S1 &2

MODULE 2
BASIC COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION : Sending information from one place and receiving it in other place.
The term communication refers to transmission, reception and processing of information
by electrical means. The forms of communication includes
Radio telephony and telegraphy
Point to point and mobile communication
Computer communication
Radar and radio telemetry
Optical communication
Satellite communication

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Information
Source

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Fig1: Simplified block diagram of a communication system

Information
Source

Input
Transducer

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Noise

Fig 2:Detailed block diagram of a communication system

Information source :

The message to exchange originates in the information source

Message may be in the form of words, group of words, codes,s ymbols etc.

Module 2-

Output
Transducer

S1 &2

Transducer:

Converts nonelectrical signal message to time varying electrical signal.

In case of radio broadcasting a microphone converts the information/message which is in

the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signals.

Transmitter :
It process the signal (amplify, filter, modulate, decode, compress etc) before directing
through the channel.
Channel:
The medium through which the signal travels and it can be cables, space, wires, fibers etc
If the medium of transmission is cables or wires, the communication is line
communication. If it is by radio waves, the communication is radio communication. If the
medium is light the communication is optical communication.
Noise:
Unwanted signal which tends to interface with the required signal.
Receiver:
It receives the transmitted signal. During propagation, the signal may mix with some type
of noise and the noisy signal is picked up by the receiver. The receiver should remove
unwanted noise and extract the original message after suitable processing (demodulation,
encoding, filtering, amplifying etc)
Output transducer
Converts electrical signal to its original form
Eg: Loudspeaker
Frequency Band
Radio frequency (RF): It is the no. of complete cycles of alternating current or voltage,
complete each second around 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
For communication purpose the usable frequency spectrum extends from 3 KHz 300
GHz. This spectrum is called radio frequency spectrum refers to the part of electromagnetic
spectrum corresponding to radio frequencies.
Module 2-

S1 &2

Radio Frequency Spectrum is divided into 7 different bands.

FREQUENCY BANDS
Band No.

Frequency Range

Designation

Applications

3Khz-30KHz

VLF

Long distance point to

point communication

30KHz-300KHz

LF

Point to point Marine

communication

MF

Broadcasting and
Marine
communication

HF

Point-to-point
communication, long
distance
communication

VHF

Television, FM twoway radio, AM

aircraft
communication

300KHz-3MHz

3MHz-30MHz

30 to 300MHz

300 to 3000 MHz

UHF

UHF television,
Navigational aids,
radar, microwave
ovens, Bluetooth,
mobile phones,
wireless LANs etc

10

3 GHz-30 GHz

SHF

Satellite
communication

MICROWAVE BANDS:
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves. They are so called since they are defined in terms of
their wavelengths in the sense that micro refers to tininess(wavelength)
X band 8 to 12 GHz-Used for aiming(x) in WW II

Module 2-

Used in radars

S1 &2

Ku band 12-18 GHZ-Kurz Under

Satellite communication

K band 18-27 GHz- Kurz (German word meaning short)

Ka band- 27-40 GHz - Kurz above

Communication satellites, military airplanes

Modes of communication

Broadcasting: Having on transmitter and many receiver. eg:TV broadcasting

Point to point communication: Having one transmitter and one receiver

eg: Telephone

MODULATION (Fundamental requirement of a communication system)

The Transmission of audio frequency signal over long distance by radiating it out directly
from the antenna as the frequency is very low. So to make transmission of audio frequency
signal over long distance, the signal is to be modulated.
Any wave has 3 significant characteristics:
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Phase angle
Modulation is defined as the process of altering some characteristics (amplitude,
frequency or phase angle) of the carrier wave in accordance with the instantaneous values
of some other wave called modulating wave( the signal to be transmitted).
Carrier wave

Module 2-

It is a high frequency, constant amplitude, constant frequency and non-interrupted

wave generated by radio frequency oscillations.

These waves are inaudible i.e by themselves they are not able to produce any
sound in the loud speaker.

Its function is to carry the audio or video signal from the transmitting station to
the receiving station. The resulting wave is called modulated wave.

S1 &2

Modulating Signal
Modulating Signal is the signal carrying the information. Also called baseband
signal.
Modulated Signal
Result of modulation. Function is to carry the audio or video signal from
transmitting station to receiving station.
Need for modulation
Low frequency signals cannot be transmitted over long distance if radiated directly into
the space. This is due to the following reasons:
(i) Short operating range
The energy of any wave depends on its frequency, larger the frequency of the
wave the greater the energy associated with it. Audio signals are having small
frequency and consequently small power. Hence it cannot be transmitted over
long distance, when radiated directly into the space.
However modulated wave (audio signal with high frequency) can be transmitted
over long distance.
(ii) Poor radiation efficiency
At audio frequencies radiation is not practicable as efficiency of radiation is poor.
However, electrical energy can be radiated efficiently at high frequencies (above
20 KHz)
(iii) Mutual interference
If low frequency signals are transmitted directly from different sources, all of
them gets mixed up and causes the loss of the signals. By modulation, different
messages of different frequency levels can be transmitted simultaneously without
any interference.
(iv) Huge antenna requirement
For efficient radiation of a signal, length of transmitting and receiving antenna
should be at least one quarter wavelength.
C=f ,

= c/f

Length of antenna, l =
Module 2-

c
3 10 8 75 10 6

meter
4f
4f
f

S1 &2

Thus for transmitting a signal of frequency 2 KHz, an antenna of length 37.5Km

will be required, practically impossible.
On the other hand, for transmitting a signal of frequency 2MHz, an antenna of about 37.5
m can be easily constructed. Hence there is the need for modulation.
TYPES OF MODULTION
Depending on which parameter of the carrier wave (amplitude, frequency or phase) is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating (audio or message) signal,
modulation can be classified into 3 namely.
a) Amplitude Modulation
b) Frequency Modulation
c) Phase Modulation.
1) AMPLITUDE MODULATION
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal.
In this process modulating signal is superimposed upon the radio frequency carrier by
applying both to a modulator.
Here amplitudes of both positive and negative half cycles are varied in accordance with
the modulating signal. The carrier is then contained in an envelope formed by the modulating
wave. It is clear that the amplitude variations of carrier wave is at signal frequency and the
frequency of amplitude modulated wave is same as that of carrier wave.
Carrier

Modulating signal

Module 2-

S1 &2

AM signal

ANALYSIS
Let the modulating signal be v m V m sin m t and the carrier signal be vc Vc sin c t .

vc, Vc, c are the instantaneous value, peak value and angular frequencyof the carrier.
vm, Vm, m are the instantaneous value, peak value and angular frequency of modulating
signal.
Instantaneous value of AM wave= A sin ct
Amplitude of modulated wave,

A Vc v m Vc Vm sin m t
V

Vc 1 m sin m t
Vc

Vc 1 ma sin m t
Instantaneous value of AM wave = Vc 1 ma sin m t ( sin ct)
=Vc sin ct + ma Vc sin ct* sin mt

= Vc sin ct +

Module 2-

*[cos(c-m)t- cos(c+m)t

S1 &2
v= Vc sin ct +

cos(c-m)t-

cos(c+m)t

ma = ratio of peak values of modulating signal and carrier and is known as modulation index.
Value of modulation index lies between 0 and 1. It is defined as extend by which amplitude of
carrier wave is varied by modulating signal.

ma

Vm
Vc

Modulation index can also be defined in terms of the values referred to the modulated
carrier wave and is given as

ma

V max V min
V max V min

where Vmax = Maximum value of the amplitude of modulated carrier wave.

Vmin = Minimum value of the amplitude of modulated carrier wave.
Total power of an AM signal is given by

Ptotal = Pcarrier + PLSB+ PUSB

Pcarrier

Vc

PLSB PUSB

Ptotal

V c2

2R

m a Vc

2
2

m a2 V c2
m2
a Pcarrier
4 2R
4

ma 2
Vc2 ma 2
1

P
carrier 1
2 R
2
2

ma 2
Pt Pc 1

where Pt = Carrier power

ma = modulation index or depth of modulation.

Module 2-

S1 &2

ma2
Similarly, It Ic 1
2
where It = rms value of total modulated current.
Ic = rms value of carrier current
Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated wave,
v AM A sin c t Vc 1 ma sin mt sin c t
Vc sin c t maVc sin m t sin c t
cos( A B ) cos( A B )
2
mV
Vc sin c t a c cos( c m )t cos( c m )t
2

sin A sin B
v AM

Thus, amplitude modulated wave is the summation of 3 sinusoids,

(i) carrier wave located at c , amplitude Vc, frequency c /2
(ii) upper side band at ( c + m ), amplitude
(iii) lower side band at ( c - m ), amplitude

maVc
, frequency ( c + m )/2
2

maVc
, frequency( c - m )/2
2

Frequency Spectrum

Bandwidth Requirement
For AM the bandwidth required = 2m rad/sec = 2fm Hz

Module 2-

S1 &2

Limitations of AM
1. Low efficiency: carrier voltage doesnt transmit any information, modulating signal
frequency is contained in the sidebands only. Also in AM the useful power that lies in the
sideband is quite small. So efficiency is less.
2. Limited operating range: Transmitters have small operating range. Hence information
cannot be transmitted over long distances.
3. Noisy reception: Radio receivers cant distinguish between amplitude variations that
represent noise and those in the desired signal. Hence, the reception is generally noisy.
4. Poor audio quality: In AM broadcasting stations, the assigned BW is only 10KHz but for
all audio frequencies upto 15Khz, BW must be 30KHz. So audio quality is poor.
Applications:
radio broadcasting
TV- VHF, UHF range
ii). FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM is defined as the process by which the frequency of carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal. Here, frequency variation in
the modulated wave caries information.
In AM interference such as manmade noise, lightning etc cause the amplitude of RF
signal to vary widely. The noise is added and superimposed on the transmitted AM signal
carrying the desired intelligence. This increases overall amplitude of signal. This added
variations are then demodulated at the receiver and then passed to the destination where they
reproduced as clicks, pops and various objectionable noises.
The problems associated with AM are overcome in FM. FM receivers are designed to
reduce amplitude variations of incoming signal.

Module 2-

S1 &2

Let the modulating signal be

v m Vm cos m t
The instantaneous frequency of FM signal is given by,
f f c 1 KVm cos m t
Maximum when cos m t = 1, where K is the proportionality constant.
Therefore,

f f c 1 KVm f c KVm f c

The change or shift of frequency above or below the centre frequency is called the frequency
deviation. The maximum frequency deviation is given by,

KVm f c
The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal is given by

vFM Asin

dt c 1 KVm cos m t dt
Where,

Module 2-

c t

KVm c sin m t
KVm f c sin m t
c t
m
fm

c t

sin m t
fm

S1 &2

sin m t
A sin( c t m f sin m t )
So, v FM A sin c t
f
m

Where mf =

; modulation index of FM signal.

fm

Frequency Spectrum

Bandwidth Requirement
Approximate bandwidth = 2( + f m ) Hz.
Applications
Commercial broadcasting
FM radio
Television audio
Cordless phone
Cellular and mobile communication.
COMPARISON OF AM AND FM
Advantages of FM over AM
Amplitude of FM wave remains constant which is independent of depth of modulation
whereas in AM, it is dependant on modulation index and depth governs the transmitted
power. In FM, low level modulation can be employed with class C amplifiers in
succeeding stages giving efficient performance.
All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM most of the transmitted power
is in carrier which does not carry any information.
Module 2-

S1 &2

In FM, no restriction is placed on the value of modulation index. But in AM for distortion
less motion, modulation index can have a maximum value of unity.
There is a large decrease in noise in case of FM. The main reasons are,
FM is used in VHF and UHF range where noise is less. AM uses MF and
HF range where there is more noise.
Amplitude limiters are used in FM receivers which remove any amplitude
variation occurred due to noise.
In FM, a guard band is made available between channels so that cochannel interference is less as compared to AM.
Another advantage of FM system results because of the capture effect. In AM systems
two signals transmitted at same carrier frequency are both accepted by the receiver and
interfere with each other. The identical situation in FM receiver results in the elimination
of the weaker carrier. The stronger signal captured by the receivers.
Side bands are always symmetrical for both AM and FM.
[ A guard band is an unused part of the radio spectrum between radio bands for the purpose of
preventing interference. A narrow frequency range 25KHz used to separate two wider frequency
ranges to ensure that both can transmit simultaneously without interfering each other. ]
Drawbacks of FM over AM
FM contains infinite sidebands and therefore bandwidth requirement is much more
(approximately 10 times) compared to AM. each station in the commercial AM radio
band is assigned 10KHz of bandwidth, whereas in commercial FM broadcast, 200 KHz
bandwidth is assigned to each station.
AM is easy to generate and demodulate compared to FM.
since the reception is limited to line of sight the area covered by FM is much smaller than
AM. (Area of reception is small).
LOS propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. the receiver station must be in the
view of the transmitter station. it is sometimes called space waves or tropospheric
propagation. it is limited by the curvature of the earth for ground-based stations.
FM transmitting and receiving equipments tends to be more complex and hence it is
expensive

Module 2-

S1 &2

NO.

1.

2.

FM

AM

Amplitude

of

FM

Amplitude

of

AM

wave is constant and

wave is varying and

independent

dependent

of

of

modulation index

modulation index

So transmitted power

So transmitted power

remains constant and

dependent

independent

modulation index

of

on

modulation index

3.

No.

of

having

sidebands

No. of sidebands will

significant

be

amplitude depends on

constant

and

sidebands

modulation index

4.

FM

receivers

are

AM receivers are not

immune to noise

immune to noise

5.

Bandwidth=2(fm+f)

Bandwidth=2fm

6.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is less than

is

large.

Hence wide channel is

FM.

required.

7.

Space wave is used for

Ground and sky wave

propagation. So radius

propagation

of

Large area coverage

transmission

is

used.

limited to LOS.

8.

9.
Module 2-

FM transmission and

AM transmission and

reception

reception

equipments

equipments

are complex.

are less complex.

Information is carried

Information is carried

S1 &2

in

10.

the

frequency

in

the

amplitude

variation of the carrier.

variation of the carrier.

Eg:-Radio

Radio

broadcasting,

and

TV
police

and

TV

broadcasting

and wireless, point to

point communications
PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Amplitude, frequency or phase of pulses in a pulse train can be modulated.

Digital Modulation refers to the process of utilizing a series of short duration pulses of
constant amplitude to represent the amplitude of modulating signal.

If the signals are reproduced from an appropriate set of instantaneous samples selected,
then only samples are transmitted instead of sending the signal continuously. This is
called pulse modulation.
Analog Type

Pulse Modulation
Digital Type

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Analog Type
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

In pulse amplitude modulation, amplitude of pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
In pulse time modulation, timing of pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.
Module 2-

S1 &2

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

PTM
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Width of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the modulating
signal.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Position of pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the modulating
signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Digital Type
Delta Modulation (DM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

It is the process in which the message signal is sampled and the amplitude of each sample is
rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of allowable values.

Delta Modulation (DM)

It transmits only one bit per sample. The present sample value is compared with the previous
sample value and the result whether the amplitude is increased or decreased is transmitted.

Advantages of Pulse Modulation

Better signal to noise ratio. Amplitude limiting techniques are used. Hence noise effects are
minimized.

Energy is radiated in short pulses. Here the power requirement is less.

Module 2-

S1 &2

Transmission is independent of fading and other difficulties.

Multiple signals may be transmitted on a single carrier.

Fig: Delta Modulation

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
The process of exchanging information without the use of any conductors or without any
conducting mode or wire, but through wireless or radio is called wireless communication.The
distance involved is short(TV remote), or long (for radio communication).
Eg: microwave communication
Satellite communication
Mobile communication
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:
Satellite is a celestial body which orbits around the earth.
A communication satellite may be defines as a man-made vehicle that forms the star
point of communication..
A communication satellite is a microwave repeater in the sky that consists of one or more
combination of the following: transmitter, receiver, amplifier, filter, on-board computer,
multiplexer, de-multiplexer, antenna and wave guide.
2 types of communication satellites:

Module 2-

S1 &2

(i) Passive satellite: It simply reflects the signal back to earth. It doesnt amplify or modify
signals. The disadvantage of passive satellite is inefficient use of transmitted power.
(ii) Active satellite: It acts as a repeater which amplifies the signals received and then
transmits them back to earth. They utilize the transmitted power in an efficient manner.
Basic Principle of Satellite Communication System
The main components are:a) Antenna system for receiving and transmitting the signals
b) Transponder
c) Earth station transmitter
d) Earth station receiver
e) Power generation subsystem for creating the power to operate the satellite.
f) Command and telemetry subsystem for transmitting data to earth and receiving
commands from earth.

Fig: Satellite communication system

Module 2-

S1 &2

Satellite
Uplink
5.9 to 6.4 GHz

Down link
3.7 to 4.2 GHz

Earth station

Earth station

Terrestrial network 1

Terrestrial network 1

User

User

Fig: Block diagram of satellite communication system

User: Generates baseband signal which routed to the earth station through the terrestrial
network. The terrestrial network can be a telephone switch or a dedicated link to the earth
station.
At the earth station the baseband signal is processed and transmitted by a
modulated radio frequency carrier to the satellite. This is called uplink frequency.
Earth station picks up signal prepared in a studio and it is beamed towards the
satellite at an uplink frequency through an antenna. The uplink frequency for
communication signals is in the range from 5.9 to 6.4GHz(C band).
The uplink from the earth station is fed to a transponder in the satellite. A
transponder is a combination of receiver, amplifier and transmitter. The receiver in the
transponder amplifies the uplink signal and converts it into another base frequency
known as downlink frequency (3.7 to 4.2GHz) the downlink signal is then fed to the
transmitter of the transponder which retransmits it back to earth through the antenna. The
signal transmitted from the satellite is picked up by the antenna and processed by earth
station.
Uplink and downlink frequencies are kept different to prevent the interference
between the two.

Module 2-

S1 &2

Earth Station Transmitter

Fig: Satellite uplink model

Different signals are multiplexed into single base band signals in a base band equipment.
This is called multiplexing and can be either
TDM- Time Division Multiplexing
FDM- Frequency Division Multiplexing
Modulator converts the input base band signal to either FM (for analog signals) or phase
shift keying (for digital signal) [modulated to intermediate frequency]
The up-converter (mixer and band pass filter) converts the IF to an uplink frequency 5.96.4 GHz.
It is then amplified by a low noise amplifier followed by a high power amplifier and the
signal is beamed into the satellite using a dish antenna, provides adequate gain power to
propagate the signal to the satellite,

Module 2-

S1 &2

Transponder

The transponder is a combination of receiver, amplifier, translator and transmitter.

The BPF and LNA limits the total noise received.
The output of LNA is fed to a frequency translator which converts the uplink frequency
to a downlink frequency.
After frequency translation, the signal is amplified in a low power amplifier and directs it
to earth station receivers.
Each RF satellite channel requires separate transponder.

Earth Station Receiver

Receiving earth station collects the downlink signal using a parabolic dish antenna
Module 2-

S1 &2

The signals are fed to an LNB (low noise block down converter). LNB is an electronic
circuit having a low noise high gain amplifier and a down converter. (LNA together with
down converter)
The low level downlink signal of 3.7GHz to 4.2GHz is amplified with least possible
noise.
The receiver again converts the frequency into a lower intermediate frequency. The IF is
amplified and demodulated to produce video and audio outputs, which can be directly fed
to a TV set.
Power Generation Subsystem
The satellite derives the electrical power for the operation of various subsystems from
solar energy. An array of solar cells distributed either around the body of the satellite or o the
solar panels provide the required opto-electric conversion.
Storage batteries are provided and are continuously charged from the solar energy.
Command and Telemetry Subsystem
Used for transmitting data about the conditions inside the satellite. It receives the control
commands from the earth station and controls and monitors the various subsystems of the
satellite.
Advantages of Satellite Communication
1. Unaffected by propagation abnormalities.
2. Free from attenuation of wires or cables
3. Global coverage.
4. Reliable
5. Flexible.
6. Point to multipoint broadcasting.
Disadvantages
1. Delay in communication.
2. Repair and servicing is not easily possible.
Applications
1. Satellite television
Module 2-

S1 &2

2. Radio
3. Mobile communication
4. Weather forecasting and broadcasting
5. Remote sensing
MOBILE COMMUNICATION
The term mobile communication describes any wireless communication link between two
terminals, two stations or persons of which one or both are in motion. the communication is
possible from mobile to mobile or mobile to fixed (land telephony) or fixed to mobile.
Cellular Telephone Systems
Cellular telephony is designed to provide stable communication between two moving
devices or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit.
Different systems of cellular telephony available depending on the technology used are :
(i) GSM (Global System for Mobile)
2G standard
It employs TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) technology
First cellular system to specify digital modulation
India and several European countries use the same.(1991 in European Market)
Services: Emergency calling, Facsimile, call diversion, caller identification
Features: SIM, available as smart cards, On the air privacy(no eavesdropping)
It can support 8 users(200KHz)
BSNL, AIRTEL, Aircel, Vodafone ets are the mobile service providers using
GSM
(ii) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
CDMA-1-2G Standard
It can support 64 users(1.25 MHz)
used in America, India

Module 2-

S1 &2

Reliance communication Ltd uses CDMA.BSNL also used CDMA for their WLL
(Wireless in Local Loop services)
(iii) Mobile broadband system
Future public land mobile telecommunication system
operate at a higher spectrum(20 to 60GHz) using ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) technology for broadband packet switching

Module 2-