into two basic categories: (1) removal of the deposits bx applying
mechanical force and (2) preventtion of accumulation of deposits. The first category
encompasses scrapping, pigging and a comparatixely sophisticated meihtul of ultrasonic

12

removal. Applying smooth coafings inside the pipe comes under the second categoix. All
these are described in the subsequent secfions.

2.1.5.1.1 Scrapping
Scrapping is one of the most common mechanical methods of paraffin remox a!.
Descripfion of various mechanical scrapper like "paraffin scraper,"' "paraffin knife."" etc.
can be found in Reistle's report.^^' The scrapper can be classified as: (1) wireline
Scrapper, (2) Rod Scrapper and (3) Floxxline Scrapper. Some of these tools are presented
in Figures 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4. Over the years, more sophisticated mechanical w ax scrapping
tools were devised. However, this method later appeared less cost effectixe, particulariy
when deposition rate is very high. Moreover, the scrapping process leads to increased
wear on the tubulars.

I !

p-r

' ^

n^
hi
iii

iia,

CIn

(a)

O.Q

(b)

Figure 2.2 : Common Tools for Paraffin Removal by Scrapping


(a) Paraffin Scratcher (b) Paraffin Cutter or Tubing Gage
Source: Wireline Opearions and Procedures^

Figure 2.3: Pipe-line or flow-line scraper


46
Source: Reistle

Figure 2.4 : Casing Scraper


Source : Bilco Tools, Inc.^

2.1.5.1.2 Anfi-Sfick/Plastic Coats


When experiments carried out by by Hurt,^^ Jorda"^" and Jessen et al.^^ revealed
that rouhness is a major governing factor for deposition, attempts were made to minimize
roughness by introducing plasfic coats. However, it has been found that plastic coats
solve the problem only temporarily as it starts eroding over time.47

2.1.5.1.3 Pigging
Ward^"^ and Snedeker^" mentioned pigging as a means of paraffin removal in the
mid-1950s. Ward describes an economical method of using a short cylindrical plug made
of a soluble material to pig out paraffin from flow-lines. These plugs are such that they
dissolve when exposed to crude oil for a long fime, but maintain their shape long enough
to push deposited paraffin down a line when fluid pressure is applied behind it.

15

2.1.5.1.4 Ultra-Sonic Removal


Laboratory experiments^^ carried out with core samples revealed that ultrasonic
remoxal is another viable technique for paraffin removal, especially if combined with
solvent soaks. The dominant physical mechanisms seem to be increased re-suspension
and solubility of paraffin due to mechanical agitafion. However, its actual field tnal is xet
to be carried out.

2.1.5.2

Thermal Methods
The main objective of any thermal method is to maintain fluid temperature well

above the Wax Appearance Temperature (WAT). These methods can be broadly
classified as: (1) Heafing and (2) Insulafing. Thermal methods are effectixe only near its
point of applicafion. Further away from the point of application, the problem reoccurs."*^
Moreover, in asphalfic deposits, thermal methods are ineffective.
In the heating process, extra heat energy is supplied to the sxstem to melt the
deposited paraffin xxax and to maintain sufficient temperature in the system to halt further
precipitafion. The most common methods used in supplying the extra heat eneigx to the
system are: (1) heating by a hot fluid (Oil, Water/Steam) (2) deploy downhole heater,
(3) by means of exothermal reactions.
The fluid temperature is also maintained by insulating the pipe and preserving the
heat energy. One oi' the heat loss mechanisms in oilx\ells is free conxeciion in the annular
space. This source of heat loss can be minimized by either (1) wrapping the pipe by some
insulating material, (2) vacuuming the annulus, or (3) Insulafing Packer Fluid.Some of
these thermal methods are discussed in detail in the following sections.

2.1.5.2.1 Hot Oiling


Hot oiling is one of the most commonly used and old method of paraffin remox al.
A detailed study of hot-oiling was canied out under a project called "Applied Production

16

Technology" at Sandia Nafional Laboratories during mid-1990s. The inxestigators found


that the chemical and thermal processes that occur during hot-oiling are xerx complex."^^
"Key issues include: (1) During a typical hot oiling job, most of the fluid injected
into the well goes into the formafion, and hence, particulates and chemicals in the fluid
have the potential to damage the formafion.' (2) Hot oiling can xaporize oil in the tubing
faster than the pump lifts oil. This interrupts paraffin remox al from the xvell, and thus the
wax is refined into harder deposits, goes deeper into the w ell. and can stick rods such as
sucker rod in beam pump installafions". (p.6)
The following good "hot oiling" pracfices designed to maximize xvax removal and
minimize formafion damage are inferred from these insights:

Paraffin treatment should be w ell specific.

The frequency of treatment should be minimized.

Good quality fluid should be used.

The fluid should be injected down the annulus.

The tubing should be full and the well producing oil, not just gas.

The BTUs / hour injected should be maximized.

The volume injected should be limited.

Thermodynamics alone should not be the deciding factor in choosing betw een
hot oil and hot water.

2.1.5.2.2 Hot Watering


Hot water was introduced to provide an alternative to hot oiling. Apart from
eliminating the some of the drawbacks of hot oiling, it can provide more heat energy to
the target area due to the greater heat capacity of water. However, the process has its ow n
drawbacks. Plain hot water treatment cannot provide the solvency that hot oiling can.
Surfactant are frequently added to disperse the wax molecules in the w atcr phase.
Substantially large amount of demulsifier is required to separate out these water-w et w:a\
from the water before its disposal.

17

2.1.5.2.2 Exothermic Reacfion


Exothermic Process involves internal heat generation through an exothermic
reaction. One such process is mixing of nitrate/nitnte compounds in a reduction/oxidation
reaction that generates an exotherm. This process relies on water as the solxent to delixer
the reactants to the problem areas, and may require addifional chemicals to disperse the
melted paraffin. Such aqueous based processes may result in difficult emulsion and can
cause shut-down of producfion by upsetfing dehydrafion processes. Furthermore, such
gas generating reacfions can become uncontrollable explosion and can cause extensixe
damage to the dovxnhole well hardxx'are.'"^
To overcome the drawbacks described above. Brown and Dobbs'^ came up w ith a
novel method of using mild exothermic reactions of organic acid and organic bases.
These exothermic reaction produces enough temperature ( > 212 '^F) to melt paraffin
adequately and the resultant salts act as excellent dispersants. Most common acids that
can be used in such reactions are alkyl-substituted analogs of benzene sulfonic acid and
naphthalene sulfonic acid while xarious organic amines, alkali hydoxides, etc. can be
used as bases.

2.1.5.2.3 Annular Packer Fluid


Ashford et al.^ described the use of annular packer fluids as insulating material to
prevent heat loss. They canied out various laboratory and field tests and concluded that
gelled fluids proxides effective annular thermal insulation, thereby inhibiting paraffin
precipitafion. Some of the fluids that can be used as insulafing fluid are Arctic Diesel,
Gelled Diesel, Solid Laden Gel, etc.

2.1.5.2.4 Vacuum Jacketed Pipe


Bunton'^ described the use of vacuum jacketed pipe, a system of two pipes one
inside another (Figure 2.5). A earner pipe is coxered with radiation barners. fitted with
spacers at regular intervals, and then inserted inside the jacket pipe. The two ends of the
pipes arc welded together to form a thin annular spacing that is exacuated through a port
18

in the jacket pipe using a mechanical xacuum pump. .After desired lexel of xacuum is
achieved, the port is also sealed. The key benefit of vacuum insulated tubing is supeiior
thermal insulafion that is achieved with a minimal gap between the carrier and the jacket
pipe.
Such vacuum insulated tubings were demonstrated to be technically successful
method of paraffin inhibifion by Purdy and Cheyne.^^ Howexer. they found economic
success only in some limited wells.

2.1.5.3

Chemical Methods
The chemicals used to prevent deposifion of paraffin wax are commonly referred

to as "paraffin inhibitors." Depending upon the mechanism by which thex work to control
paraffin, these chemicals can be broadly classified into there categories: (1) Solvents. (2)
Dispersants, and (3) Crystal Modifiers. The following sections discuss them in detail.

iukilij
"liU

ri

' SviiScr

CcnlQ'j2Cf

1.^

" Ccapling lrsc;lalo'


Couplinc

"hfus! Cone

O.rcr Casing

hk).s lutie
,-

- ^ - < .

Figure 2.5: Details of a vacuum insulated tubing


Source: GrantPrideco's Website"

20

2.1.5.3.1 Solvents
Solvents are are added to the crude oil to restore its ability to dissolve w ax
crystals due to loss of dissolved gasses or reduction in temperature.'^ Some commonlx
used solvents are: Produced condensate, Casing head gasoline, Pentane, Butane, X\ lene.
Toluene, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Carbon Disulfide and Terpenes, etc. Hoxx ex er.
according to Dobbs, some efficient solvents like carbon tetrachloride are refinerx
catalysts poisoning. Some other extremely good paraffin solxents like Carbon Disulfide
are hazardous as they hax e very low flash points.
Solvents are adequate if the problem is only minor; however, for moderate to
severe occurrences of paraffin the quanfifies of solvent required are usually prohibitix e.
Moreover, some best solvents are prohibited because of health hazards and refinery
catalyst poisoning.^^

2.1.5.3.2 Dispersants
Dispersants are also known as Wetting Agents and Emulsifiers. In theory,
dispersant should work like plastic coats. They form a film on the pipe wall to change the
contact angle and thus retard the deposition process.^^ They also neutralize the attractive
forces that bind the paraffin particles together.''^ The chemical structure of these
molecules is such that one end is attracfive to the paraffin molecule, xvhile the other end
is soluble in either oil or vxater, depending upon the phase in w hich the paraffin is to be
dispersed. Thus, they keep the precipitated paraffin particles to disperse in the produced
fluids without deposifing on the walls. Some common dispersants are: naturally occun-ing
asphaltenes in crude oils, sulfonates, alkyl phenol derivatives, ketones, teipenes,
polyamides and naphthalene, etc.

2.1.5.3.3 Crxstal Modifier


Laboratory investigations'^"^'^^ indicated that certain chemicals change the manner
in which paraffin crystallizes from solution. These chemicals were found to have the
ability to reduce the tendency of paraffin crvstals to clump as they separate from solution.
21

They co-precipitates and co-crystallizes with the wax by taking the place of a wax
molecule in the crystal latfice. While doing so, it prevents the crx stal to grow further b\
placing a steric hindrance that interferes with the proper alignment of new incoming
paraffin molecules' (Figure 2.6). Thus, thex help reducing paraffin deposition
tendency as well as lower the pour point. These chemicals are also knoxx n as Ciystal
Modifier, Pour Point Depressant or Paraffin Inhibitors.

CRUDE OtU WAX


CRYSTAL
UaoVECUOUOPOINTi

WAX CRYSTAL COHESION


(JUST BELOW THE
CLOUD POINT)

WAX CRYSTAL
ADHESION
IBEIDW CLOUD POINT);
AND OCCLUDED 85 6 W

0
D
D
WtTH WAX CRYSTAL
MODIFIER
i-'t

Figure 2.6: The idea of x\ ax crystal modification


Source: Bilderback and McDougall, 1999

90

After the successful field trails and promising results, Bilderback and
McDougall' declared in 1969 that,
"The wax crystal modifiers are the only chemicals found thus far to solx'e
irreversibly the paraffin control problem from the point of chemical contact down hole
(or at the wellhead), through the tubing, through thefloxvlinesand through the suri'ace
equipment, storage tanks and pipelines"(p.3).
Typical crystal modifiers are'^: 2-hydroxy-naphthalene, Polyethylene. Copolymer
esters, Ethylene/Vinyl acetate copolymers, Olefin/Ester Copolymers, Ester/\'inyl Acetate
Copolymers, Polyacrylates, Polymethacrylates and Alkyl phenol resins, etc.
One of the problems of crystal modifiers is that these freeze during xvinter months
in geographical areas having cold climate, making it difficult to transport and delixer or
pump at the desired location. Becker^ has come up w ith a nexv blend of product called
'Winterized Paraffin Crystal Modifiers' that remain pumpable even in the cold xveather.

2.1.5.4

Other Methods
Apart from the conventional mechanical, thermal and chemical methods, there are

some other innovative non-conventional methods being tried. The following articles
describe some of them.

2.1.5.4.1 Kinetic Cell


In 1978, a new product called 'Linear Kinetic Cell" was introduced.^' Paraffin
molecules are in dipole stage, having a positive and a negative end, similar to a
microscopic magnet. When crude oil containing paraffin crystal is passed through a
strong electromagnetic field, it polarizes paraffin molecules, thtis helping them to remain
in suspension. This theory is used by this new technology.

2.1.5.4.2 Microbial Treatments


Certain bacteria have the ability to decompose heavier hydrocarbon into smaller
hydrocarbons. ^' If these bacteria are cultured at the wax depositing places, the problem
can be minimized. When applied downhole a producing well, for proper grow th of
bacteria, the following criteria must be fulfilled.

The well must produce certain amount of water.

Downhole temperature must be within an optimal range (~ 90 to 210 F).

pH of the fluid must be within an opfimal range (~ 3pH).

The concentrafion of chlorine, H2S, etc. must also be optimal.

2.1.5.4.3 Magnefic Fluid Condifioning


Though the exact mechanism is sfill not well understood, it has been found that
when the crude is passed through a strong magnefic field, the rate of paraffin deposition
decreases. However, laboratory experiments confirmed that magnetic fields do alter the
paraffin crystallizafion process and that this phenomenon is time dependent.^^ This
technique is generally known as Magnefic Fluid Conditioning (MFC) and Biao and
Lijian have reported that a large number of MFC units are being successfully used in
China. They also found that MFC is not ideal for crudes with high pour point and high
wax contents and is generally economic for wells with more than 50 % water-cut.

2.1.6 Selection of Treatment Methods


The most common remedial measures of paraffin deposition has been discussed in
the previous secfions (2.1). The selection of these methods in a given situation is ofien
confusing and controversial. In many cases, when a particular method is deployed, other
alternatives are ignored. In the following paragraphs, a critical rex ievx of method
selecfion procedures available in the published literature is presented.
In modem days, mechanical methods like scraping are generally avoided as it
involves extensive labour and mechanical wear and tear of xvell hardxvare." How ex er. in
case of operational emergency, they may also be employed. Application of plastic or
24

glass coafing on the pipewall gained only a one-fime popularity during the earix
1960s.^^'^^ With the advent of cheaper and effecfive chemical methods, particulad}
crystal modifier, popularity of these methods seem to diminished.
Thermal methods are used when the problem area is limited because thex are
effecfive only near the point of applicafion. For examples, if exothermic reaction, hotoiling, etc. are carried out in the wellbore, they will not help if the w ax> oil also needs to
be transported through a long surface flowline in the cold winter (w hen temperature
drops below the cloud point). In case of sub-sea floxvline, flowlines in the arctic region
etc. where maintainfing the heat energy is of importance, vacuum insulated pipe sx stems
are most effecfive due to their superior thermal insulation."" However, economx will
dictate whether such a system is preferable over a chemical treatment.
Among the chemical methods, solvent treatments is used primarily to remox e
already exisfing deposits while crystal modifiers can not be used for such purposes. Thex
are used for only inhibifing or preventing deposition. Dispersants are also less effectix e
for removing existing deposits: however, they are extensivelx used along xvith other
methods like water-based thermal washing, crystal modifier, etc.
The selecfion of a suitable crystal modifier is often a difficult process. Dobbs
describes the generally adopted approach as follows:
'A carefully collected and transported sample is tested for wax content,
asphaltene content and pour point. Next a determination is made of the type of x\ ax that is
causing the deposition problem. This is determined by placing a sample of the crude in a
cold finger apparatus and collecting a sample of the depositing wax. The scraping is
analyzed by gas chromatography. The retesfing of the crude with various paraffin
inhibitors will show this same concentrafion peak, but hopefully the proper inhibitor will
reduce it (Figure 2.7). The best inhibitor will be the one that reduces the peak to its
lowest volume", (p.4)
Another emerging technology is the magnetic fluid conditioners (MFC). .MFC is
not ideal for crudes with high pour point and high wax contents and is generally
economic for wells with more than 50^'^ water-cut.^ Howexer, the possibilitx of using this
economic method is almost always ignored where chemical treatment is administered.

After an extensive study in various oil fields of China, Biao and Lijian^ haxe
made some useful conclusions regarding the criteria of choosing different types of
inhibifion techniques. These conclusions are:
a.

For the oil wells with water cut below 50%, wax content less than 30%

and Carbon Number distribution of the wax in the range of C13-C40. a good efficiencx
may be obtained by using chemical removing and inhibiting techniques and some of
these wells could be effecfively treated with magnetic paraffin-inhibiting technique.
b.

For the wells with water cut more than 50%, the magnetic paraffin-

inhibifing technique is generally more economic to apply.


c.

For the wells xvith xvax content more than 309c, pour point higher than 40

"C, in'espective of the water cut, the best choice is to adopt chemical paraffin-remox al or
thermal washing method.
d.

For the oil wells with very high Carbon Number of wax, both magnetic

and pure chemical paraffin removing techniques are ineffectix e. The best economic
choice is to apply chemical paraffin inhibitor or glass/plastic coating or lining of tubing.
This type of additional unbiased conclusions are needed to make an usable
knowledgebase (discussed in section 4.5), but there are hardly any in the published
literature.

26

2.1.7 Common Terminology


At this point, it is important to discuss some of the attributes of a crude oil. These
attributes or properties are used to describe a given crude oil quantitatixely. The statistical
method descrided in secfion 2.1 may also require to store and compare these attributes.
One of the most common properties often measured and documented is API
Gravity. It is a measure of the density of the crude oil and is related to specific gravity as
follows:
API =

^-^1^-131.5.

API Gravity decreases with increasing molecular weigh. Presence of asphaltenes


also lowers API Gravity. This parameter is most often used to describe the qualitx of the
crude oil in trade negofiations or biddings.
Bubble Point is another important parameter of crude oil. It is that state of
pressure and temperature at which gas separates from solution. This parameter is helpful
in predicting reservoir pressure and gas-cut.
Another important parameter is Cloud Point or Wax Appearance Temperature
(WAT). It is defined as the temperature at which crystallized wax start appearing in a
liquid system. This parameter is particularly important to know for crude oils having xvax
deposition problem.
Pour Point is another parameter required for a high wax-containing crude oil. It is
the lowest temperature allowing the crude oil to flow. This parameter is influenced by
presence of branched hydrocarbons in the crude oil. Moreover, one of the results of
applying the chemicals that modifies the crystal growth of paraffin (crystal modifiers) is
lowering of pour point.'^'*^ Therefore, these chemicals are also known i\s pour point
depressants.
To characterize the flow behaviour of crude oils, a property called viscosity is
used. It is the measure of resistance to flow exerted by a fluid.''^ In the oil industry, the
term viscosity usually refers to apparent viscosity, which is measured in centipoises.

17

Like other physical properties, viscosity is affected not only by pressure and
temperature, but also by the type and size of the compounds present in a given fluid. The
variafion of liquid viscosity is not known with any exactness, howex er, it is
experimentally shown that viscosity of hydrocarbon increases with the molecular
complexity.'''^
The effecfiveness of a paraffin inhibition technique is a measure of the degree to
which it is successful in inhibifing or prevenfing the deposifion. In the literature, a
number of different ways of defining effecfiveness of an inhibitor can be found.
In terms of deposifion rate. Brown, Niesen, and Erickson'^ defined effectix eness
as
% Inhibifion = e = ^''""' " ^""'' x 100 % .

2.2

^before

The unit of deposifion rate can be mass/time (gram/sec) or volume/time


(cm3/sec). The deposition rate can be found in a Cold-Finger Apparatus.
The percentage inhibifion described above is a static parameter. It does not take
"J A

into account the effect of flow resistance. To overcome this drawback, Fulford" defined
another effectiveness that takes into account the reduction in flow resistance.
A- B
% Inhibifion (Flow) =

xlOO% .

-3

A
Dobbs'^ tned to define effecfiveness in terms of the composifion of the deposits in
terms of the alteration of concentrafion peaks of their heavier carbon molecules in gas
chromatography analysis chart. (Figure 2.7).
Dong et al.^^ described effecfiveness of chemical control of paraffin in terms of
the change of thermal washing (hot-oiling/watering) intervals. If the treatment is
successful, deposition rate will decrease and the time interval between at which thermal
washing is required will be elongated.

28

"Colcf Finger' Scrapings

250
p

200

h
Z
D

C16
C21
C26
C31
C35

-C2i)

56 4 '
:7 1 - ,

C25
C30
-C35
C40

D IS

n ft

150

DTREATED

<
fit:

z
ill
o
z
o
o

6-CIS

~-rj

CO

Z
0

TREATED

Deposit Rsduction

UNrREATEO

100 UNTREATED

6 C15
C20
CI 6
Ci'5

50

11

<f> ^

0^ 0^ 0^' 0^^ 0^' 0^' 0^^ ^

1 C26
; C31

C30

C35
C36 - C40

it t.\
6 5^
36 41
2C 8>
1 0'

& & & & & & f}^ & <^ ^

MOLECULAR CHAIN LENGTH

Figure 2.7: Chromatogram showing effect of inhibitor to hold paraffin in solution.


Source: Dobbs 19

2.2 Commercial Survey


This phase of the survey is aimed at finding out recent commercially available
products and services. The findings of this survey may be helpful to populate the
database discussed in section 4.6. The Internet and product catalogues were considered
for this survey.
2.2.1 The Internet
A number of web-based general purpose search engines were used to find out
relevant informafion. Three keywords 'paraffin', 'asphaltene' and 'wax' were used in the
search operation. With keywords 'paraffin' and 'wax,' a large number of iiTclevant webpages pertaining to cosmefics, life-like modeling etc. comes up in the search result. To
narrow down the result, words like 'removal,' 'inhibifion,' 'crude oil,' etc. are ANDed in
the search criteria. The general purpose search engines are: www.altayista.com,
www.yahoo.com, www.google.com and www.lycos.com.
29

In addifion to these, the websites specific to the oil industry like vv\\ xv.oil.com,
www.woridoil.com, www.oilandgas.com, www.energy.com. From the search result,
relevant websites were scrufinized, visited and informafion was collected.

2.2.2 Product Catalogue


The companies found in the Internet and otherwise xvere contacted and requested
for a product catalogue. Some catalogue xvere downloaded directly from the indix idual
company's website. The online composite catalogue ofwww.woridoil.com was also
researched.

2.2.3 The Outcome


Altogether 16 chemical manufacturers were found as a result of the survey. Tough
majority of the chemicals work by a single mechanism (either act as solvent, dispersant
or crystal modifier), some manufacturers claim that their certain chemicals work by
multiple mechanisms. For example, (1) DeepSouth Chemicals, Inc., claims that the
product InSol' work as crystal modifier for Paraffin as well as paraffin. It also help
dissolving these deposits. (2) Phoenix Chemical Corporation produces and markets a
product called 'Pare 400\ that they claim to be a solvent, dispersant as \xell as crystal
modifier of paraffin and asphaltene all in one. (3) Petroplex's X-25 is pnmarily an
inorganic scale remover, but it also act as paraffin dispersant and asphaltene/paraffin
solvent. A detailed list of the manufacturers and their products is presented in Table 2.1

30

Table 2.1: List of Manufacturers and Their Products


Manufacturer's Name
Product Name
Mechanism
(Source)
ANTICOR CHIMIE
Anficor PPD Series Pour Point Depressant
BP 19 04310 PeyruisAnficor DS A Series Asphaltene dispersants
France
Anficor PA Seles Wax dispersant & anfi-sficking agent.
(http://www.anficorchimie.com)
Baker Oil Tools
ST-101
(http://www.worldoil.com/) PI-902
Crystal Modifier
BJ Services - Unichem
Paratrol 17, 30
Crystal Modifier
14505 Torrey Chase, Suite
Paravan D
Paraffin dispersant
201
TS-lxx
Paraffin Solvent
Houston, Texas 77014 USA
(Techni-Solv
(http://www.bjservices.com)
Series)
TS-2XX
Paraffin Dispersants
(Techni-Sperse
Series)
Crystal Modifier. (Some of them are
WCx-5xxx
(Wax-Chek Series) combinafion with dispersants)
WCx-2701
Asphaltene Dispersant
(Wax-Chek Series)
Paraffin/Asphaltene dispersant and
Bycosin 1100
Bycosin Industrial Group
stabilizer, Oil-Water demulsifier.
Karlstad, Sweden
(http://www.bvcosin.se)
Asphaltene/wax inhibitor and solvent.
InSol(SM)
DeepSouth chemical Inc.
Lafayette, LA 70598-0657
Breaks up the strong bonds of the
(http://www.deep-southasphaltene and wax particles with the
chemical.com)
formafion mine
Paraffin Solvent
GC-333
Green Country Chemical
Paraffin Solvent
2455 East 51st Street Suite
GC-4000
104
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74105-6030
(http://gcchemical.com)
Wax dispersant.
Paratrol
Guardian Chemicals Inc.
#155 Estates Way
Asphaltene dispersant.
Addisol LF
W4 Sturgeon Industrial Park
Fort Saskatchewan,
Alberta Canada
(http://www.guardianchem.ca/
)

31

Table 2.1: List of Manufacturers and Their Products


Manufacturer's Name
Product Name
Mechanism
(Source)
Halliburton
Parachek Paraffin Crystal Modifier
http://www.halliburton.com/pr Inhibitor
oducts/prod enhan/csPDA Agent
5128.htm
Paragon'^M E+
Paraffin solvent.
Solvents
WS-36
Paraffin dispersant.
TarchekTM
Asphaltene Inhibitor !!
Asphaltene
Inhibitors
Nowsco
Parahib-8
Crystal Modifier
(A BJ Services Company in DL-22
Paraffin Dispersant
Canada)
(http://www.worldoil.com,
httD://www.nowsco.com)
Paraffin Dispersant
Osca
PC-200
(http://www.worldoil.com,
Paraffin Dispersant
Osca Solv
http://osca.com/)
Crystal Modifier
PC-100
Paraffin dispersant,
Petrosol X-25
Petroplex Acidizing Inc.,
asphaltene/paraffin solvent.
P.O. Box 60365 Midland,
Texas 79711
(http://petro-plex.com)
Paraffin/Asphaltene solvent,
Pare 400
Phoenix Chemical
dispersant, crystal modifier all in one.
Corporafion
Dallas, TX, USA
(httD://www.Dhoenixchemical.
com/)
Asphaltene Dissolver.
RX-33/1
Roemax Limited
Wax Dissolver.
Aberdeen, Scotland
RX-49LT
(http://www.roemax.co.uk)
Wax Dissolver.
RX-4200 Series
Crystal modifier
RX-7000 Series
Asphaltene Dispersant.
RX-7300 Series
Crystal Modifier
P125
Schlumberger-Dowell
Paraffin Dispersant
(http://www.worldoil.com)
U82
Paraffin Dispersant
P800
Paraffin Dispersant
P124
Paraffin Dispersant
P121
Paraffin dispersant, asphaltene
KH-30
United Energy Corporation
solvent and forms film on metal.
New Jercey, USA
32

CHAPTER m
EXPERT SYSTEMS

This chapter explores the various aspects of an exofic domain of computer science
called Expert Systems. A number of text-books"''^'"^'^^ were consulted to compile this
chapter and issues like what exactly an expert system is, how it works, resources required
to build one and situafions where use of expert systems are recommended will be
discussed. In addifion to these, a preliminary study of three most common Expert Sx stem
Shells, an important building block of Expert Systems, is also presented in section 3.4.
The purpose of this study and discussion is explained later in Chapter V.

3.1

What is an Expert System

It was believed that problems such as theorem proving, speech and pattern
recognifions, game playing and highly complex determinisfic and stochastic systems can
only be tackled by humans because their formulafions and solutions require human
abilifies like thinking, observing, memorizing and learning. However, intensive research
since the 1960s by researchers from several fields shows that these problems can be
formulated and solved by machines. The broad area of computer science that deals with
these types of problems is nowadays refeiTcd to as Artificial Intelligence (Al). The
subareas of Al are pattern recognition, neural networks, automatic theorem proving,
automatic game playing, artificial vision, natural language processing, etc.
Expert System is another subarea of Al. Several definifions of expert systems are
found in the literature. The gist of these definitions can be summarized as: "/\// expert
system can be broadly defined as a computer system (hardware and software) that
simidates human experts in a given area of specializatioir (p.24). An expert system
should be able to process and memorize information, learn and reason in both
determinisfic and uncertain situafions, communicate with humans and/or other expert
systems, make appropriate decisions and explain why these decisions have been made.

33

3.2 How it works


A closer look at the various components will help to understand how an expert
system works. Figure 3.1 shows the various components of a typical expert system and
the following paragraphs explain the funcfionality of each of these components.
The human experts provide the knowledge in the subject-matter area to the
knowledge engineers. This may require the human experts to rethink, reorganize and
restructure their own knowledge so as to provide them to the knowledge engineers in an
ordered, well-defined and well-explained way. Often published technical papers can also
act as the source of knowledge. In some cases, database acquired from human experts,
users and published technical papers can play the role of the human experts.
Whatever be the source, the knowledge engineers or a Learning Subsystem
translate this knowledge into a language that the expert system understands. This
knowledge representafion language consists of structures such as logic, rules, semantic
nets and frames or combinafions of these structures. The computer memory space x\ here
knowledge is stored in this fashion is known as the knowledgebase.
The Knowledge Acquisifion Subsystem and the Coherence Control Subsystem
help maintain consistency and coherence of the knowledgebase.
The Inference Engine is the heart of every expert system. The main puipose of
this component is to draw conclusions by applying the abstract knowledge to the
concrete knowledge. It contains the strategies for controlling the selection and application
of knowledge to draw conclusions. Stand-alone inference engines are available and are
generally referred to as Expert System Shell.

34

Subject Matter
Human Experts

fc-

-^
^

Knowledge
Engineers

Database

Users

^
^

^^

^^

Knowledge
Acquisifion
Subsystem

Learning
Subsystem

^
^

^f

Coherence Control
Subsystem

Information
Acquisifion
Subsystem

User Interface
^
^

1r

^^

Knowledgebase
k.

w\

\ ^

Inference

Engine

^ /

Working Memory
^
^

fc-

Explanation
Subsystem

Action Execution
Subsystem

Figure 3.1: Typical Components of an Expert System


(the arrows represent the flow of information.)
Source: Castillo, Gutierrez and Hadi18

35

Abstract knowledge consists of a set of objects and a set of rules that gox ems the
relafionships among the objects. Abstract knowledge is stored in knoxvledgebase and is
static and permanent in nature. It does not change from one application to another. On the
other hand, concrete knowledge is the evidence or the facts that are known or gix en in a
particular situation. This type of knowledge is dynamic and changes from one application
to another.
The Information Acquisition Subsystem provides the concrete knoxx ledge to the
Inference Engine. In addition, if the initial knoxvledge is limited and conclusions cannot
be reached, the inference engine ufilizes informafion acquisition subsystem in order to
obtain the required knowledge and resume the inference process until conclusions can be
reached. Often, the user interacfively provides this information through the User Interface
subsystem. This also checks the validity of the user's entry.
The Acfion Execution Subsystem is the component that enables the Expert
System to perform physical action and is available in situations xvhere the Expert Sxstem
is the controlling module of a system that does some physical activities.
When the user demands an explanafion of the conclusions draxvn, the Explanation
Subsystem explains the process followed by the Inference Engine or the Action
Execution Subsystem.
3.3

When Expert System Is Recommended?

According to Casfillo et al.,'^ the applicafion of an expert system is recommended


in the following situations:

When the knowledge is difficult to acquire or is based on the rules that can
only be learned through experience.

When confinual improxement in knoxvledge is essential and/or \\hen the


problem is subject to rapidly changing legal rules and codes.

When human expert are either expensive or difficult to find.

4 When the users' knoxvledge of the subject matter is limited.

36

Horn- states that expert system is jusfified when the problem satisfied the
followings:

There are many possible solutions. It would take too long to examine each
one.

The problem-solving expertise is conceptual; cannot be reduced to numbers.

The informafion needed is incomplete, uncertain, subjecfix e. inconsistent and


subject to change. The program must be able to work xx ith incomplete data.

The conclusions reached will often be uncertain. The expert system will state
that it has only a certain level of confidence that its answer is correct. It will
rank conclusions by their likelihood of being correct.

Experts may disagree on how to solve the problem.

The task is always changing and evolving.

The cost of a poor or late decision is very high.

3.4 Survey of Expert System Shells


One of the building blocks of an expert system is an Expert System Shell (ESS). It
can be called an expert system without the knowledgebase. A survey of easily available
ESS was canied out. A large number of ESS are available in the market. Howexer, three
of them are scrufinized in this thesis project. The following sections details the scrutiny.

3.4.1 C Language Integrated Production System


Details about CLIPS (C Language Integrated Production System) is available at
website http://www.ghgcorp.com/clips/CLIPS.html. It is a productive development and
delivery expert system tool that provides a complete environment for the construction of
rule and/or object based expert systems. CLIPS is being used by numerous users
throughout the public and private community including: all NASA sites and branches of
the military, numerous federal bureaus, government contractors, unixersities, and manx
companies. Its base language is C++. Advantages of this ESS are:

Source Code is available free of cost.


37

Extensive documentafion, help-file, user-forums available

Can be integrated with user codes.

Disadvantages are:

Once compiled, it becomes platform-dependent.

Graphical Interface will have to be created in C++.

3.4.2 Java Expert System Shell


The details of JESS (Java Expert System Shell) is available at the xxebsite
http://herzberg.ca.sandia.goy/jess/ It is a rule engine and scripting environment written
enfirely in Sun's Java language by Ernest Friedman-Hill at Sandia National Laboratories
in Livermore, CA. Jess was originally inspired by the CLIPS expert system shell, but has
grown into a complete, disfinct Java-influenced environment of its own. Using Jess, you
can build Java applets and applicafions that have the capacity to "reason" using
knowledge you supply in the form of declarative rules. Jess is surprisingly fast, and for
some problems is faster than CLIPS itself (using a good JIT compiler, of course.) The
base language of JESS is Java. The advantages of this Expert System Shell are:

Source Code is available free of cost.

It is platform-independent.

Can be integrated with user codes.

While the disadvantages are:

Limited documentation, help-file, user-forums available

Graphical Interface will have to be created in Java by user.

38

3.4.3 Expert Master


Details of XMaster (Expert Master) is available at the xvebsite
http://www.chrisnaylor.co.uk/. It is an easy-to-use expert system shell for Windoxx s
developed and marketed by Chris \aylor Research Limited of UK. XMaster consists of
two basic packages: XMaster Developer and XMaster User. XMaster Developer is used
to create an expert system. XMaster User is used to consult an expert sx stem that has
previously been created with XMaster Developer. It has an interacfive graphical user
interface for developing Expert Systems. The advantages of this system are:

Excellent Documentafion

Excellent Graphical Interface.

While the disadvantages are:

Not freely downloadable from web, may need time in procurement

Source code hidden, hence not possible to customize

Platform specific, runs only on Windows.

39

CHAPTER IV
METHODOLOGY

Even tough, asphaltene invariably deposits with paraffin, the behaxior and the
deposifion mechanisms of paraffin and those of asphaltene are very different. The scope
of this thesis project will be limited to paraffin deposifion only. A computer system that
can assist operators decide a remedial measure for paraffin deposition has been
envisioned. The detailed system requirement has been presented in section 4.1. Then a
project plan has been prepared in an attempt to build a computer system that satisfies
these requirements. This plan takes into account all possible outcomes manx unknown
parameters. It has been discussed in secfion 4.2. In secfion 4.3, the project work that has
18

been done is outlined. A good database can help and even substitute for a human expert.
Therefore, a database has been designed and steps were taken to populate it with
sufficient data. A discussion of this design and the status of the database can be found in
secfion 4.6. With sufficient data, it will be perhaps possible to come up with a
'stafisfically suitable' method of paraffin removal and/or inhibifion. Section 4.7
discusses a stafisfical method that has been devised to make such statistical analysis.
4.1 System Requirements (Defining the 'Envisioned Sxstenf)
One of the objecfives of this thesis project is to define and/or specify a computer
system that has been envisioned to store and ufilize expertise to help selecting the best
remedial measure of paraffin deposifion in a given situafion. With this objective in mind,
a detailed 'system requirement document' has been carefully prepared. A requirement
analysis and the resulting 'requirement document' is very crucial for any software
development project. The first and foremost reason for such a document is to document
the problem in hand. It is also important for accomplishing the project \\ ith limited lime
and recourses. The problem in hand is to materialize an '-envisioned system." In this
requirement document, only the functional requirements of "the final system'' enx isioned
have been depicted. To build this system can be called the long-term ultimate goal of this
40

project. However, the works of this thesis will be limited to accomplishing a small part of
this bigger project.
The "Computer System" that has been envisioned have many challenging
requirements. The system must act as an expert who can answer relevant questions,
explain the mechanism of paraffin deposition and various removal and prevention
methods, determine and suggest the most effecfive and economic removal and prex entix e
methods.
Broadly, they can be stated as follows:

To help users to understand the phenomena of paraffin deposition by citing


and refeiTing relevant case histories and technical papers

To suggest measures to inhibit and remove paraffin deposition

To explain its own suggestions

Detailed explanafions of these requirements are presented in the next three


secfions.
4.1.1 Requirement No. 1
With the inifiative of the user, the system will explain various processes of
paraffin deposifion. The system will use extensive graphics and texts to explain. There
will also have hyperiinks to cross-reference topics, sub-topics and external literatures.

41

4.1.2 Requirement No. 2


The user will be prompted a few basic quesfions. The system will analxze the
ansxvers and xvill attempt to assess the situafion using its extensive knoxx ledge base. If
sufficient informafion is not available, it will ask few more questions. This process x\ ill
be repeated unfil a conclusion is reached. On reaching a conclusion about suitable
inhibifive and removal technique, the system will display it.

4.1.3 Requirement No. 3


On reaching a conclusion, the system xxill also explain xvhy that conclusion has
been made with full graphics, texts and literature cross-references.

4.2 The Project Plan


As menfioned earlier, the project in hand is only a sub-project that will moxe the
process of creafing the envisioned system little further ahead. It was not certain, hoxv far
this can be driven ahead \x ith limited time and recourses because the following issues
were not clear in the beginning:

Availability of sufficient informafion in the open literature.

AvailabiHty of proper software tools.

If experts in the field will respond or not and if they would freely discuss their
experfise or not.

Techno-economic feasibility of creating such a system.

Therefore, an action plan was prepared that took into considerations not only the
inifiafives required to invesfigate these issues, but also the strategies to be folloxxed in
case of posifive as well as the negafive outcome of such invesfigafions.To build a
computer system that can safisfy the requirements discussed in the eariier sections, an
action plan has been prepared. The plan has been presented in Figure 4 1. According to
this action plan, a preliminary surve>' of literature and software tools xxonld be can-ied
out. After this preliminary survey, an evaluation of whether such softwaic is possible to
build not with the limited recourses will be canied out. At the end o\' this exaluation, if it
42

is determined that more informafion is required, appropriate steps would be taken to


gather the missing information.
B

Investigate software tools


Literature survey
Industry survey

Study feasibility of building the software

Specify missing info/data,


devise methodology to
gattier info/data.

No

Ves
Specify hurdles of available
aigorlthm/methodoiogy,
attempt to devise new ones

Specify hurdles of available


software.

No

Figure 4.1: The Acfion Plan


However, if it is determined that sufficient informafion is available, then attempts
will be made to find out if there is proper algorithm/methodology to process those
informafion into meaningful knowledge. Again, at this point, availability of software
tools will also be determined. If the search/survey fails to yield proper software tools, a
more vigorous search may need to be undertaken. However, it has been decided that no
attempts will be made to construct software tools as it might befimeconsuming and
would deviate the purpose of the project.

43

4.3 The Project Work


The project work was initially carried according the plan discussed in the previous
secfion (4.2). As a first step, an inifial literature survey of technical papers xx as carried out
(path-A in Figure 4.1) and presented in secfion 2.1 of Chapter E. Apart from theoretical
aspects of the subject, case studies, field/lab data were also collected. An analysis of the
information gathered is presented in section 4.4. In a separate effort, attempts xx ere made
to understand the details of an expert system and the resources required to build one
(path-B in Figure 4.1). The details of this effort is presented in Chapter I\'. With the help
of above information, a feasibility study was carried out to investigate the hurdles of
creafing the envisioned system and the ways to mifigate them. Details of this studx can be
found in secfion 4.5. This study revealed that with the available resources are not
adequate to contract the knowledgebase module of the expert s> stem. Steps xx ere taken to
make up for this shortcoming by emphasizing on acquiring more structured knoxxiedge
and to create a database (secfion 4.6) in the later part of the project. As an effort to
construct the knowledgebase, a commercial survey of available products xvas also cairied
out. The result of this survey is presented in section 2.2. Hoxvever, within the time-frame
of this thesis project, the stage at which steps can be taken to construct the expert system
could not be achieved. The hurdles encountered are explained in section 4.5.

4.4 Analysis Of The Literature Surveyed


This analysis of the information gathered in the technical literature survey \xas
aimed at extracting sufficient information to be included in the proposed knowledgebase
of the envisioned system. The results of this analysis are discussed in the subsequent
sections.
4.4.1 .Abundance Of Theory
There is an abundance of theory. A large number of published literature can be
found about the deposition phenomena, xanous preventive measures etc. fhe findings are
44

presented in secfion 2.1 of Chapter III. This information will be helpful in safisfymg
requirement #1 (secfion 4.1.1) of the envisioned system.

4.4.2 Lack of Comparison Among Different Treatment Opfions


In field applicafion case studies, methods are described without detailing. "Whv
this method has been chosen over other available methods." Hence, it is difficult to
construct any reasonable decision tree by means of xx hich the appropriate remedial
measure can be identified.
For example, Shroyer and Haynes^' described the use of Linear Kinetic Cell
(LKC) and cited 8 case histories where they found success in terms of increased
production, decreased paraffin deposition rate, etc. Howexer, they haxe not mentioned
anything about why they have preferred LKC to the other available methods. Probably
other methods, including application of chemicals might be equally effectixe and
economic.
Another such example is the use of bacteria treatment described by Santamaria
and George.^ The applicafion of this method saved thousands of dollars per month,
reduced the hot-oiling frequency and it is an environment friendly remedy. However, in
this paper, it has not been analyzed, if other chemical or thermal methods x\ ould hax e
been more efficient technically as well as economically.
Dobbs'^ cited two field application case studies of squeezing crystal modifiers in
the near well-bore formafion. Such applications have increased and stabilized the
producfion rates and elongated the thermal washing interval. Thus, it helped the operators
earn more revenue. However, his study remained quite about the reason xx hy this
particular treatment method has been chosen. Other options like doxvn-hole heater,
microbial treatment, magnetic fluid conditioner or linear kinetic cell could have been
used and they might have resulted in a more effective treatment option.

45

4.4.3 Lacking and Inconsistent Information


As far as chemical methods are concerned, field application case studies do not
detail the chemicals used and properfies of crude oil treated. Many of the chemicals used
are proprietary products. Even if these data are available, they are not consistent. The
followings are some of these instances.
In the field applicafions cited by Dobbs,'^ exact composition or even a generic
chemical formula of the crystal modifier used could not be found. The properties of the
crude oil treated are not presented.
Another field study, discussed by Garbis et al.,"^ provided sufficient information
on the geology of the formafion, well history and properties of the crude oil treated.
However, one of the two chemicals tested is a proprietary product. As the composition of
this proprietary product is not published, it is impossible to make a correlation of exact
type of chemical and their effect on crudes of various types, particularly if tested by
different researchers and published separately.
Barker et al."* described successful treatment of two Oklahoma xxells xxith paraffin
problems. The paper contains a detailed well history, geological background of the xxells
and Gas Chromatography results of the crude and the deposits. It also describes hoxx they
analyzed the problem and designed and administered the treatment. However, it lacks
informafion on the exact type/formulation of the solvents and crystal modifiers used.

4.4.4 No Analyfical Method


The typical method of choosing a chemical inhibitor is by hit and trial in the
laboratory as described in detail by Dobbs.''^ A systemafic way of carrying out such
laboratory experiments to identify a "tailor made" preventive or remedial actions is also
discussed by Garcia.^^ However, there is no analyfical method that can determine the
effectiveness of an inhibitor in a given crude oil, provided the composition and properties
of the both (inhibitor and the crude oil) are knoxx n.

46

4.5

Feasibility of Applying Expert Systems

With the understanding of the problem of paraffin deposifion and its remedial
methods, and with an insight of what is an expert system, hoxv it xvorks and xx hat are the
recourses required to build one, a close scrutiny of feasibility of developing an expert
system to recommend remedial measures for paraffin deposition problems has been
carried out.
The first question that needs to be answered is that whether expert systems are
recommended in solving the problem of paraffin deposifion or not. Secondly, it is
required to invesfigate if the required resources available.

4.5.1 Is Expert Systems justified?


Secfion 3.3 discussed the criteria that a problem area should satisfy before
application of experts systems can be recommended. The following paragraphs attempts
to verify if the paraffin problem qualifies for applicafion of expert systems.
As discussed in section 3.3, the chemical formulation of an inhibitor for paraffin
deposifion needs to be tailor made for every specific problemafic well or field. This is
done by hit - and - miss in the laboratory or by consulfing people with knoxvledge of
previously carried out such trials, thus the knowledge of this chemical formulation is
difficult to acquire or is based on the rules that can only be learned through experience.
Therefore, experts systems can be useful in such situafions.
In a given situation, a large number of varying options can be effeeiivc. It is often
difficult to choose from the options that seem to be equally effective and economical.
From the analysis of published case studies (section 4.4.2), it seems that the choice is
often done arbitrarily. In such cases, experts systems can be helpful.
The user of this system is supposedly the operatoi-s in the field xvith x cry limited
knowledge about paraffin deposition and its remedial measures. For these people, a
computer system which they can consult might be helpful.

47

4.5.2 Are the Resources Available?


As discussed in secfion 3.2, the first step in building an expert sxstem is to acquire
knowledge and reorganized and arrange them to construct the knoxx ledgebase.
Knowledge acquisifion can be done from the following sources: (1) Human Experts, (2)
Published Papers and (3) Database. However, there is a dearth of human experts and
human experts contacted seem to have professional atfitude. Moreover, most of the
experts are affiliated to a particular company, hence their opinions are likelx' to be
biased.The published literature is inadequate to construct a full-fledge knoxx ledgebase
due to the inherent drawbacks discussed in section 4.4. A database is constructed and
attempts are being made to populate it (details in section 4.6).

4.6

The Database

A relafional database model has been created in MS Access 2000 to handle the
problem by the stafisfical method described in secfion 2.2 or otherwise. This database
consists of three main interlinked data-tables namely chem, samp and eff. The
effectiveness data-table, ^j^^stores an effecfiveness factor (E) and an associated certaintx
factor (C) corresponding to every chemical, details of which are stored in the data-table
cheni, for every type of crude sample, details of which are stored in the data-table samp.
A number of other supporting tables are also incorporated in the database. .A
summary of these data tables can be found in Table while the inter-relationship betxveen
the tables is shown in Figure 4.2
The commercial survey canied out and described in section 2.1 attempts to
populate these tables with as many data as possible. It is hoped that some possible
patterns xvill be recognized after sufficiently large data points xvere gathered, and
translated into rules for the knowledge.

48

Table 4.1: Details of the Data-Tables in the Database


Table Name
Description
Chem

Samp

Stores data about the chemical inhibitors. It contains x arious


physical, chemical, hazard & environmental and commercial
informafion of the inhibitors.
Stores data about crude oil samples. It contains information
about the geological setting of the oil field, reserx oir data, and
various physical & chemical data of these samples.
Stores the effectiveness of various chemicals on different
crude oil samples. It also stores associates a certainty factor
with each effecfiveness.
This table contains details like contact address, xx ebsite.
mailins address etc. of the manufacturers of x arious
chemicals.
This table can store detail compositional data (may be
analyzed by high resolufion gas chromatography) of the crude
oils.
This table stores the detailed geological and reservoir related
informafion of the oil field from xvhere the crude sample has
been corrected.

49

flppID
ReP
ChernID
SarnpID
E
C
Result

ChenJD

SairpID
SarnpNarne
ResvID
Ref
APIGravity
Viscosity
CloudPoint
PourPoint
Color
AsphPC
PrPnPC
AromPC
H2S
C02
pH

^SHHH
ResvName
Geographic Regie
GeologicalAge
DepoEnviron
WatDrive
EOR
PI
Pc
BHT

TradNarne
ManufID
RefID
toPrint
ph_state
color
odor
boiling_pt
pour_pt
PlashjDt
sp_gr
viscosity
pH
solj'vat
sol_hc
gendesp
gcc
hazards
mechanism
application
handling
compatibility
features
unit_cost
unit
inhibitor
solvent
dispersant
_pfn
_asp

Max/ID
ManufName
website
Address
askedCatalog
toPnnt

One-to-Many Relationships
<

Figure 4.2: The Inter-Relafionships of the Data-Tables in the Database

4.7 Stafisfical Approach


The typical approach of selecfing the best inhibitor in a given situafion is by
laboratory tests. ^^ If a large number of such laboratory data can be gathered and a
database of effecfiveness of various inhibitors in different crude oils is built, it can
subsfitute for a knowledgebase.
In absence of analyfical approach for selecting the best inhibitor, a statistical
method is postulated. This stafisfical approach relies on availability of experimental data
50

of effecfiveness of various inhibitors on different types of crude samples. The approach is


described below

4.7.1 The Problem


Let the set of Inhibitors invesfigated be / = [f,f_J^ ./}
Let the set of crude oil samples invesfigated be S = [S^ .S,,S^.,'--S^}
where the/^ sample can be defined as Sj = [A^J . A,j, Aj^, A,. }
Akj = attributes (or properties) of the sample
Let the effectiveness matrix be, e as

11

-n\

^ 1 .

im

. e nin

^nl

where eij is the effecfiveness of inhibitor // in crude sample Sj,


The elements of this matrix can be found out by laboratory or field experiments.
A number of ways of estimating these values are presented in section. As these values are
experimental, their certainty depend upon the repetition of the same result in a large
number of similar experiments. Hence, a matrix of certainly of these effectiveness xalues
is also estimated.
^11

^i:

CT[

C T)

C,
C,

c ^n\

^ nl

C,

One way of esfimafing these certainly values is by the folloxxing equation,


Cjj = JNeij/iMij

where
Neij = number of experiments that gave effectiveness = c,j z
51

(f = allowable error
Nij = Total number of experiments conducted.
Now, let S^ = (A,^ , A,^, Aj^ A .^} be another crude oil sample that is not tested
with any of the inhibitors f E I.
The problem is to seek the probability distribufion of effectix enesses of all the
inhibitors in crude sample S,^, provided the effecfiveness matrix e and certainty matrix c
are known.

4.7.2 TheSolufion
Let Fxj be the difference between crude sample Sx and Sj and is defined as
_

1/

^ . =

4.1
k=\

where here w^^is the weight given to the ^''' attribute such that

j^^,=i-

4.2

Again, let the probability that ^v will behave exactly same as Sj can be P^j.
When the attributes of 5v and ^S^exactly match, F^j is 0. In this case, the probability
that Sx will behave exactly as Sj is assumed maximum. Let this maximum value be Pnm.\However, when the attributes oi Sx and 5"^ differ the most, the value of Fxj is maximum,
say F,nux and the con'csponding probability is assumed to be minimum, say Pi/.The
following equation reflects these assumpfions
P
-P
"""" '^"^ p

p =p
v/

max

17
max

43
^^ '

The reliability of this equation depends upon the validity of these assumptions and
correct estimations of P,na.x, Pmm, E,ax and Fxj.
Now, using equation (3), Pxj can be calculated for all Sj e S. With respeci to the
given inhibitor f there exists an effectiveness value ieij) for everx Sj If it is assumed that,
the effectiveness of inhibitor /in sample Sx xxill be Cjj with a probability of P, . then a

table of Cij vs. Pxj can be prepared. This table will represent the probabilitx distribufion of
various effectiveness values of Ii in sample Sx.
The expected value the effecfiveness of inhibitor /, in crude sample 5vCan be
estimated as

1^

-y

u ij

These esfimates of e,., for all available /, will give the required probability
distribufion.

53

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1

Achievements

An extensive technical literature survey was carried out. Information on


composition of various types of deposifion, various theories of paraffin deposition, and
remedial measures in use were gathered. A brief rex iexx of some relevant common teiTns
was also discussed.
An understanding of what an expert system is, how it works and situations \\ hen
it should be used have been achieved. A few expert system shells, an important
component of expert system, have been reviewed.
An expert system based computer system has been envisioned and a detailed
requirement document has been prepared.
The information gathered from the literature survey has been analyzed for
possible extraction of information to construct an expert system (particularly its
Knowledgebase).
A statistical method to identify suitable remedial measures for paraffin deposition
has been devised.
A database was also designed to make use of the abox e said statistical method. A
commercial survey was conducted to populate the database in an attempt to help build a
knoxvledgebase.
5.2 Conclusions
The two most vital components of Expert Systems are: (1) Knoxx ledge base and
(2) Inference Engine. The construction of the knowledgebase requires a structured
understanding of the subject matter. Stand-alone Inference Engines are axailablc in the
market.

54

The analysis of the informafion gathered by literature surxex' revealed that there is
abundance of theoiies on the subject of paraffin deposition. Hoxvever, it lacks sufficient
comparafive study of various remedial measures, consistent/ordered information.
The problem of selecfing the best remedial measure for paraffin deposition is an
ideal situafion where Expert Systems can be applied. However, the cun^ently ax ailable
informafion is not adequate to construct the knowledgebase module of an Expert System.

5.3

Recommendafions

A consultafion with multiple human experts is required to come up xx ith a


structured understanding of the subject. Such understanding is of paramount importance
for construcfion of the knowledgebase.
Informafion sharing among various groups is also essential for building the
knowledgebase. The service companies must reveal, at least the generic chemical
formulation of their proprietary products. The operating companies must share data on
effectiveness of various products on their crude oils.
A large database of laboratory tested effectiveness of various inhibitors on
different types of crude oil need to be built. This will help construct the much needed
knowledgebase.

> >

REFERENCES

1. Addison, 0 . E.: "Paraffin Control More Cost Effectixe," Paper SPE 13391 presented at the
1984 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Charieston, Oct. 31-Nov. 2.
2.

Ashford, J. D. et al.: 'Annular Packer Fluids for Paraffin Control: Model Study and
Successful Field Application," Paper SPE 19730 presentated at the 1989 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibifion, San Antonio, Oct. 8-11.

3.

Barker. K. M.: Formation Damage Related to Hot Oiling," Paper SPE 16230 presented at
the 1987 SPE Production Operafions Symposium, Oklahoma City. March 8-10.

4.

Barker, K. M., Sharum, D. B. and Brewer. D.: "Paraffin Damage in High Temperature
Formations, Removal and Inhibition," Paper SPE 52156 presented at 1987 SPE MidContinent Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, March 28-31.

5.

Barker, K. M., Personal Communications/Presentations in Wellbore Management Workshop


held at Midland Petroleum Club, Midland, March 22. 2001.

6.

Becker, J. R.: "Oilfield Paraffin Treatments: Hot Oil and Hot Water Compared to Crxsial
Modifiers," Paper SPE 63123 presented at the 2000 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Oct. 1-4.

7.

Becker, J. R.: "Winterized paraffin Crystal Modifiers," Paper SPE 56811 pressented at the
1999 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 3-6.

8.

Biao, W. and Lijian, D.: "Paraffin Characteristics of Paraffinic Crude Oils in China and The
Methods of Paraffin Removal and Inhibition." Paper SPE 29954 presented at the 1995
International Meeting of Petroleum Engineering, Beijing. Nov. 14-17.

9. Bilco Tools, Inc., website: www.bilcotools.com.


10. Bilderback, C. A. and McDougall, L. A.: "Complete Paraffin Control in Petroleum
Production." Paper SPE 2175 presented at the 1968 SPE Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, Sept.
29 - Oct. 2.
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56

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5S

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National
Laboratories"
http://132.175.127.176/apt/pc/pc.htm

Applied

Production

Technology

website

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the Use of Bacteria Treatment," Paper SPE 22851 presented at the 1991 SPE Annual
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51 Shroyer L L and Haynes. J.: "Paraffin Control Systems for Oil Wells and transport lines
' using Linear Kinetic Cell Technology." Paper presented at the 1992 Southwestern Petroleum
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