12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Chapter 2
Solutions
A homogenous mixture of 2 or more nonreacting components whose compositions can be
varied within certain limits.
Solute + Solvents = Solution

2 then binary, 3- tertiary, 4 quarter nary

Classification on the basis of number of components: Binary-2 ,

tertiary3 , Quartenary-4

Solute trace amount

Solvent excess amount
In binary solutions, the components present in small proportions is called solute &the one
present in excess is said to be solvent.

Classification on the basis of physical state of solute & solvent: Nature of Solute

Nature of Solvent

Nature of solution

Solid
liquid
Gas
Solid
Liquid
Gas

Gas
Gas
Gas
Liquids
Liquids
Liquids

Gaseous solution
(solvent is gas)

Solid
liquids
Gas

Solid
Solid
Solid

Liquids solution
(solvent is in liquid state)
Solid solution
(solvent is in solid state)

Concentration terms (after words)

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Amt. of solute dissolved in a specific ant. Of solvent at a particular temperature.

Example: 1. Dust particle in air or 2 vapous in air

2. (water vapour) humidity in air

3. (Mixture of 2 2 etc.)

Example: -

1. Salt in water
2. Mixture of miscible liquids, milk or ethanol in water or petroleum,
3. Soda, aerated drinks ( 2 + water)

Example: -

1. Alloys (Brass, Bronze)

2. Hg in sodium (sodium amalgum, Zn amalgum) , gases absorbed over metal surface.
3. Catalytical hydrogenation of unsaturated hydro carbons. ( hydrogen absorbed on Ni,
Pt, Pd)
Concentration Term

Qualitative

Concentration
(Solvent is in excess)

Quantitative

Dilute
(Solute is in trace amt)

Units for expressing the Concentration of Solution: 1. Mass% It is defined as the number of parts by mass of 1 component per 100 parts
the mass of solution.
Mass of Component A =
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100
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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

2. Volume% It is defined as the number of parts by volume of 1 components per 100

parts of the volume of solution.

Volume % of A =

100

And like this

Volume % of B =

100

3. Parts per million (ppm): The number of parts by mass or by volume of one
component per million parts by mass or volume of the solution.

Ppm = 106
Ppm =

106

4. Molarity M: It is the number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of the solution.

M =

()

B Solute

A solvent

M = =

( )

= ( )

1000

Of solute

1000

= (/)

5. Molality (m): it is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent.

=

Units mol / kg
Q.

100 =

1000

Out of molarity & molality which one is the better unit for expressing the concentration
of the solution & why?

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Ans.

Molality, as mass does not change with temperature.

Molality is the better unit for the expressing the concentration because it depends on
mass which does not vary with temperature while molarity depends on volume which
can change with temperature.
Molality is temperature independent.

6. Normality (N): Number of grams equivalent of a solute dissolved per litre of solution.
N=
=
=
=

= 1000

1000 ( )

1000

neq B =

EB = ( )

Units of equivalent / litre

Valency factor
(1) For base
(2) Redox e- gained or lost
(3) For Acid:
7. Mole fraction (x): The ratio of number of molar of a components to the total number
of moles of the components present in the solution.
=

=
=

+ = 1 + + + = 1

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8. Strength: It is the amount of solute in gms present in 1 L of the solution.

Unit (gram/ litre)
Strength = molality molecular mass
Q.

Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g of NaOH dissolved in 450 ml of

solution.

Ans.

Number of moles = =

M=8
1
8

Q.

Ans.

1000

40

450

= 18

450 (1000)

1000
450

= .278 mol / L

Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol ( 2 6 2) in a solution containing 20% of

ethylene glycol by mass. 2
mole fraction =

Number of moles =
= 20 / 62 = .322g

2 6 2 = 12 2 + 1 6 + 2 16
= 24 + 6 + 32

= 30 + 32 = 62 g.
.322

= + .322

2 (Number of moles) = 80/18 = 4.44

.322

= 4.44+.322 = .94

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

SOLUBITY
The amount of solute present in grams in 100g of solvent in a saturated solution.
Solution can be aqueous or nonaqueous Solubility of solids in liquids.
Factor affecting solubility: 1. Nature of the solute & the solvent :
A polar solute dissolves in polar solvent while a non polar solute dissolves in non polar
solvent.
Exception: sugar, glucose etc (nonpolar) are soluble in water in water, due to the
formation of hydrogen bonds with water.
2. Temperature: for endothermic reactions, the solubility increases with the rise in
temperature. Example: -KCl, 3 , but for exothermic reactions the solubility
increases with the rise in temperature. Ex: NaOH,2 3 2.
2 () + 2 2 () + ()
Lechatliers principle

Solubility of Liquid in Liquids:

1. Completely miscible alcohol in 2 .

2. Partially miscible phenol in 2 / ether in 2 . In phenol hydrogen bond is not to

such an extent.
3. Insoluble Liquids: Benzene &2 , 2 .

Solubility of Gases in Liquids:

Henrys Law (m directly proportional p)

In accordance to hennery law , the mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of liquid at
constant temperature is directly proportional to the presence applied by gas on liquid surface.
Factor Affecting Solubility of Gas in a Liquid: 1. Nature of gas in the solvent: -

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Easily liquefiable gases like 3 , 2, HCl. Dissolve in 2 2 very easily , whereas

nonpolar gases like 2 , 2 , 4 etc are insoluble in 2 (polar) but soluble in non
polar organic solvents.
2. Effect of temperature : Solubility of gas in liquid decreases with the rise in temperature, because the dissolution
process is exothermic since the gas contracts in volume &energy is released during this
contracting.
3. Effect of Pressure:

According to Henry

(Henery law (alternate))

Partial pressure of gas mollification of gas

=
=

Henrys Constant

Partial
pressure

More fractions

1. Higher the value of of a gas lesser would be its solubility in a given solvent.

2. As the temperature , . . Because dissolution is exothermic.

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Application of Henrys Law:

1. Soda water bottles are bottled under very high pressure.

2 .

2. 2 escapes out with a fizz.

3. Partial pressure of 2 in air is very high so in lungs it combines with Hb to form 2

(oxy hemoglobin) while in tissues 2 release 2, since the partial pressure of 2 is
less in the tissues.

+ 2 2

4. At high attitudes the partial pressure of 2 is less due to which its concentration in air is
less, & to overcome the mountaineer carry oxygen cylinders in order to compensate the
2 dificiency.

Vapour Pressure & Raoulls Law:

It is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapours in liquid at given temperature.

Factor Affecting Vapour pressure: 1

1. Nature of Liquid (I.M.F)

Ether & alcohol

Ether is more violate dipoledipole interaction vapour pressure.

1

Volatile .

2. Temperature vapour pressure.

Temperature , . . . .

Vapour pressure of Liquid liquid Solutions:

= + (Liquidliquid)
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Daltons law of partial pressure:

It states that the total pressure exerted by a liquid is equal to the sum of partial pressure of
2 or more liquids constituting it.
Raoulls Law & V. P of liquids liquids solution:
According to Raoulls law vapour pressure of a particular component at a given temperature
is equal to the product of vapour pressure of that component in its pure form and its mole
frication.
0

Vapour
pressure
of
components A

Partial pressure
of component A
in its pure form.

Mole frication

= 0
= 0
= +

= 0 + 0

+ = 1

, = 1

So, = 1

0 + 0 (1 )

= 0 + 0 0

0 + 0 0

0 + (0 0 )

= 0 (1 ) + 0
= 0 0 + 0
= 0 + ( + 0 )

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

= 0 + ( 0 0 )

Raoulls law of solid-solid solution:

Q.

Discuss why the vapour pressure of the solvent containing a non volatile solute is
always less than of pure solvent.
Like water > sucrose solution.
Bell jar
Vapours
Surface of liquid
(water)

Water (Pure
solvent)
Vapours
Bell jar

Sucrose solution

Solution containing a non-volatile solute

Here some surface is occupied by solute &vapous formed are only of solvent.

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Ans.

This is because in case of a solution containing a non- volatile solute, some of the
surface is occupied by non-volatile solute particles , due to which the surface area for
evaporation of the solvent particles decrease . thereby decreasing the concentration of
the vapors formed & thus the vapour pressure .
i.e, PA <0

A =solvent water
B = Solute.
So, here (i) no solute
So, =

= 0 .

Raoulls Law for Ideal Solution:

Ideal solution: which obey Raoutls law under all cond.Of temperature & pressure.
Those solvents which obey Raoulls law at all concentrations and temperature is said to be an
ideal solvents where as those which do not do so are referred to as non-ideal solvents.
Ideal Solution
1. Obey Raoulls law,
= 0 &
= 0 &
= 0 + 0
2. A-A, BB = AB
forces
same magnitude

3. = 0 (neighter
exothermic & endo
thermic)

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Non - Ideal Solution

+ deviation
deviation
0
,
< 0 ,
> 0 ,
< 0
0
< +
> ,
> +

AA / BB AB,
AA / BB > A - B

AA / BB < A B

> 0 (endothermic)

< 0 (exothermic)

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

4. = 0( = )

> 0 ( > )

< ( < )

Example: Example: Example: 1. Chloroform

&
1. benzene toluene
1. Ethanol
&
cyclo
benzene,
2. n-hexane & n-heptane
hexane.
2. chloroform&
3. ethyl bromide & ethyl
2. Acetone &2 (carbon
diethyl ether,
iodide
di sulphide)
3.
Acetone
&
4. Bromo & iodo benzene.
3. Acetone & benzene,
Chloroform
4. Chloroform &4 ,
4. Water &HCl,
5. Ethanol & water
5. Water & HN3
6. Acetone & ethanol.
6. Acetone & aniline.
For + deviations

> 0

A > 2 5 , B

> + , A A / B B > A B,
For

3 3

+ 3, AA/ BB < AB

Graphical representations of Raoulls law for Ideal solution

Vapour
pressure

= +

= 0
= 0

= 1

= 0
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Mole fraction
A-A/B-B> A-B

= 0

= 1
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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

For + deviation: -

Vapour
pressure
= +

Vapour
pressure

For deviation: - . ..
= +

Vapour
pressure

= +

Pure component

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Mole fraction
A-A / B-B < A-B
V.P. decreases

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Structure line ()
(Pure liquid A) when = 1

= 0 . = 0 , = 0 . = 0

When = 0 (liquid A absent)

Structure line ()

(Pure liquid B,

= 1

, = 0)

Liquid B absent, = 0 = 0

Structure line ()
= +

= 0 + 0 .

When = 1 ,

= 0 , =

= 0 , = 0

Colligative properties of solution:

1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
2. Elevation in B.P.
3. Depression in freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
Colligative properties are those properties which depend upon the number of solute
particles in a definite amount of solvent and are independent of all other physical &
chemical properties of the solute.
1. Relative lowering of vapour Pressure :
= [ = ]total pressure of solvent

, ,
= 0 .

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

+ = 1 , = 1
= 0 (1 )
=

1
0

Mole frication of solute where0 =

0
0

, =

Relative lowering of V.P.

If solvent is dilute then we can neglect nB<<<nA

=

= 0
=

2. Elevation in B.P.:

BP (Pure solvent &

BP of solution)

V. P.

Pure Solvent

Solution

Temperature

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

= 0

As 0 > , > 0
= 0

When = difference in B. P of solvent & pure solvent.

0 = B.P of pure solvent

Tb = boiling point of solvent

M = molality

Kb = molal elevation constant / molalebullscopic constant.

Rb = molal elevation constant in the elevation or rise in boiling point for a molal solution
(m=1)

m =

m =

MB =

1000

1000

=
=

1000

1000

Q.

A solution containing 12.5g of a non electrolytic in 175 g of 2 gave B.P (elevation )

of 0.70 K. calculate MB where Kb water 0.52 K kg/mol.

Ans.

MB =

.52 12.51000100

.52 .01

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175.70

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

=.0052 104
= 52.0000

3. Depression in freezing Point:

Liquid State
Pure Solvent

Solid State
Solution

V. P.

Temperature

Freezing Point:
It is the point / temperature at which both the solid & liquid states of a substances co
exist at equation and have same vapour pressure.
The freezing point of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute is lower than that of pure
solvent. This is because a solvent containing a non volatile solute will have lower vapour
pressure than that of pure solvent. Thus at lower temperature the solid & liquid `state of
the solution would have same vapour pressure due to which there is a depression in its
freezing point.
= 0

= depression in freezing point.

0 = freezing point of pure solvent

= freezing point of solution

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Kf = molal depression constant molal cryoscopy constant.

=

= 1000

1000

=
Q.

1000

1000

A n aq. Solution of an organic compound containing 0.6g of it dissolved in 21.79 g of

water , freeze at 272.187 K. = 1.86 K kg/mol . Calculate the molar mass of the organic
compound.

Ans.

For solvent 273 272.187

MB =

1.86.671000
.813 21.7

100

= .31 5.1

63.4

Osmotic Pressure :
Two phenomenas
Diffusion

Osmosis

Diffusion high concentration low concentration

Osmosis

..

Solvent particles high solvent concentration low solvent concentration

Dilute concentration

Low solvent concentration high solvent concentration

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The spontaneous movement of the solvent molecules either from pure solvent into solution
or form a dilute solution to a concentration solution through a semi permeable membrane
( membrane allowing the passage of only the solvent particles & not the solute particles.
SPM
Egg

Low

Egg

Hypo
tonic
high
solvent concentration
Water

Swells
endosmosis

Hyper tonic

Shrink exosmosis

Less hypotonic less concentration of solution

More hypertonic more concentration of solvent
After some time concentration becomes equal & the solvent is termed as isotonic
(concentration consumed)
Using preachment paper (S.P.M)
Through containing water

Rise in level

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S. P. M

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Osmotic pressure: Ext. Pressure

SPM

Piston

Solution

Solvent

2 Compartments

As per osmosis, the movement should be form solvent solution but due to ext. pressure
osmotic pressure is stopped.
The Ext. pressure that has to be applied on the solution side to prevent the osmosis of the
solute into it, through a S.P.M is termed as osmotic pressure ()
Reverse Osmosis (RO): If external pressure then the osmotic pressure is applied on the solution side, the solvent
will start flowing from the solution into the pure solvent , (the process of osmoses is reverse
osmosis and its important application is desalination of sea water.
Vant Hoff Low:

C concentration in moles / L
Osmotic pressure

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Gas constant

temperature in K.
=

As C=

And nB =
=

MB =

.
.

Abnormal Molar Mass:

Happens due to association or dissociation of solution into ions.
The molar masses of solute cal. On the basis of 4 collagative properties have difference
values as compared to their normal molar mass (actual) and are called abnormal or
observed molar mass which may be greater than the normal molar mass (in case of solute
undergoing association) or may be less than the normal molar mass ( in case of solute
undergoing dissociation ).
The relation between the normal & the observed molar mass was given by Vant Hoff in
terms of Vant Hoff factor I which is.

Vant Hoff factor = ./

.

i= .

NaCl + +

Like 3 has mass 60

But actual it has 120 as it exists as dimetrs.

H

O
3

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O
O

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12 Chemistry Ch-2 Solutions

Value of

1. = 1, , for a non electrolyte

Mobs = M normal

2. > 1, for electrolyte undergoing dissociation.

Mobs > M normal

3. < 1, for electrolyte undergoing association ,

< M normal

Example:
4 [()6 ] 4 + + [()]4
=5

2 +2 + 2
=3

Reaction between & efficiency extent of dissociation or association for electrolytes

= number of moles of electrolytes.

& . =

For Dissociation: Let the number of moles of ions formed be n where n is the number opt ions & is the degree
of dissociation & let the number of moles of electrolyte left under associated be (1)

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NaCl + +
1

=0

= (1 )
=

1+
1

1 = (n1)
1 = (n1)
=

For association: (A)

t =0

t=t
=

(A) n
0
/n

1+/

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1

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