Learning Set 3 - Air Quality Unit

WHAT DOES POLLUTED AIR
LEARNING SET 3:
LOOK LIKE?
What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Learning Set 3 - Page 65
LEARNING SET 3:
WHAT DOES POLLUTED AIR LOOK LIKE?
CONTENTS
Overview and General Information Page 67
Science Understanding for Teachers Page 68
Lesson 10: What Are Pollutants and How Did They Get in the Air? Page 84
Lesson 11: What Do Pollutants Look Like? Page 87
Lesson 12: Investigating Pollutants Page 89
• Investigation A - Particulate Matter Investigation (over time)

• Investigation B - Ozone Detection
• Investigation C - Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides and Acid Rain
• Investigation D - Particulate Matter from Combustion Engines

LEARNING SET 3
OVERVIEW AND GENERAL RESOURCES
Overview
Now that students have a good understanding of what air is and what the components of air are,
students are going to explore the notion of air quality, and look at a variety of indicators of air
quality. Students will begin with an online investigation of a number of known air pollutants, using a
jigsaw activity to share basic research findings with each other to get a better understanding of the
different pollutants that can adversely affect air quality. Students revisit models and concept maps
illustrating their ideas about pollutants and their effect on air and air quality. Finally, they engage in
a number of investigations of different pollutants to determine the level of pollutant and air quality
in their school and community.
Resources
This learning set requires a number of resources for the investigations that students conduct during
these lessons. First, lesson 10 involves the use of the Internet as a research tool for students to
gather information about a particular pollutant. This lesson assumes the students have access to
computers for searching online information, and access to search engines and pages identified
through those searches. Additionally, it is recommended that students have access to a word
processor for notes taken during the internet research effort, and that they have access to a local or
network folder for storage of these notes.
This learning set also focuses on student designed and implemented investigations of various
pollutants that affect air quality. In particular, we are using the “How Clean is the Air?” kit from
The Science Source, which can be purchased directly from the producer, or through third-party
science suppliers, such as Carolina or Fisher. Alternately, teachers should review the items in lesson
12 investigations, which may be available from the school’s stock supply. Also, Investigation B uses
the EcoBadge kit from Vistanomics, which measures ozone levels in ambient air.
A list of resource items from other teachers and project leaders is available on the Investigate the
State website (http://investigatethestate.org)

SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING FOR
TEACHERS
The Clean Air Act and the Environmental Protection Agency
In response to growing scientific evidence concerning the ill effects of various air pollutants, the US
government passed the Clean Air Act if 1970. To enforce this act, the government also established
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the same year. The Clean Air Act required that air
quality standards be set up in order to protect the people most sensitive to polluted air, such as the
elderly, children, and people with medical conditions such as asthma. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) were developed for common, widespread pollutants, which had been shown to be
dangerous to the public. These Standards are routinely evaluated and upgraded. The pollutants that
are regulated and monitored are termed “criteria pollutants”. The table below summarizes some of
these, and the following pages address details about each of the major airborne pollutants. These
pages are also formatted so that you can use them as a handout if needed.
Criteria Pollutant Description Major Sources Major Effects
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Colorless, odorless gas Burning of gasoline by Headaches,

cars drowsiness, heart
damage
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Gas Coal burning factories Source of acid rain, eye
and power plants irritation, breathing
problems
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Gas Vehicle exhaust, Source of acid rain,

burning of fossil fuels component for ozone
formation, lung damage
Particulate Matter (PM) Small particles of soot, Diesel engines, burning Lung damage, eye
dust, and ash of fossil fuels, irritation, discoloring of
volcanoes, forest fires buildings, causes
colorful red sunsets
Ozone (O3) Gas Formed by other air Smog, lung damage,

pollutants in the eye irritation, source of
presence of sunlight acid rain
Lead (Pb) Metal element Leaded gasoline, metal Brain and kidney
refineries, burning of damage, contaminates
fossil fuels crops and livestock
Chlorofluorocarbons Group of chemicals Aerosol propellant and Destroys high level

(CFCs) containing Chlorine, refrigerator coolant ozone
Fluorine, and Carbon
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Colorless, odorless gas Vehicle exhaust, Global warming
burning of fossil fuels
Acid Rain Rain with pH less than Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Damage to buildings,
5.6 Oxides, Ground level plant damage, damage
ozone to aquatic life

Primary and Secondary Pollutants
When a pollutant is released directly in the air it is called a primary pollutant. When cars burn
gasoline, they release three primary pollutants: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
dioxide. The primary pollutants listed above include the following criteria pollutants:
• Carbon Monoxide
• Lead
• Particulate Matter
• Sulfur Dioxide
• Chlorofluorocarbons
• Nitrogen Oxides
• Other Toxins
When a pollutant is released into the air, it undergoes a chemical reaction that makes another
pollutant; this newly formed pollutant is called a secondary pollutant. For example, when nitrogen
dioxide (a primary pollutant) is released into the air, it reacts with sunlight and other pollutants in
the air to form ground level ozone. Ground level ozone is a secondary pollutant.
Some common secondary pollutants include:
• Ground level ozone

• Acid rain
Ozone: The good and the bad

Depending upon where ozone is located it is either a substance that is beneficial or harmful to the
atmosphere. Ground level ozone is considered a pollutant. Ozone high in the atmosphere
(stratospheric ozone) is what shields the earth from harmful radiation. When people talk about the
“hole in the ozone layer” they are referring to stratospheric ozone. When the news issues an ozone
alert or talks about photochemical smog they are talking about ground level ozone. The ozone is a
necessary protective layer in the atmosphere that protects us from the harmful effects of the sun’s
ultra violet rays. This natural stratospheric ozone layer accounts for about 90% of all ozone gas. The
other 10% is “bad” ozone, which comes from sources such as car exhaust and air conditioners. The
“bad” ozone is located down near the earth’s surface where it can get trapped in air pockets and
cause smog in urban areas. When “bad” ozone levels are high it prevents people with breathing
problems from going outside and increases the rate of sunburn in all people.
Acid rain is rain, snow or fog that is polluted by acid in the atmosphere and damages the
environment. Two common air pollutants acidify rain: sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide
(NO2). When the substances are released into the atmosphere, they can be carried over long
distances by prevailing winds before returning to earth as acidic rain, snow, fog or dust. When the
environment cannot neutralize the acid being deposited, damage occurs.

Pollutant: Carbon Monoxide
Pollutant Name and Properties
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas. Although it has no odor
itself, it is often mixed with other gases that may have an odor. The result is that CO is difficult to
detect and can be inhaled with other gases without an individual’s knowledge.
Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Carbon Monoxide has a chemical formula of CO, and one carbon and one oxygen atom that share a
triple bond. [ C=O ] This deadly gas is produced by the incomplete burning of various fuels. Any
material containing carbon, when burned, will increase the level of CO.
Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

CO concentration is measured in parts per million (ppm). The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) sets a standard of 50 ppm averaged over the length of exposure. According to
the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC Document #466) “most people will not
experience any symptoms from prolonged exposure to CO levels of approximately 1 to 70 ppm”, with
the possible exception of some heart patients. If CO levels increase and remain above 70 ppm,
symptoms increase. Initially, these symptoms may include nausea, headache, fatigue, shortness of
breath and dizziness. Higher levels result in increasingly more severe symptoms including mental
confusion, vomiting, loss of muscular coordination, loss of consciousness and death.
How Pollutant is Produced

Some examples of ways in which this gas is produced include the burning of natural gas, gasoline,
kerosene, oil, propane, coal, or wood. One of the most common sources of CO is the internal
combustion engine. The products and equipment that use this type of engine (power washers, cars,
lawn mowers, and portable generators) will produce CO. Natural sources of carbon monoxide include
emissions from vegetation and the world’s oceans.
How Pollutant is Remediated

Recommendations from the CDC, EPA, and other organizations suggest the best method of
decreasing the production of and harm from CO is by keeping all combustion applications in proper
working order. Water Heaters, furnaces, fireplaces, chimneys, generators and any other home
appliances operated with a combustion source should be checked yearly. Proper ventilation is key.
Another means by which the risk of exposure can be minimized, or altogether eliminated, is by using
an oxidation catalyst, which will convert harmful Carbon Monoxide, to the much less harmful Carbon
Dioxide. These catalysts are mainly used by industry and can be utilized in enclosed workspaces or in
portable, individual units. The Carbon Monoxide catalyst reaction is CO + ½ O2 = CO2. In the home,
carbon monoxide detectors should be used as a warning measure for the prevention of CO poisoning.

Problems Associated with this Pollutant
The CO level and length of exposure, as well as pre-existing health conditions, will determine the
health effects of CO poisoning. The health conditions above are caused by breathing CO. It is harmful
because it displaces oxygen in the blood and deprives vital organs of the oxygen needed for
functioning. Individuals most susceptible include young children, elderly people, people with lung or
heart disease, people at high altitudes, smokers and fetuses. If caught in time, the poisoning can be
reversed. However, sudden high exposure, or that which is prolonged, may lead to permanent
damage to organs that require high levels of oxygen such as the heart and brain. Carbon Monoxide is
especially dangerous in enclosed spaces. Beyond vehicles, contributors include malfunctioning or
improperly vented fuel-burning appliances such as water heaters, furnaces, ranges, room heaters,
portable generators, and fireplaces.
Although CO is a minor direct greenhouse gas, it has significant indirect effects on global warming.
Because CO reacts with hydroxyl (OH) radicals in the atmosphere, OH is reduced. Hydroxyl radicals
help decrease the lifetimes of major greenhouse gases like methane. Therefore, as the amount of
OH decreases, the global warming potential for these major greenhouse gases is increased.
Sources and Resources

• http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/466.html
• http://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/carbonmonoxide-factsheet.pdf
• http://www.coheadquarters.com/CO1.htm
(Go about 2/3 of the way down to “Answering Your Questions”)
• http://www.ghgonline.org/otherco.htm
• http://ezinearticles.com/?Carbon-Monoxide-Removal&id=1168196

Pollutant: Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) is emitted both naturally through the carbon cycle, and through a variety of
human activities including the burning of fossil fuels. CO₂ is colorless, odorless, slightly acidic, and
non-flammable. It makes up 0.0314% of air, but is also found in water as part of the carbon cycle.
Although CO₂ is generally a gas, it can become a liquid and water soluble when kept under pressure.
It becomes a solid at temperatures below -78ºC.

Carbon Dioxide has a chemical formula of CO₂, and consists of a carbon atom that shares a double
bond with two oxygen atoms. [O=C=O] This gas is vital to all life on earth. The process of plant
photosynthesis entails CO₂ from the atmosphere being stored as carbon in plant biomass. Conversely,
oxygen and nutrients are converted into CO₂ and energy through the process of respiration.

Greenhouse gases, of which CO₂ is a main component, are necessary for sustaining life on earth. It is
these gases’ regulation of temperature, within the troposphere, that maintain a climate warm
enough for life as we know it to exist. Since the Industrial Revolution began in 1850 greenhouse
gases have grown so extensively that climate is changing because temperatures are rising. Carbon
Dioxide emissions cause approximately 50 - 60% of global warming. These emissions rose from 280
ppm in 1850 to 364 ppm in the late 1990s. CO₂ remains in the troposphere between 50 and 200
years.

Within the carbon cycle, billions of tons of CO₂ are removed from the atmosphere by terrestrial
vegetation and oceans. These are known as “sinks”. CO₂ is emitted back into the atmosphere each
year through natural processes such as respiration, also called “sources”. When balanced, these
processes lead to a roughly equal number of emissions and removals. Since the Industrial Revolution,
human activity has led to a 35% increase in the atmospheric levels of CO₂. This has occurred mainly
through deforestation and the burning of coal, gas and oil.
The greatest contributor of Carbon Dioxide emissions from human activity is the combustion of fossil
fuels. These represented 81% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2007. In the United States
the generation of electricity using natural gas, petroleum and coal is the greatest source of CO₂
emissions. These processes account for 41% of all CO₂ emissions in our country. Transportation is the
second largest source of CO₂ emissions in the U.S. and almost all of that is petroleum based. Industry
is another contributor with activities such as manufacturing, construction and mining. Within
manufacturing, petroleum refining, chemical production, metal production, paper, food, and
mineral production account for the majority of energy use and CO₂ emissions. Commercial and

residential energy usage also contribute a significant amount of CO₂ due to their reliance on
electricity for meeting their energy needs, especially the heating and cooling of buildings.
Globally, deforestation is a significant contributor of CO₂ emissions when not counter-balanced by

new tree growth. When trees are permanently removed, the carbon sequestered there is released
through either burning or gradual decomposition over time.

Geologic sequestration (GS) is a technology that is gaining increased use for stationary sources of
CO₂ emissions. In this process, CO₂ is captured and injected underground for long-term storage.
Because CO₂ created through natural processes has been held in geologic formations for hundreds of
millions of years, there is growing confidence in these methods of reducing CO₂ emissions.

Carbon Dioxide is essential to human health in the process of internal respiration where oxygen is
carried to bodily tissues and CO₂ is carried away. Carbon Dioxide is also an essential buffer
(carbonate buffer) in the human system as it is the means by which the pH of blood is maintained at
the necessary level for survival. An increase or decrease in pH is life threatening. The primary
dangers of CO₂ to human health are: asphyxiation (from CO₂ release in a confined or unventilated
space), frostbite (from handling dry ice or contact with the gas released from a steel cylinder - e.g.
fire extinguisher), and kidney damage and coma (when the carbonate buffer’s equilibrium is
disturbed by an increase or decrease in CO₂).

• http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2.html
• http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2_natural.html
• http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2_human.html
• http://www.lenntech.com/carbon-dioxide.htm
• http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?
page=environment_where_ghg_come_from

Pollutant: Sulfur Oxides
Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) is the most prevalent of the Sulfur Oxides (SOx). Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) is another
oxide of sulfur that is significant to air quality. SO₂ is a dense, colorless, non-flammable, toxic gas
with a strong odor. It is a liquid under pressure and dissolves easily in water. SO3 , at normal
temperatures and pressures, is a liquid that is highly reactive and due to its abundance of oxygen,
combines with many substances.

Sulfur Dioxide has a chemical formula of SO₂, and consists of a sulfur atom that shares a double bond
with two oxygen atoms. [O=S=O] Sulfur Trioxide’s molecule has a double bond with all three of
O
II
its oxygen atoms. [O=S=O] Both of these molecules are considered resonance hybrids with one of the
bonds actually fluctuating between a single and double bond.

The EPA has set an air quality standard of 0.03 ppm for long-term exposure averaged per year. Short-
term standards state that 24-hour air concentrations should not exceed 0.14 ppm more than once a
year. OSHA has set a limit of 2 ppm over an eight hour work day. The three types of SOx monitoring
systems used in industrial applications are continuous stack monitoring, spot sampling, and surrogate
monitoring. Continuous stack monitoring (CSM) involves sophisticated equipment that requires
trained operators and careful maintenance. Spot sampling is performed by drawing gas samples from
the stack at regular intervals. Surrogate monitoring uses operating parameters such as fuel sulfur
content.

Natural sources of SO₂ emissions include volcanoes, the oceans, biological decay, and forest fires.
These account for 35 - 65% of total sulfur dioxide emissions. Human generated sources of sulfur
oxides include electricity generation, fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, non-road
equipment and vehicles. Of the human generated sulfur oxides, 75 - 80% are from fossil fuel
combustion. Thermal power plants burn high-sulfur coal or heating oil. These are the main source of
sulfur dioxide emissions worldwide. The next biggest sources are industrial boilers and nonferrous
metal smelters. Locally, emissions from vehicles and domestic coal burning contribute to high levels
of SO₂. It is estimated that natural sources release between 80 and 290 million tons of sulfur oxides
into the atmosphere each year. Another 70 to 100 tons is contributed annually by humans, with
approximately 20 tons of that total contributed by the United States.

A variety of methods have been developed to remediate SOx in the industrial setting. One method is
to use a hydrocarbon to stimulate the growth of hydrocarbons utilizing bacteria. A second method
involves emission control technologies such as dry sorbent injection and flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) through “wet scrubbing”. Sorbent injection involves the introduction of dry sorbents such as
lime or limestone which, when reacting with SO2 in flue gases, forms solid calcium sulfate which can
then be removed and disposed of. Wet scrubbing occurs when flue gases are accelerated through a
nozzle, saturated with a scrubbing liquid that has been injected with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
after contact with SO2 is converted to sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). The sodium sulfate is then removed
from the liquid. Other changes that will help control sulfur oxides in the environment include
choosing fuels with a low sulfur content (natural gas) and the use of appropriate combustion
technologies.

The health effects of SO₂ are primarily linked to the respiratory system. As with NO₂, the severity is
dependent on length of exposure and underlying health conditions which may make some individuals
more susceptible. Some of the health effects associated with SO₂ include irritation of the eyes, nose,
and throat, impaired lung function, and increased respiratory symptoms and diseases. Very high-
dose exposure to SO₂ may cause most of the health problems associated with the sulfur oxides and
can even be life-threatening. The symptoms include burning of the nose and throat, breathing
difficulties, and severe airway obstruction. Lower, but consistent levels, over time, have been found
to also impair health. For those who have asthma, or other chronic respiratory difficulties, even low
level SO₂ exposure may cause increased inflammation of the airways and decreased lung function. In
the atmosphere, sulfur oxides can combine with other compounds to form small particles. This
particulate matter can, in turn, penetrate the lungs and cause or worsen respiratory disease.
Sulfur oxides are not considered a greenhouse gas, but instead they are criteria pollutants. These are
man-made pollutants that have an indirect effect on global warming. Sulfur Oxides are a large factor
in the production of acid rain. The process involves SO₂ oxidizing to SO3. Sulfur Trioxide then
combines with water vapor or droplets to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid is one of the acids
that make up acid rain. Acid depositions of this type are harmful to vegetation, freshwater lake and
stream ecosystems, and stone and metals in building structures.

• http://www.epa.gov/air/sulfurdioxide/
• http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/physical_science/chemistry/
sulfur_oxides.html&edu=high&portal=cmmap
• http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/physical_science/chemistry/sulfur_oxides.html
• http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/p_ppah_SulfurOxides/$FILE/
HandbookSulfurOxides.pdf
• http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts116.html
• http://www.cleanairtrust.org/sulfurdioxide.html
• http://www.crwi.org/textfiles/so2.htm
• http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/p_ppah_pguiSulfurOxides/$FILE/
HandbookSulfurOxidesPollutionPreventionAndControl.pdf

Pollutant: Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) along with Nitric Oxide (NO) are the two most prevalent Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx). In outdoor air, NO, which is emitted by motor vehicles, combines with oxygen in the
atmosphere and through the action of sunlight, produces nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Both of these are
toxic gases and belong to a larger group of air pollutants produced by combustion processes.
Nitrogen Dioxide is a highly reactive oxidant and corrosive.

Nitrogen Dioxide has a chemical formula of NO₂, and consists of a nitrogen atom that shares a double
bond with one oxygen atom and a single bond with the other. [O=N-O] Nitric Oxide, also called
Nitrogen Monoxide, has a double bond with its one oxygen atom. [N=O] Both of these molecules have
an odd number of valence electrons which accounts for their reactivity.

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the readings from the current network for
monitoring NO₂ concentrations are misleading. These area-wide monitors are currently located at a
distance from roadways. NO₂ concentrations in vehicles and near roadways are “appreciably higher”
than nearby monitors indicate. In-vehicle concentrations can be 2 - 3 times higher than local
monitors indicate, and near-roadway concentrations have been measured to be 30 - 100% higher.

In outdoor air, NO₂ is primarily a product of motor vehicles and other combustion processes that
emit NO. Electricity generation, industrial processes, waste disposal, and fires are other sources of
NO₂. Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. However, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) along
with particles in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas. Nitrogen
oxides are produced naturally by lightning, and also, to a small extent, by microbial processes in soils.
Indoors, the primary sources are combustion processes such as unvented, or incorrectly vented,
combustion appliances, kerosene heaters, welding and tobacco smoke. NO₂ and other Nitrogen
Oxides play a role in the formation of other harmful secondary pollutants such as ozone and
particulate matter, as well as in the production of acid rain.

NOx, like most other major air pollutants, is best removed from the environment by reduction of its
production. For the past several decades research has been ongoing to develop applications that will
remove NOx from diesel engine exhaust, industrial waste and the soil. Some of these applications are
now in place and others continue to be developed to aid in the reduction of NOx.

The health effects of NO₂ are dependent on length of exposure and underlying health conditions
which may make some individuals more susceptible. Some of the health effects associated with NO₂
include eye, nose, and throat irritation and possibly impaired lung function and increased respiratory
infections in young children. High-dose exposure, as may occur in a building fire, may lead to fluid
retention in the lungs and widespread lung injury. If exposure to high NO₂ levels is continuous, it
may lead to acute or chronic bronchitis. For those who have asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), or an increased risk of respiratory infection, even low level NO₂ exposure may cause
increased bronchial reactions and decreased lung function.
In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to the formation of photochemical ozone (smog).
Nitrogen oxides are also very important in the formation and loss of tropospheric ozone. They
continuously react and reform through catalytic cycles. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is broken down by
sunlight to form nitrogen monoxide (NO). This NO then re-reacts to form more NO2. Nitrogen oxides
also lead to acid rain and contribute to global warming. Nitrogen oxides react with water to form
nitric acid (HNO3). Nitric acid is not only a major contributor to acid rain but is also the main way in
which nitrogen oxides are removed from the air.

• http://www.epa.gov/air/nitrogenoxides/
• http://www.epa.gov/air/emissions/nox.htm
• http://www.epa.gov/iaq/no2.html
• http://www.apis.ac.uk/overview/pollutants/overview_NOx.htm
• http://www.greenfacts.org/en/nitrogen-dioxide-no2/index.htm
• http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/23b.html

Pollutant: Ozone
Ground-Level Ozone is also known as “bad” ozone. At this layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere,
it is an air pollutant. It is harmful to health and the environment. At higher levels, the stratospheric
ozone, or “good” ozone, protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays.

Ozone (O3) is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It has the same chemical make-up in the
stratosphere as it does in the ground-level troposphere. The structure is a resonant one with the
double and single bond between oxygens being shared equally as shorter, stronger bonds. It is
written [O-O=O] <-> [O=O-O].

The EPA has set standards for ozone to protect health and the environment. The current standard is
an 8 hour average of no more than 0.075 parts per million (ppm). This standard was set at that level
in March of 2008. Prior to that time, since 1997, the standard was set at 0.084 ppm for 8 an hour
average. “On September 16, 2009, EPA announced the reconsideration of the 2008 ozone
standard. The agency will propose any revisions to the ozone standard by December 2009
and will issue a final decision by August 2010.” (EPA)

Ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere, but at ground-level is created, in the presence of
sunlight, by a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOC). Some of the major sources of NOx and VOC include chemical solvents, gasoline vapors,
emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, and motor vehicle exhaust. Hot weather and
sunlight cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful concentrations in the air and become a primary
component of smog.

Currently, there is no process by which ozone can be directly removed from ground-level air.
However, because of the Clean Air Act, programs are being put into place to cut NOx and VOC
emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities across the nation. Additional
means of reducing these pollutants are through programs that lead to the reformulation of fuels and
consumer/commercial products, such as paints and chemical solvents, that contain VOC. The
practice of carpooling is another measure that communities may encourage to reduce these harmful
emissions.

The health effects associated with ground-level ozone include coughing, congestion, throat irritation
and chest pain. Individuals with respiratory conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma
may experience increased difficulties. Those who healthy and active outdoors, are also likely to
experience the effects of ozone on their respiratory health. Ground-level ozone can inflame the
lining of the lungs and lead to reduced lung function. Being repeatedly exposed to ground-level
ozone over time may permanently scar lung tissue.
Ground-level ozone also has a negative impact on vegetation and ecosystems. Some of these effects
include decreasing the function of sensitive plants by decreasing their ability to produce and store
food, and making them more susceptible to other pollutants, insects, competition, certain diseases
and other environmental stresses. Ozone can also damage the leaves of plants and trees leading to a
reduction in forest growth and crop yields. In a meta-analysis of 52 studies of wheat, Feng et al.
(2008) reported that current ambient O3 concentrations may be decreasing yield by an average of
17.5%. In addition, the damage to vegetation may negatively impact the diversity of species in
ecosystems.

• http://www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/basic.html
• http://www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/health.html
• http://www.epa.gov/air/emissions/voc.html
• http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/gooduphigh/
• http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/CHEMWEEK/Ozone/ozone.html
• http://www.airnow.gov/
Feng ZZ, Kobayashi K, Ainsworth EA. Impact of elevated ozone concentration on growth, physiology, and yield
of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): a meta-analysis. Global Change Biology. 2009; 14(11): 2696-2708.

Pollutant: Particulate Matter
Particulate Matter (PM) is also known as particle pollution. PM’s properties are classified by their
diameter, also called particle size. Coarse particles are measured between 2.5 micrometers and 10
micrometers. Fine particles measure 2.5 micrometers or smaller. (The average diameter of a single
human hair is approximately 70 micrometers.) The size of particles also determines how long they
remain in the air. Precipitation and sedimentation removes coarse PM from the atmosphere within a
few hours, while fine PM may remain in the air for days or weeks. Therefore, these fine particles
may be transported over great distances. Particles are further classified as primary or secondary.
Primary particles are emitted directly into the air by man-made and natural processes from a
particular source. These include combustion from vehicles, the burning of solid fuel, industrial
activity, household combustion, and fires. Secondary sources create most of the fine particle
pollution in the United States, and develop in the air through chemical reactions of gaseous
pollutants.

Particulate Matter, PM, is a mixture of airborne liquid droplets and solid particles made up of a
complex combination of organic and inorganic substances. These particles can be made up of
hundreds of different chemicals and occur in many sizes and shapes. Some particles are large or dark
enough to be seen with the naked eye (e.g. smoke, soot, dust, and dirt). Other particles can be so
small, that an electron microscope is needed to detect them. The coarse particles are referred to as
PM10, while the fine particles are labeled PM2.5. (See first paragraph)

Their are two national air quality standards for particle pollution. The Primary Standards were
developed to set limits that would protect public health including “sensitive” groups such as
children, the elderly, and asthmatics. Secondary Standards were developed to set limits to protect
the public against such hazards as visibility impairment, and damage to crops, vegetation, buildings
and animals. The first standards for PM were established in 1971 in the United States. They have
been changed over time with the latest revision occurring in 2006. These standards changed the 24-
hour fine particle standard from 65 micrograms per cubic meter (m3) to 35 micrograms per (m3), and
retained the annual fine particle standard at 15 micrograms per (m3), averaged over three years. The
1997 24-hour standard for PM10 of 150 micrograms per (m3) was retained at that time. The EPA must
review the latest scientific information and standards every five years. It is therefore possible that
standards will once again change in 2011.

Course particle pollution, PM10, is produced from multiple sources such as construction sites, fields,
smokestacks, unpaved roads, fires, combustion from vehicle engines, industrial activities such as
mining, manufacturing and smelting, and the erosion of pavement by traffic. Fine particle pollution,
PM2.5, is most often produced when Nitrogen Oxides, NOx, and Sulfur Dioxide, SO2, are transformed

in the atmosphere. These pollutants are usually a result of automobile, industry and power plant
emissions.

The EPA and other agencies world wide are working to set emission standards for PM that will reduce
its incidence and consequently its effects. Some methods that are being developed and/or used
include exhaust filters on vehicles, cleaner burning fuels (especially diesel), and stricter regulations
on industrial processes. Through a nationwide network of monitoring sites, the EPA has recorded an
average decrease of PM2.5 between 2000 and 2008 of 19%. (PM2.5 monitoring began in 1999.) The
national average decrease in PM10 between 1990 and 2008 was recorded at 31%.

The health effects associated with particulate matter are related to a decrease in respiratory and
cardiac functions. Fine particles, PM2.5, are the greatest problem as they are easily inhaled deep into
the lungs and may even be absorbed into the bloodstream. Difficulty breathing, aggravated asthma,
the development of chronic bronchitis, and irritation of the airways are a few of the significant
health problems associated with PMs effects on the lungs. The most significant cardiac effects are
irregular heartbeat and heart attacks. According to the EPA and some European studies, PM can lead
to premature death in people with heart or lung disease. As with other pollutants, children and the
elderly are most susceptible to the effects of particulate matter.
Unlike ground-level ozone which peaks in summer months, particle pollution occurs year-round.
Particulate matter can harm the environment by changing the nutrient and chemical balance when it
settles on soil and water. The effects of this settling include: making lakes and streams acidic;
changing the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins; depleting the nutrients in soil;
damaging sensitive forests and farm crops; and affecting the diversity of ecosystems. Prior to falling
to the earth, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate matter
derivatives—sulfates and nitrates—contribute to visibility degradation and harm public health. Fine
particles have been determined to be the major cause of haze (reduced visibility) in parts of the
United States. This reduced visibility affects not only our cities, but also our national parks and
wilderness areas. Particle pollution can stain and damage stone and other materials, including
culturally important objects such as statues and monuments.

• http://www.epa.gov/oar/particlepollution/
• http://www.epa.gov/air/emissions/pm.htm
• http://www.epa.gov/OMS/invntory/overview/pollutants/pm.htm
• http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/pm.html
• http://www.arvinmeritor.com/media_room/pdfs/gp0441.pdf
• http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/pm.html

Pollutant: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a series of hydrocarbons containing both chlorine and fluorine. CFCs
are nontoxic, nonflammable, but highly volatile compounds. Unlike most pollutants, they do not
break down in the lower atmosphere. At that level, they are inert and safe to use in most instances.

Chemically, CFCs are a subset of the more general class of compounds known as halocarbons
(carbon- and halogen-containing compounds). CFCs are halocarbons that contain carbon and some
combination of fluorine and chlorine atoms. The most common CFCs are small molecules containing
only one or two carbon atoms. For example, a common refrigerant has the chemical formula of
CCl2F2, also known as CFC-12 (Dichlorodifluoromethane). Each kind of CFC has a different
formulation: CFC 11: CCl3F (Trichlorofluoromethane), CFC 113: C2Cl3F3 (Trichlorotrifluoromethane).
These three CFCs are the most harmful of the group. CFCs (11, 12, and 113) are long-lived in the
stratosphere, inflicting damage on ozone for decades. CFC 12 is able to survive in the stratosphere
for more than 100 years.

The ban on production and import of Class 1 Ozone Depleting substances (ODS) took effect on
January 1, 1996 as agreed to under the Montreal Protocol. CFCs are a Class 1 ODS.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), are less destructive to the ozone and have been used as a
substitute for CFCs since their phaseout. “As a Party to the Montreal Protocol, the U.S. must
incrementally decrease HCFC consumption and production, culminating in a complete HCFC phaseout
in 2030. The major milestones that are upcoming for developed countries are a reduction in 2010 to
at least 75 percent below baseline HCFC levels and a reduction in 2015 to at least 90 percent below
baseline.” (EPA Regulatory Programs)

Chlorofluorocarbons are a class of man-made chemicals. They are known by trade names such as
“Freon,” “Genetron,” and “Isotron.” The first patent for the formula of CFCs was granted in 1928 to
the Frigidaire Corporation. CFCs had been developed to replace the toxic gases that were used in
refrigerants in the late 1800s and early 1900s. After World War ll, CFCs were used as propellants for
bug sprays, paints, hair conditioning and health care products. In the 1950s and 1960s the CFCs
provided an inexpensive solution to the desire for air conditioning in homes, cars and offices. CFCs
have been used as refrigerants, air-conditioning systems, blowing agents and packing materials,
cleaning fluids, solvents, and fire-extinguishing agents. The growth of CFC use took off worldwide
after the 1960s with peak production of more than one million metric tons of CFCs per year.
CFCs rise slowly through the troposphere taking 6 to 8 years to reach the stratosphere. It is at this
upper level of the atmosphere that CFCs undergo significant reactions. They are decomposed by UV
radiation there and are a major source of inorganic chlorine. The chlorine that CFCs release destroys

ozone in catalytic reactions. During these reactions, 100,000 molecules of ozone can be destroyed by
each atom of chlorine.

Through reductions in CFCs, made possible by global agreements, the EPA states that CFCs are no
longer accumulating at an accelerating rate. Some CFC levels are decreasing and others have slowed
in their rate of accumulation. The NOAA site listed below has a nice graph on the last page that
illustrates this leveling off of one particular CFC molecule type. CFCs are stable enough in the
troposphere that remediation is difficult.
According to the EPA, slurrying soils contaminated with CFCs at ambient temperature in CaNH3
solutions should result in near quantitative dehalogenation and halide mineralization in minutes. No
reference was found to indicate if this technology is currently in use.

The health effects of CFCs are primarily linked to the depletion of stratospheric ozone. A loss of
ozone at this level of the atmosphere results in more harmful UV-B radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface. Human health is affected by the increased likelihood of developing skin cancer and
cataracts, and depression of the immune system. Another risk to human health involves the use of
inhalants by individuals. High concentrations of CFCs, when inhaled, affect the nervous and
respiratory systems. Symptoms include a reduced ability to concentrate, dizziness, headaches, and
bronchial constriction which may lead to sudden death.
Chlorofluorocarbons pose two major threats to the global environment. The first is the greenhouse
effect, and the second is reduction of the ozone layer. CFCs contribute to the greenhouse effect by
warming the atmosphere and trapping heat which is then radiated back into the atmosphere. CFCs
are 10,000 times more effective at trapping this radiated heat than carbon dioxide. The protective
layer of ozone in the atmosphere is also depleted by CFCs. As discussed above, this is accomplished
through the release of chlorine and the resulting catalytic reactions. With ozone depletion those
health effects referred to in the above paragraph increase. Increased ultraviolet radiation reaching
the earth also affects plant and animal life. Some of the results from this increase include reduced
crop yields and depletion of marine fisheries. Damage to construction materials and an increase in
smog are additional effects. Because CFCs have been shown to cause stratospheric ozone depletion,
they have been banned for many uses.

• http://www.theozonehole.com/cfc.htm
• http://www.purdue.edu/envirosoft/housewaste/house/chlorofl.htm
• http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/airairpochlorofluorocarbonscfcs.html
• http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/hats/publictn/elkins/cfcs.html
• http://www.pollutionissues.com/Br-Co/CFCs-Chlorofluorocarbons.html
• http://www.epa.gov/ozone/title6/phaseout/classtwo.html
• http://www.epa.gov/ozone/title6/phaseout/classone.html

LESSON 10:
WHAT ARE POLLUTANTS AND HOW DID
THEY GET IN THE AIR?
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES

Learning Objectives
Students will learn strategies for using online search engines to conduct research on known air
pollutants. Students will learn proper strategies for focusing on content, evaluating web sites,
documenting sources, and effectively using information from Internet searches to find quality
information for their pollutant presentations (in Lesson 13)
Assessment Criteria
Students are able to name and identify a particular pollutant that they have been assigned, identify
its sources, health effects, other effects, and possible strategies being considered for remediation of
the issues caused by excessing amounts of the pollutant.
Purpose
This lesson focuses on three separate goals. First, students learn effective strategies for searching
for reference content about scientific concepts or phenomena. If students haven’t been provided
some specific information about how to use and cite information they find (and avoid plagiarism),
and about how to use custom functionality of a search engine and web browser, these strategies are
provided in this lesson. Second, students will learn about a specific pollutant that affects air
quality, so that they can not only use this information on their own, but can also teach others about
the considerations related to that pollutant. Finally, this lesson, conducted as independent research
by individual students or groups, allows a wide range of content to be addressed through
specialization and sharing techniques among students, thereby making a more efficient use of
instructional time in class.
PREPARATION
Materials:
• Student Worksheet/Online Investigation of Pollutants
Set-up
Students will need to be assigned to a particular pollutant for this lesson. Because this will later
lead to a hands-on investigation of many of the pollutants listed here, and because students may
have significant prior knowledge (or confidence) in their internet search strategies, it is important to

remember that the pollutants you assign here will also be used later by the same students, and so
you should consider this when assigning pollutants for study to students.
This lesson also involves a considerable amount of time with students on computers conducting
searches and reviewing content. You will need to make arrangements for students to have computer
access, and should check some of the common web tools to see if searches using common terms
related to the pollutants bring up inappropriate content. Ideally, your school also has a policy /
strategy for students to take notes for later use in creating their presentations and synthesizing
content.
Time
Two-three fifty-minute periods.
INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE
Introducing the Lesson
Review the driving question with students. Discuss how they have, to date, discussed a number of
issues related to what is in the air, including the many components of air that have always been
present, and are not considered to be serious health hazards. These include nitrogen gas, oxygen
gas, water vapor, carbon dioxide (in relatively small amounts as occurs naturally) and other trace
gases.
Explain that this lesson, along with the next two, will focus more on the components of air that ARE
harmful, and for the most part, are the product of human activity or efforts.
Ask students to brainstorm items that they know or consider to be airborne pollutants. Write items
from the list, so that they can be reviewed later. Ask the students, “How do they know these items
are pollutants?” Tell students that you are going to create a list of considerations that relate to all
pollutants. Ask students to now brainstorm a list of qualities that they might say about pollutants.
Examples might include that they are not typically present in nature, or that they can cause health
issues in people or other living organisms. While these are not definitive, they will help you identify
possible misconceptions that students may have.
Conducting the Lesson

Inform students that they are going to do some research on what people already know about
pollutants in order to better understand the problems and issues with air quality. Explain that
scientists go through a similar process, often called “library research” or “literature review” (even
though more of this now takes place on-line, and the “literature” mentioned is simply written, peer-
reviewed research findings. When scientists are investigating a particular question, before they try
generating a specific hypothesis to test, they need to find out what others have found on the same
issue or topic. Researching the work of other scientists to see if others have explored the same or
similar questions is helpful to the scientist to determine if a study is worth doing, or to see if there
are aspects of the research from other scientists that can inform their own investigation.

To do this, students will either work individually or in small groups (this is your choice as a teacher,
though we would recommend small groups for efficiency and peer feedback for this process) on
investigating a particular pollutant that is known to affect air quality in some way. While there are
literally thousands of airborne pollutants that are the process of various industrial, commercial, or
mining efforts around the world, we have identified six primary pollutants that are more abundant,
and factor into the quality of air in most communities.
Student groups will be assigned a particular pollutant from the following list. Note that the last two
are optional, as they do not have easy follow-up activities in the next two lessons to investigate their
impact using a scientific experiment. While such experiments are possible, they can either be
dangerous, expensive (or equipment intensive, requiring specialized equipment or supplies), or
require a more complex understanding of the science before a proper investigation could be done.
• Particulate matter
• Carbon Dioxide
• Sulfur dioxide
• Nitrogen oxides
• Ozone
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Carbon monoxide
Student groups will need to research these pollutants online, with a goal of creating a body of
knowledge that will be shared with other students during the presentations in Lesson 13.
Tell students that they should keep a word processor document open to paste content and reference
materials from their investigations. Students will need to make sure to keep track of what
information they find, where they find it, and to get appropriate information about the source of
information.
If using a lab or mobile computer lab environment, set up a set of expectations for what the students
should accomplish during the course of their research, and what types of sites or information is
appropriate to review for finding this background information. For instance, unless your school
already limits the types of content that can be viewed on the internet, you may want to suggest that
students first seek out documents and textual information about their pollutant, rather than videos
or other content.
Tell students they will need to be able to identify the source of any information they include in their
presentations, so it will be important for them to note not only the URL (web address) of the site
that they are on to find a certain bit of information, but that they also know a bit about who created
the site, and what it is used for.
Develop a set of guidelines that is specific to your school’s access to resources and information
through the Internet, and discuss these with students before beginning the research, and revisit this
with students each day that you are doing internet research. Such guidelines might include requiring
students to visit a minimum number of sites, to visit sites that mention specific research on a
particular pollutant (and cite that information within footnotes or links on the site), and to visit sites
that not only address the pollutant itself with basic facts, but sites that also provide regional or

location specific information about the pollutant. Some possible examples of these requirements
include the following.
Content Requirements:
• Name of the pollutant

• Chemical composition of the pollutant
• Basic properties about the pollutant
• How is the pollutant produced?
• How is the pollutant detected?
• What are the possible effects on human health from the pollutant?
• What are the possible effects on ecosystems and non-human organisms from the pollutant?
• Where does the pollutant typically exist (or where is it commonly produced)?
• How is the pollutant remediated?
• What affect does the pollutant have in Michigan?
• How is the level of pollutant detected?
• What are the acceptable levels of the pollutant?
Research Requirements
• Cite all sources for information gathered.
• Cite specific quotes that are used with the author information for the quote.
• Cite the URL of any site that is used.
• If conflicting information is found, state this and note the differences.
• Find sites that contain data collected on the pollutant in question.
Use the student worksheet / Online Investigation of Pollutants to document information (or an
alternate electronic document that students can “keep” as a notebook for their findings.

LESSON 11:
WHAT DO POLLUTANTS LOOK LIKE?

Learning Objectives
Students model and compare the structure of pollutants through constructions of gumdrop models.
Assessment Criteria
Assess students’ models and discussions for the correct usage of the terms atoms, molecules,
compounds, elements and mixtures.
Purpose
Students will apply their online research to revisit the molecular models
PREPARATION
Make sure gumdrops kits are in working order after use in the last learning set.
Time
One or two 50-minute class periods (depending on how organized).
Materials
• Gumdrop kit from Learning Set 2
• Worksheet: What Does Air Look Like?
• Worksheet: Model of Pollutants
• Reader: How Do Pollutants Look?
INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE
Introducing the Lesson
Ask students to share what they know about air and what is in air. Students should mention that
oxygen, nitrogen, and other materials are in air. They may also state that air is matter (mass and
volume) and air is a gas.
Draw an oxygen molecule (O2) on the board and remind students that oxygen is 21% of our air. Draw
a nitrogen molecule (N2) and ask students: What percentage of our air is nitrogen? A lot, some, or a
little? What else is in our air? (Students should say water, and other gases) We know what water
looks like. Draw a water molecule (H2O) on the board and remind students that there are 2 atoms of
hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen in water. Now ask students about the “other 1%”...What do those
items look like in terms of their atoms and molecules?

Have students review the definition of the following terms, atoms, elements, molecules, compounds,
and mixtures. Use the drawings as examples of these items.
Point out the periodic table and ask the class if the know what the symbols represent. Remind the
students that the table is a tool used by scientists to organize the types of atoms that make up
matter.
Students are going to build gum drop models again of these particles (compounds and molecules)
found in air, but this time they will include the pollutants they investigated online in the previous
lesson. In the last lesson, one of the bits of information that students collected was the chemical
composition and structure of the pollutant. They are going to use this to create a model of their
pollutant for use in their presentation in Lesson 13.
Conducting the Lesson

Distribute one gumdrop kit to each group and remind the students that these kits will be reused
throughout the day, so they should not eat them because others have handled them. Review the
directions on the worksheet: What does air look like? and Models of Pollutants. Introduce the color
chart that functions as a “key” to show which elements are represented by certain colors.
Model the first gumdrop so students remember and are clear on the activity’s objective.
Student models may use different colors to represent atoms. As long as the students build their
model according to their color key, it is an acceptable model.
Students should complete a model of their specific pollutant, and should explore how the pollutant
might be created from its constituent parts, or through a breakdown of some other substance.
Students who were assigned Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) for their pollutant in Lesson 10 should NOT
be expected to create this pollutant, as it is far more complex than the other pollutants, and, while
it could be done, would likely not result in the building of much conceptual knowledge about how
the pollutant came to be. Instead, because of the links between that pollutant and ozone, you may
wish to have those students focus on creating an example of the ozone molecule.
Students build the models indicated on the worksheet: Models of pollutants. If students run out of
gumdrops, they may need to take apart previous molecules and re-use the elements.
After students construct the models, bring the class together to share their models. Students can
hold up their models as you call out the various molecules that were been built, emphasizing how
two different models can use two different color keys. Reinforce that each used the proper type and
number of atoms according to their key, so both models are correct. Alternately, have students get a
picture of their models that they can use later in the presentations of their pollutants that will be
presented in Lesson 13.
Concluding the Lesson

When students complete the questions from their student sheet, ask them to share their answers
aloud. Hold up the models or draw them on the board to clarify the terms atoms, elements,
molecules, and compounds.

Students should also review the reader section How Do Pollutants Look? to better understand how
the pollutant is actually created through human activity. For instance, students should see how the
interaction of the models of water and sulfur dioxide could produce an acid (H2SO4).
HOMEWORK
Have students complete the Student Reader / How Do Pollutants Look.

LESSON 12:
INVESTIGATING POLLUTANTS

Learning Objective
Students will design elements of a set of investigations based on the pollutant they were assigned,
and will conduct the investigations to determine a number of factors related to the production of or
potential impact of their pollutant.
Assessment Criteria
Students’ investigations will meet the various guidelines of the investigation framework, and
students will be able to report their process and findings in the next lesson.
Purpose
The purpose of this lesson is to have your students collect evidence about the various pollutants that
can affect air quality. Students will develop and conduct one (or multiple) investigations to explore
the production of various pollutants, including particulate matter, ozone, and sulfur and nitrogen
dioxide, with optional suggestions for additional pollution detection. This lesson is not only to help
students organize thoughts about air quality factors, but also to address basic concepts and practices
about the design and implementation of scientific investigations that explore variables in indirect
ways.
PREPARATION
This lesson is also broken up into four distinct investigations, with the notion that students would not
conduct every single investigation on their own. Rather, these are presented to encourage students
to investigate the pollutants they were researching in Lesson 10, so that they can each specialize
their efforts and develop an effective means to communicate their findings to their peers in the
following lesson (13). This is done for efficiency of time and materials, as it would take a long time
(and many more supplies) to conduct all of the investigations with all students, and to better
replicate the approach to investigation that many scientists engage in - specialization on particular
issues and variables within an investigation. Scientists use such methods for efficiency as well, and
need to communicate their results in ways that allow others to try to replicate the results, or to
modify the variables or procedures of the investigation to explore other variables or phenomena.
It is important for you to read through the procedures of all four investigations to determine how you
are going to implement these effectively with students. One alternative, mentioned in Lesson 8, is
to have all students conduct the indoor implementation of Investigation A - Particulate Matter in the
Air, and then have students explore the other investigations as groups in smaller groups, focusing on

one particular investigation. Another option would be to have students conduct one of the four and
separate these completely (though investigation A, and to a lesser extent, B, take less time and
understanding than C and D), or have students do one of the first two (A or B), which require a time
period for data collection, and one of the next two (C or D), which both take place outside using
vehicle exhaust in their study. Optional supplemental lessons may also be submitted online at the
Investigate the State web site.
For any of the investigations, note the setup and special considerations in your planning, especially
since Investigation A should be started in advance of the other investigations due to the time
required for particulate matter buildup. Also note the materials for each investigation, and that you
may need to identify 3-5 adult colleagues in your school with different vehicles to aid in
investigations C and D.
Documentation of Investigations (for later presentations)
Just as with the air walk activity in lesson 2, it is recommended that, if possible, you record the
procedures of the investigations using a digital camera or video camera. This allows you to revisit
the investigation to address techniques of experimentation, review observations, and provide sample
resources that students could use in their presentations in Lesson 13. It is only recommended that
you use discretion in taking pictures or recording such activities, both in who you have collect this
(whether you, an assistant, or a student would operate the camera), and how you might show the
images or recording (generally, for classroom use only, unless using a permission form to allow for
online posting or sharing).
INVESTIGATION A - PARTICULATE MATTER COLLECTION

Set-up
There are three procedures described for this investigation, each of which relies on different
materials and circumstances (such as the time you have to collect the matter, the materials you
have access to, and the level of detail you want to have students use in collecting data from this
investigation. If you wish to have students vary the focus of their investigations, multiple options
could be done all at once to compare procedures and data gathered. The options are described here:
1. Petri Dish: Uses petroleum jelly in a petri dish as a collector. Requires significant time for
collection and care in placing jelly in the dish (can’t be messy or data will be skewed). Allows for
easy counting of particulates afterward. Good for seeing how many particulates settle in one
location over time.
2. Fan and Filter Paper: Uses filter paper with petroleum jelly, and a fan to pull air through the
paper. Better for little or no advance time (collection occurs during class period rather than over
days). More appropriate for finding particulates in air at a given time, but not for investigating
location as a factor for particulates. Harder to count particulates at the end.

3. Mailing Labels: Uses adhesive side of mailing labels to collect particulate matter over time.
Similar to Petri Dish, but harder to count particulates at the end, and more susceptible to
pulling in non-airborne particulates if handled incorrectly by students. Best option for outdoor
placement.
You will want to carry out this investigation on your own before having students do it, so that you
are familiar with the findings, and so that you can find possible locations that will give strong
evidence leading to conclusions.
Special Considerations
• Consult with colleagues, administrators, and janitorial staff to allow students to place
collectors in locations outside of the classroom, and to make sure, if using adhesive labels on
cardboard, that the collectors are not “collected” and removed as trash by janitors.
• Make sure that you know where the locators for each student or group are located, and that
they are not to be moved during the collection period.
• Make sure that students label their collectors appropriately.
• Do not use the sticky side of tape of any sort as the collector surface, as particulate matter in
the adhesive might be mistaken as an airborne particulate.
Materials
• Student Worksheet: Investigation Considerations
• Student Worksheet: Investigation Procedures, Data, and Conclusions
• Petri dishes (option 1)
• Petroleum jelly (options 1 and 2)
• Ultra-bright White paper (option 1)
• Filter paper (option 2)
• While Adhesive-backed mailing labels (option 3)
• Scotch tape (option 3)
• Cardboard sheets - approximately 3” x 3” or larger (option
3)
• Metric Ruler
• Magnifying glass (3 to 5x magnification or more
preferred)
Time petroleum jelly

Preparation and distribution of collectors (25-30 minutes)
Collection of particulate matter (4-7 days for options 1 and 3, 20
minutes for option 2) Petri Dish
Analysis and data collection (10 - 15 minutes)
Option 2 is the only option that can be completed in a typical 50

minute class period. Options 1 and 3 should be started up to a week
prior to the day you want collection and analysis to take place.
Air flow Air flow Introducing the Investigation

Revisit the driving question and discuss key ideas learned. These
include:
Filter •Air is matter

Fan paper •Air contains oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other substances
Engage students in thinking about what else might be in the air. Possible

questions:
• Is there anything we can see in the air?
• When can we see “stuff” in the air? What might cause this stuff? Cars? Buses? Dust? Smog?
• If there is visible “stuff” in the air, how can we prove there is visible matter in the air?
• Is there the same amount everywhere?
• Are there days with more or less visible matter in the air?
Scientists call some of this solid “stuff” particulate matter. It may include dust, pollen, or
pollutants created by human activity.
Conducting the Investigation

Inform the students who are doing this investigation that they will be designing and conducting
investigations to explore if there is visible matter in our air, where that might be located, and
whether there are different amounts of such objects in different locations (and what possible
reasons might be).
Hand out Student Worksheet - Investigation Criteria. Discuss the importance of investigations to
science in discovering new information and testing information that other have uncovered. If
investigations are new to your students, you may want to go through the criteria sheet for
investigations step by step and model a simple investigation. This is done on a basic level in the
smoke investigation in Lesson 8.
Remind students of their discussion that cars and busses produce “stuff” that goes into the air. Ask
students, what other visible “stuff” might be in the air. Ask if any students have allergies, and what
might cause these allergies.
Describe this investigation as a way to recognize some of that stuff in the air, and to decide what
factors might be related to that stuff. Explain the basic procedures that you will use for the
investigation from the options below:
1. Petri Dish option. Students can apply a thin layer of petroleum jelly to the inside surface of a
Petri dish. Cotton swab applicators can be helpful for doing this, so that there isn’t too much jelly
at any point. If using one’s finger to apply this, make sure hands are clean. The dishes should be
clearly labeled with the name of the student(s), and may also have a circle of bright white paper
taped to the bottom of the petri dish, so that it is easier to see any particulate matter that gets
stuck in the jelly. If you plan to have students count the particulate objects they can see at the
time of collection, you should have students measure and draw a grid that is two centimeters on a
side, with each quadrant clearly identified (see diagram at right).
2. Fan / Filter Paper option. Students should make 2-3 squares on the back of the filter paper that
are 1cm x 1cm in size at random locations (not all together). Have students place “stripes” or
“patches” of petroleum jelly on the front side of the filter paper to cover over the squares. Putting
these stripes of jelly on, rather than across the whole paper, allows the fan to pull air through the
paper, but allows the particulate matter to stick to the stripes of jelly. Position the filter paper
next to the fan as shown in the diagram and allow the fan to pull air through for a minimum of 5
minutes. Depending on the type of fan you have, you may want to create an outside “bracket” that
you could affix the filter paper onto, just to reduce the risk due to the fan’s moving blades.

3. Adhesive labels. Students should cut out sections of cardboard that are at least 3” by 3” in size,
and label them with their name(s). Using masking tape, have the students affix a white mailing
label - ADHESIVE SIDE OUT - onto the cardboard. (Note, masking tape is used instead of Scotch or
Clear tape or other tapes, because the static electricity buildup on the plastic of the tape can
actually affect the collection of electrostatically charged particulates in the air.)
For options 1 and 3, have students create 2-4 such detectors per student or group (however you are
organizing the students in your class for this activity). Have students brainstorm questions they
could investigate using these procedures, thinking about what variables they might be identifying to
study (based, in part, on the procedure used). Possible considerations include:
• What kinds of things might affect the amount of trapped Particulate Matter in the air?
• Where is the most “stuff” in the air?
• Are there more particulates inside or outside?
• Are there more particulates by the street than in our class?
• Is there enough “stuff” in the air to see?
• Are there more particulates in one room than another?
• Are there more particulates that we can pull out of the air than those that might settle on a
collector?
Not all questions need to have an independent and dependent variable. If students choose to
investigate a simple question, do not have them answer the independent/dependent question.
Example questions might include:
• How does location affect the amount of particulate matter?

• How does the speed of the wind from the fan affect the amount of particulate matter?
Students should complete the Investigation Considerations worksheet.
In order to determine how much “stuff” they collect, students should remove the collectors after
the designated period of particle collection and attempt to measure how much “stuff” was
collected. If quantitative measurements are desired and appropriate to the material collected,
students should use a magnifying glass to count the number of observable particles in the jelly within
a square centimeter (using the grid or square markings from the back, or by creating a 1 x 1 cm
square hole in a sheet of paper, and holding this over the adhesive label-based collector) that are
discernible. They should have at least two people count the particulates to reduce human error (and
discuss any discrepancies), and should average the number of particulates per square centimeter.
Alternately, students might find it difficult to measure and count the number of particulates,
depending on what they collectively decide a particulate to be in size. In this case, you may suggest
they come up with a set of qualitative or general descriptors, such as none, a little, some, and a lot.
Students should use these to complete the Procedure, Data, and Conclusion worksheet.
Concluding the Investigation

Review the term “particulate matter”. Particulate Matter (PM) is solid particles or liquid droplets
suspended in the air, such as soot, dust, fumes, or mist. Discuss where PM might come from.
Students results will be discussed more after the presentations in Lesson 13.

INVESTIGATION B - OZONE DETECTORS
Set-up
Make sure to order the EcoBadge materials well in advance of this lesson, as there is only one
supplier and they are prone to back-orders.
Materials
• Ecobadge Ozone Detection Badge and Color Indicator
• Ecobadge Ozone Detection Sheet
• Enough EcoBadge test cards so that the students’ investigations won’t be limited by the
number of test cards.
Time
Collection of ozone (1 hour for option 1, 6-8 hours for option 2, 1-3 days for option 3)
Analysis and data collection (5 minutes)
Because of the requirement for ozone collection time, you will either need to stagger observation
and recording of the indicators, or find ways for students to come back to collect the badges later in
the day, and record their findings. They can work on conclusions and analysis on their own as
homework, or the following day in the classroom.
Introducing the Investigation

Revisit the driving question and discuss key ideas learned. These include:
• Air is matter
• Air contains oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other substances
Engage students in thinking about what else might be in the air. Possible questions:
• Have they ever heard warnings on television or radio about air quality problems in their
community?
• If so, but they cannot be specific in their examples, ask if any have heard of “ozone action
days” or similar warnings?
• If so, do they know what these warnings suggest that they do (or NOT do)?
One of the known pollutants that students can investigate when exploring air quality is ozone.
Ozone is known as affecting the environment and air quality in two ways. Surface level ozone, which
exists in the air at the levels of the atmosphere where we live, is a problematic pollutant. At the

same time, ozone also exists naturally in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) where it is incredibly
helpful to humans in that it reflects significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation back into space,
helping us prevent the damage to our skin, eyes, and immune system that would otherwise take
place. At this level, the problem with ozone is that other pollutants (CFCs) break down this layer of
ozone, causing more damaging radiation to get through. Students who researched this pollutant in
lesson 10 should have this basic knowledge.
Tell students who are doing this investigation that they will be looking for evidence of ozone, either
in the building or area.
CONDUCTING THE LESSON

Ask them to describe what they know about ozone and list ideas on the board. They may want to
use some of the information from their internet investigation in lesson 10.
Inform students that they will be conducting an investigation on the ozone levels around them. But
first they have to decide the scope or question they want to investigate.
Have students use the filled out “Investigation Criteria” sheet as the guide for modeling a possible
experiment on ozone. Think aloud as you go through possible questions and settle on one that is
something like “How much ozone am I exposed to as a teacher during a typical day?” Use the
questions from the sheet to evaluate this as a topic for investigation. For instance:
• Is the question real to you and your situation? Yes.

• Is the answer to the question likely to have lasting effects on the way you think about ozone?
Yes.
• So this makes for a good question.
Now, how do you go about answering that question?
• Do humans have the ability to answer the question?

• Do we have the tools to answer the question here?
• Do we have the requisite knowledge and skills needed?
Once the answer to the above questions is yes, you can now create a hypothesis based on the
question. Your hypothesis must be testable; meaning that humans must be able to support or refute
the hypothesis based on observable information. A hypothesis such as “There was another, small
universe here before our present universe?” is not a testable hypothesis. We cannot test that
hypothesis with current human know-how. A good hypothesis for this question might be “The ozone
levels over an 8-hour period in this school is below the limits set by law.” Write this down, or have
students do this if you are busy monitoring other investigations in the classroom. Check their
hypothesis to see that it is testable. Break it down for students. Does it meet the criteria for a
hypothesis?
Once students have identified a testable hypothesis, such as the one listed above, they will need to
determine the levels of ozone that they are investigating. For a question such as the one above, the
health for any given individual for ozone exposure is going to be unique, so use federal guidelines or
legal limits, which are established for all hazardous pollutants.

The legal limit for exposure for ozone over an 8-hour period is 0.12 ppm. The idea of ppm (parts per
million) will need to be explained.
Ask students if they have a way to measure ozone levels. One often used way is with the EcoBadge
system. This relatively inexpensive system is easy to administer and collect data on, and these are
reasonably accurate for measuring ozone in ambient air. More information can be found at
www.ecobadge.com.
Show them the badge and the test cards. Pose questions that will encourage students to read the
instructions for use, such as:
• Do we put the test card in one spot and leave it for 8 hours?
• Where do we put the badge if we do?
• Do we wear the badge all day?
• Which will be most representative of the ozone levels “in this school?”
It may be that the hypothesis needs to be revised to incorporate new understanding about the
problem, or to address the capabilities of the test equipment, which in this case, is the EcoBadge
test sheets.
Have the students revise the hypothesis to address this. For instance, a revised version of our
previous example hypothesis would be: “The ozone levels over an 8-hour period in room X in this
school is below the limits set by law.” Now your previous queries are answered. Put the test card in
the classroom.
Ask students where they plan to put the badge to study the air quality. Again, go through the
possibilities and pick the location that will provide data that is most representative of the classroom.
Go over other issues in the design of the investigation:
What position should the badge be in?
• Laying flat?
• Face up?
• Face down?
• Hanging from the ceiling?
• At what height?
Again have students choose the position that is best, and have them explain their rationale for this in
their procedure (on the Student Sheet / Investigation Procedures, Data, and Conclusions)
Review with students that there are many variables to contend with still (windows open or closed,
fan on or off, etc.) With all the possible variables, it may be necessary to test more than one
possibility. Depending on availability and number of students, suggest that they use two or more test
cards, placed in different parts of the room? Or test two days in a row? Any students who are doing
this test as their investigation should collaborate with each other so that they are not missing
variables while replicating tests of other variables several times over.
Students should then identify the place and location for their test card and should label the card to
identify which group/student placed it. Depending on the timing for the card, you will need to
arrange with them whether can can come back after the test is complete, or if you will collect the

test card at the appropriate time and read the results. If doing this, you may want to use a digital
camera to get a picture of the test card, so that students can read the results on their own.
It will have a certain tinge and can then be compared to the colormetric chart on the badge. Show
students how to read the values. Using the Student Worksheet / Investigation Procedures, Data, and
Conclusions, have students decide how to represent their data. One possible option is a table that
could be titled “8-hour ozone values” that has columns labeled Site, date, time of measurement,
value in [units], and nonattainment (this table will only have one row of data, but students will get
the idea).
Do the values break the limits set by the law? Generally, the answer will be no. But depending on
your specific situation, it might.
CONCLUDING THE LESSON

Revisit the hypothesis and make connections to the results of your analysis.
• Was the hypothesis supported or not by this experiment?

• What might this mean for ozone levels, and therefore air quality, in your classroom? Can the
data be used to describe ozone levels outside the classroom?
• Ask students what experiments might be done to further support your hypothesis?
• What ideas for experiments come to students’ minds after discussing this model for
experimenting?
Tell students that they will use their data, procedures, and conclusions from this investigation in
their presentation in Lesson 13.

INVESTIGATION C - POLLUTANT GASES (SO2, NOx, AND CO2)
There are a number of airborne pollutants that are not only problematic on their own, but can
actually interact with other molecules in the air to form new products. These products can often be
even more damaging to human health, living organisms, or other aspects of the environment. One
particularly well know example of this is acid rain, which is a product of the interaction between
water vapor in the air and other specific airborne pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
ozone, and, to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide. When these airborne pollutants are in the presence
of water molecules, they will interact with the water to form ions, creating an acid (sulfuric, nitric,
or carbonic acid are such examples). While it is not enough to cause the rain from this water vapor
to become completely acidic, it is enough, over time, to affect the pH of our ponds, lakes, and
streams, and the acid rain can interact with items like limestone, a common stone use in buildings
throughout the midwest, and slowly dissolve their facade. Acid rain can also be corrosive to metals
and attack other minerals.
This investigation actually involves a set of prepared experiments or demonstrations, which can first
illustrate the issue at hand. Following this, an investigation focusing on the acidification of water
from the exhaust of different automobile engines allows students to identify which engines produce
more NOx or SO2 that would acidify water vapor in the air. It is good to combine this investigation
with Investigation D, so that both can be done at the same time (as they both involve collection of
exhaust from car engines).
This investigation takes place outside in a parking lot or similar space, with access to running
automobiles. Make sure that students are not behind or in front of the running vehicle. Also, make
sure that students who are closest to the exhaust of the vehicle are to the side of the exhaust pipe
and not over it (as the gases coming from the exhaust will naturally lift straight up or will sit right
near the exhaust pipe). Alternately, you may wish to have adult volunteers working with the
stockings covering the tailpipes, while the students who are designing the investigation and selecting
the variables stand off to the side and “direct” the data collection efforts.
You should discuss the investigation with students to see what considerations they might have for
vehicles that would be used in the investigation. Do this at least a day or two before the
investigation, and then talk to colleagues and co-workers in your school who would be willing to help
by using their vehicles for the test. Possible considerations that students may have about the
vehicles include: age of the vehicle, type of gasoline (regular or premium), type (category) of
vehicle, engine size (4, 6, or 8 cylinder or other), or other similar factors. Then, identify colleagues
who may be able to bring vehicles that provide a range of these variables.
Set-up
While students would be able to conduct an investigation of the production of gases to form acid rain
on their own, they likely would not understand the underlying concepts involved in acid rain
production without engaging in the demonstration experiments shown below prior to the
investigation. You may wish to do these to illustrate the issues with all students, or to work on these
specifically with those students who are investigating SO2 or NOx as a pollutant. However, because

of the use of the straw in the bromothymol blue and water solution, it is recommended that you do
the demonstrations.
The three experiments/demonstrations should also be done in a classroom environment, unlike the
actual investigation, which needs to take place outdoors.
Materials
• Cardboard
• Matches
• Metal cup
• Pipet
• Plastic cup
• pH Indicator strip (preferably for a range from 5-9)
• Straw
• Tubing
• Limestone
• Bromothymol Blue Solution
• Vinegar
• Water (either from a tap, or distilled)
• 500 (or larger) beaker
• Large tube sock or hosiery
• pH probe (optional)
Time
Two fifty minute class periods (one for the demonstrations and planning for the investigation, and
one for the investigation and follow up analysis).

• Air is matter
Engage students in thinking about other gases that they think or know might be in the air. Possible
questions:
• Are there other gases that might be in the air (other than oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor)?
• What other gases do they know of that might be in the air?
• Are some of these natural, or are any of these things that might be pollutants or other by-
products of industry or other human activity?
• What are some of the processes that they think might produce such pollutants?
• People often talk about automobiles as causing air quality problems? What might they create
or do to cause such problems?

Demonstration 1. This procedure simply familiarizes students with the items used to determine the
pH of a solution, and with the notion that mixing certain gases with the solution may cause it to
change acidity.
• Pipet 3mL of water into the test tube
• Add bromothymol blue solution to the water until it noticeably turns color (3 to 5 drops)
The acidity of a solution is measured in “pH”, which is a representation of the hydrogen ion
concentration in the solution. The pH is calculated from the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration. A “neutral” pH is 7, meaning that the hydrogen ion concentration in the solution is 1
x 10-7, or 0.0000001. pH values that are below 7 are considered acidic, while those above 7 are
considered “alkaline” The bromothymol blue solution that we are using will change colors
depending on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. It is called a “pH indicator” since
this color change is constant depending on the acidity of the solution, and so the color will help us
identify the pH of the solution. A pH of 6 or lower results in a yellow solution (denoting it as an
acid), while it will achieve a blue color at 7.6. Any pH higher or lower than this will stay the same
color. Because this solution effectively measures a range of 6 to 7.6 for the pH, it is a good indicator
when there are very slight changes in pH to water (which, if pure, should have a pH of 7.0.
If the water at this stage is yellow with the bromothymol blue in it, the water is naturally acidic
(which can happen for a variety of reasons). In this case, make sure to use distilled water.
• Show the students the possible range of colors and pH of the solution that you are putting the
bromothymol into, and ask what they think the pH of the tap water in your area is.
• If the water in the tube is green or blue, use the straw to gently blow air into the test tube
(through the water). Be careful not to suck up the indicator with a straw, as bromothymol
blue is poisonous when ingested. Keep blowing until you notice a change in color.
• Ask students what they think happened in this example. Ideally, students should recognize
that the solution became acidic (it will change to be green then yellow; not the other way
around). Students should recognize that something in your exhaled breath caused the water to
become acidic.
• Empty the test tube and rinse with distilled water.
You will then need to explain what happens from a chemical perspective, as there is not much more
they could discern from this demonstration without prior knowledge of what gases we exhale are,
and which ones would “react” with water to make it acidic in nature. Specifically, it is the carbon
dioxide in our breath that will slowly interact with the water to form carbonic acid. For a variety of
reasons that we won’t address fully here, not all of the carbon dioxide in your breath would
immediately react with water to create this acid. In fact, at the atomic level, very few of the
hydrogen atoms in water are being separated from the water molecule to cause the creation of the
acid.
Ask students why they think our rain would not be acidic with all of the carbon dioxide in the world
that we (and other animals) exhale. Part of this has to do with the weak acid properties mentioned
in the previous paragraph, and it is mostly because carbon dioxide is “consumed” by plants during
the process of photosynthesis to create sugars for energy for the plant cells. However, the reason

we have acid rain (and more of this in recent years and in more industrialized areas) is that there are
places where more carbon dioxide (and other acidifying gases) is produced by human activity than is
consumed by plants.
Demonstration 2. This demonstration uses a similar strategy to illustrate the effect of smoke from
combustion on water vapor.
• Take a pH indicator strip and wet the sensitive area in the center of the strip with distilled
water.
• Tear a piece of paper into very small strips and place them into one of the metal cups with a
small amount of sawdust. Light a match and use it to ignite the paper and sawdust. Allow the
wood to burn for about five seconds, and then blow it out.
• Hold the pH indicator strip in the smoke. Note any color change.
As students what happens to the color of the pH indicator strip, and ask them what such a color
change would indicate. What would the effect of the components in the smoke be on the pH of
atmospheric water?
Demonstration 3. Assuming students see a color change here too, this, and the previous
demonstration, should help students understand that certain airborne compounds will indeed cause
acid rain by interacting with water vapor. Now, we need to show students that this is not the norm
for air (we hope!). The following procedure builds on the first two demonstrations to address this.
• Add 10 mL of distilled water and 5 drops of bromothymol blue indicator to the test tube.
• Attach the tubing to the end of the syringe. Fill the syringe with outside air, put the tubing
into the test tube solution, and use the syringe to gently force air through the water solution
in the test tube.
• Pull the tubing out of the solution, fill the syringe with air, and repeat this procedure. Do this
a minimum of 10 times or 3 minutes. As you are doing this, note any color change in the water
solution.
• If the solution remains green, then the ambient air in your location has fairly low
concentrations of acidic gases. A change to yellow indicates a higher concentration of acid-
producing gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Such a change
would denote a potential health and property hazard.
• Empty the test tube and rinse with distilled water.
Ask students to predict what they might observe for the color of the solution before the
demonstration begins. Alternately, you may wish to use a “Predict, Observe, Explain” format for
any written student work and subsequent discussion. If students predict a color change, ask why, so
that you can see if students misunderstand the role of the indicator (and think the color will change
all of the time because of the first two demonstrations), or if they think that the air they are
breathing contains a large number of acid-producing gases.
Demonstration 4. The previous demonstrations address the root causes of acid rain, and the
likelihood of acid rain forming from ambient air in their community. This last demonstration
addresses the typical effects of acid rain over time.

When acid forming gases dissolve in water, they produce a solution that can corrode metals,
minerals, and rocks over a long sustained period. Such corrosion may not seem to take place when
observed directly, but over time, extensive damage can result. Also, such rain can damage
vegetation and affect the pH of water bodies, which in turn would affect the microscopic organisms
in the water, and eventually, affect the entire food chain within the ecosystem.
This demonstration simulates the process of corrosion created by acid rain by using a solution that is
more acidic that typical acid rain. It is used on limestone, a common stone used in building (similar
to marble).
• Place a piece of limestone (calcium carbonate) in a plastic cup. Place 5-7 drops of tap water
onto the limestone. Ask students what they observe?
• Add 5 drops of vinegar to simulate the effect of acidified rain. Ask students to report what
happens to the rock after adding the vinegar.
Discuss what this might mean in terms of longer term effects with acid rain. Students who are
studying this pollutant should be able to find examples of the effect of acid rain on limestone and
marble objects, among other built structures.

This investigation involves the “collection” of gases from the exhaust of a vehicle, and bubbling
those gases into distilled water to see if there is any impact on the acidity of the water. Similar to
the demonstrations earlier, the basis for this investigation is that if the car exhaust is simply ambient
air, as was the case in demonstration 3, that the water will not change in acidity, and that the
indicator color will stay roughly the same. If, however, there are by-products of the combustion
process that takes place inside the engine that are acid-producing gases, then the solution will
become more acidic in nature, replicating the natural process of the production of acid rain.
Concluding the Investigation

Review the term “particulate matter”. Particulate Matter (PM) is solid particles or liquid droplets
suspended in the air, such as soot, dust, fumes, or mist. Discuss where PM might come from.
Students results will be discussed more after the presentations in Lesson 13.

INVESTIGATION D - PARTICULATE MATTER FROM EXHAUST
Set-up
This investigation is essentially a repeat of options 1 or 3 from Investigation A earlier in this lesson.
In that sense, students doing this investigation should have a good sense of what particulate matter
is before pursuing this investigation. It would also be good if the students doing this choice either
already did Investigation A, or worked with students doing Investigation A, so that there could be
some comparison between ambient air indoors and exhaust from an automobile or other engine.
As with Investigation C, this investigation takes place outside in a parking lot or similar space, with
access to running automobiles. Make sure that students are not behind or in front of the running
vehicle. Also, make sure that students who are closest to the exhaust of the vehicle are standing as
far away from the exhaust pipe as possible, while still able to hold the particulate matter collector
close to the vehicle. Alternately, you may wish to have adult volunteers holding the PM collectors,
while the students who are designing the investigation and selecting the variables stand off to the
side and “direct” the data collection efforts.
You should discuss the investigation with students to see what considerations they might have for
vehicles that would be used in the investigation. Do this at least a day or two before the
investigation, and then talk to colleagues and co-workers in your school who would be willing to help
by using their vehicles for the test. Possible considerations that students may have about the
vehicles include: age of the vehicle, type of gasoline (regular or premium), type (category) of
vehicle, engine size (4, 6, or 8 cylinder or other), or other similar factors. Then, identify colleagues
who may be able to bring vehicles that provide a range of these variables.
Materials
• Petri dishes (option 1)
• Petroleum jelly (option 1)
• Ultra-bright White paper (option 1)
• While Adhesive-backed mailing labels (option 2)
• Masking tape (option 2)
• Cardboard sheets - approximately 3” x 3” or larger (option 3)
• Metric Ruler
• Magnifying glass (3 to 5x magnification or more preferred)

Time
Collection of particulate matter (4-7 days for options 1 and 3, 20 minutes for option 2)
Analysis and data collection (10 - 15 minutes)
Option 2 is the only option that can be completed in a typical 50 minute class period. Options 1 and
3 should be started up to a week prior to the day you want collection and analysis to take place.

• Air is matter
Engage students in thinking about what else might be in the air. Possible questions:
• When they see smoke of some form coming from an object (such as a car, bus, house), why
might it be so dark at the time it comes out? Why does it seem to disappear quickly?
Scientists call some of this solid “stuff” particulate matter. It may include dust, pollen, or
pollutants created by human activity.

Students brainstorm questions they could investigate on the “stuff” that comes out of cars? Inform
students that they will essentially be replicating Investigation A from this lesson (brief students on
the procedures and considerations of making the particulate matter collectors from the materials in
Investigation A), but will be doing this over a shorter period because they are no longer collecting
particulates from ambient air, but rather, from the exhaust from cars or other vehicles that use
combustion engines.
In groups, have students each choose different questions to investigate. Possible variables to
explore include size of the engine, type of gasoline, mileage rating of the engine, age of the vehicle,
type of vehicle (if using something other than a car), type of engine (Diesel vs. standard), whether
the vehicle is idling at a high or low RPM (since they will be forced to do this test while the car is in
Park) or other factors.
Tell students that you will need to establish some standards for the tests to effectively compare the
different vehicles or variables. Ask students what such controls might be needed (suggestions
include amount of time that you are collecting PM from the exhaust, distance away from the exhaust
pipe, type of collector (option 1 or 2, which can be seen in greater detail in Investigation A from this
lesson), and other such factors.
Not all questions need to have an independent and dependent variable. If students choose to
investigate a simple question, do not have them answer the independent/dependent questions.

Example questions include:
• At what distance from the exhaust pipe will we collect the most “stuff”?
• At what distance from the exhaust pipe will there be no trace of “stuff” collected?
• How does the age of a vehicle affect the amount of particulate matter in the exhaust?
• How does the type of vehicle (car or truck) affect the amount of particulate matter in the
exhaust?
• Does the temperature at the time taken affect the particulate matter?
Student groups complete the first two pages of the Student Worksheet/Student Investigation.
Students might find measuring the amount of “stuff” difficult. Discuss that they can decide as a class
what is a little, some, and a lot when comparing each dish.
Check student group sheets
Conduct investigations and have students record any observations they think are important.
If students are having a difficult time creating questions, have them focus on:
• whether it is in good condition

• whether it is diesel or unleaded
• the distance the petri dish is held away from the car.
Special Instructions. Students should work with a yard stick with a taped Petri dish collector (option
1) or adhesive label-based PM collector (option 2) attached to cardboard. This will allow them to
stand a safe distance from the car, and stand to the side of the rear of the car. Students should not
stand directly behind a running car.
Note: Just as with Investigation C, you will need to consult with colleagues or parents to ensure that
you have enough different vehicles to test, and that you have adults present to ensure safety
measures are taken wherever possible.
CONCLUDING THE LESSON

Review the term particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter is solid particles or liquid droplets
suspended or carried in the air (e.g., soot, dust, fumes, mist).
Discuss that PM can come not only from cars but also nature, dust, leaves, pollen and garbage.
Discuss how PM relates to the driving question and to the composition of air.
Students should understand that Particulate Matter is a solid that is found in the 1% of air that they
initially called “other.”
HOMEWORK
Students complete and refine their sheets at home.


Learning Set 3 - Air Quality Unit

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WHAT DOES POLLUTED AIR

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Science Understanding for Teachers Page 68

Lesson 11: What Do Pollutants Look Like? Page 87

Lesson 12: Investigating Pollutants Page 89

• Investigation A - Particulate Matter Investigation (over time)

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Criteria Pollutant Description Major Sources Major Effects

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Colorless, odorless gas Burning of gasoline by Headaches,

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Gas Vehicle exhaust, Source of acid rain,

Ozone (O3) Gas Formed by other air Smog, lung damage,

Chlorofluorocarbons Group of chemicals Aerosol propellant and Destroys high level

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Some common secondary pollutants include:

• Ground level ozone

Ozone: The good and the bad

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

How Pollutant is Remediated

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Globally, deforestation is a significant contributor of CO₂ emissions when not counter-balanced by

How Pollutant is Remediated

Problems Associated with this Pollutant

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Problems Associated with this Pollutant

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

How Pollutant is Remediated

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

How Pollutant is Remediated

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards

How Pollutant is Produced

How Pollutant is Remediated

Problems Associated with this Pollutant

Sources and Resources

What is the Quality of Air in Our Community?

Pollutant Chemical Formula and Structure

Pollutant Testing and Air Level Standards