Electric Potential Energy (PE)

A conservative force
potential energy (PE)
conservative force= - gradient of potential energy

Fconservative = PE

Gravity force near the Earth surface:

Fg = mg

Gravity potential energy near the Earth surface :

PEg = mgh

h mg
ground
Introduction

A ball is exerted by the

gravity force and has
the potential energy of
mgh.

Electric Potential Energy (Cont.)

The Coulomb force is a conservative force.
It is possible to define an electrical potential energy
function with this force. The concept of electric
potential energy is useful in the study of electricity

Fe PE

Work done by a conservative force is equal to the

negative of the change in potential energy.
work= - change of potential energy
WAB = PE

Introduction

Work and Potential Energy (Cont.)

The change of the electric potential energy is
independent of the path but the distance
Path 1

PE (path 1)= PE (path 2)

A

Path 2

The Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity

(magnitude), not a vector (magnitude and direction).

Section 16.1

Comparison between electric and gradational

potential energy

=
W
F=
mgd
AB
gd
= PEg > 0
PEg < 0

W=
F=
qEd
AB
ed
= PEe > 0
PEe < 0

Electric potential energy differs significantly from gradational

potential energy
There are two kinds of electrical charges, positive and negative
mass has no negative sign.
Section 16.1

Work and Potential Energy -Example

There is a uniform field
between the two plates.
As the charge moves from
A to B, work is done by
electric force on it.
WAB = Fx x =q Ex (xf xi)
=-PE

Section 16.1

Work and Potential Energy -Example (Cont.)

Note: Ex and q can be positive or
negative
> 0
> 0

WAB= qEx x=
< 0
< 0

if
if
if
if

q > 0, Ex
q < 0, Ex
q > 0, Ex
q < 0, Ex

> 0,
< 0,
< 0,
> 0,

The work-energy theorem

change in electric potential
energy (SI unit: Joule (J))
PE =
WAB
Section 16.1

Potential Energy Differences in an Electric Field

A proton is released from rest. The
change in the electric potential
energy associated with the proton:
PE=-WAB=-Fey=-(eEy) < 0

y
A +e

Fe = eE

An electron is fired in the same

direction. The change in the electric
potential energy associated with the
electron:
PE=-WAB=- (Fey)=-((-eE)y) > 0

Proton is released
y

B
y
A -e

Fe = eE

An electron is fired in
the same direction
Section 16.1

Potential Energy Differences in an Electric Field

When an electron is released from
rest in a constant electric field, the
change in the electric potential
energy associated with the electron
become more negative with time.
True or false?

B
y
A -e

Fe = eE

An electron is released

PE = - WAB = -((-e)(-E)) y < 0 (True)

Section 16.1

Dynamics of Charged Particles

When an electron is fired in a uniform
electric field, find the initial speed v0
if its final speed has fallen by half.

Apply conservation of energy,

E

8PE
=
3me

8 ( (e) E y )
=
3me

Section 16.1

B
y
A -e

1
1

KE + PE =0 me v 2f me vi2 + PE =0
2
2

1 1 2 1

2
me vi me vi + PE =0
2 2 2

3
me vi2 = PE vi =
8

Fe = eE

An electron is fired.

8 ( eE y )
3me

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

A field
the field potential
independent of the object in the field
Gravitational field
Gravitational potential
independent of the object with mass m in the field
Electric field
Electric potential
independent of the object with charge q in the field

Section 16.1

Electric Potential Difference

The electric potential difference V between points A
and B is defined as the change in the potential energy
(final value minus initial value) of a charge q moved from
A to B divided by the size of the charge.
V = VB VA = PE / q
SI unit: J/C or V (Volt)
Alternately, the electric potential difference is the work
per unit charge that would have to be done by some
force to move a charge from point A to point B in the
electric field.
Potential difference is not the same as potential energy.
Section 16.1

Potential Difference (Cont.)

Another way to relate the potential energy difference
and the potential difference:
PE = q V
Both electric potential energy and potential
difference are scalar quantities.
A special case occurs when there is a uniform electric
field.
V =PE/q=-Fex/q= -qExx/q= -Ex x
Gives more information about units: N/C = V/m
since Fe/q=Ex=V/x
Section 16.1

Potential Energy Compared to Potential

Electric potential is characteristic of the field only.
Independent of any test charge that may be
placed in the field
Electric potential energy is characteristic of the
charge-field system.
Due to an interaction between the field and the
charge placed in the field

Section 16.1

Electric Potential and Charge Movements

When released from rest, positive charges accelerate
spontaneously from regions of high potential to low
potential.
E
low
V =-Ex=VB-VA<0 high +q
x

When released from rest, negative charges will

accelerated from regions of low potential toward
region of high potential.
E
-q
low
high
V=Ex=VB-VA>0
A

Work must be done on a negative charges to make

them go in the direction of lower electric potential.
high

-q

A
Section 16.1

Need
work

low

Electric Potential of a Point Charge

The point of zero electric potential is taken to
be at an infinite distance from the charge.
V = VB VA

high r
VA

VB 0, when rB
VA = V

low
VB=0

The potential created by a point charge q at

any distance r from the charge is
V = ke

q
r

Section 16.2

Electric Field and Electric Potential Depend on

Distance
The electric field is a vector
and is proportional to 1/r2

F
q
E =
ke 2 r
q0
r

The electric potential is a

scalar and is proportional
to 1/r
V = ke

q
r

Section 16.2

Electric Potential of Multiple Point Charges

Superposition principle applies
The total electric potential at some point P due to
several point charges is the algebraic sum of the
electric potentials due to the individual charges.
The algebraic sum is used because potentials are
scalar quantities.
=
V1P

ke q1
ke q2
ke q3
=
; V2 P =
;V3 P
; ...
r1P
r2 P
r3 P

VP = V1P + V2 P + V3 P + ...

r1P

r2P

q3

q1
q2
Section 16.2

r3P

Dipole Example

Two charges have equal

magnitudes and opposite
charges.
Example of superposition
ke q
ke q
V1P =
; V2 P =
r1P
r2 P
VP =V1P + V2 P

Discussion:

r1P
q1=q

P
r2P

q2=-q

r2 P r1P
= ke q
r1P r2 P

VP if r1P 0;

Potential of a dipole plotted on the

vertical axis (in arbitrary units).

VP if r2 P 0;
VP 0 if r1P =
r2 P ;
VP 0 if r1P and r2 P
Section 16.2

Electrical Potential Energy of Two Charges

V1 is the electric potential due to
q1 at some point P
V1 = ke

q1
r

The work required to bring q2

from infinity to P without
acceleration (i.e., Fex=Fe) is

Wex =
PE =
q2 V =
q2 (V1 V ) =
q2V1

This work is equal to the potential

energy of the two particle system
=
PE q=
ke
2V1

q1q2
; PE
=
0

r
Section 16.2

Electric Potential Energy of Two Charges (Cont.)

q1q2
PE = ke
r

> 0 for q1q2 > 0

< 0 for q1q2 < 0

If the charges have the same sign, PE is positive.

Positive work must be done to force the two
charges near one another.
The like charges would repel.
If the charges have opposite signs, PE is negative.
The electric force would be attractive.
Work must be done to hold back the unlike
charges from accelerating as they are brought
close together.
Section 16.2

Brief Summary Of Potential and Potential Energy

Electric Potential and Potential Energy (Ch 16.1)
PE = q V

WAB=-PE
A charge moves along E
high

A charge moves against E

high
VA

low

VA
VB
V=VB-VA<0

VB

low

V=VA-VB>0

For q>0: PE<0 (PEB <PEA)

(loses energy)

For q>0: PE >0 (PEA >PEB)

(gains energy)

For q<0: PE>0 (PEB >PEA)

(gains energy)

For q <0: PE<0 (PEA < PEB )

(loses energy)
Section 16.2

Brief Summary Of Potential and Potential Energy

(cont.)
If a positive charge is released in
the electric field, it will move
towards to lower electric potential.
If a negative charge is released
in the electric field, it will move
towards to higher electric
potential.

q<0
q>0

high
high

Fe=qE
Eq
Fe=qE

Section 16.2

low

low

Problem Solving with Electric Potential

(Point Charges)
P
r1P

r2P

r3P

Draw a diagram of all charges.

q3
q1
Note the point of interest.
q2
Calculate the distance from each charge to the point
of interest.
Use the basic equation V = keq/r
Include the sign
The potential is positive if the charge is positive
and negative if the charge is negative.
Section 16.2

Problem Solving with Electric Potential (Cont.)

Use the superposition principle when you have
multiple charges.
Take the algebraic sum
Remember that potential is a scalar quantity.
So no components to worry about
P

VP = V1P + V2 P + V3 P + ...

r1P

r2P

q3

q1
q2
Section 16.2

r3P

Conductors in Equilibrium
All of the charge resides at the
surface.
E = 0 inside the conductor.
The electric field just outside the
conductor is perpendicular to
the surface.
Vinside=constant

E=0
B

F l
=
e
q

Winside
PE
Vinside = =

q
q

qEinside l
=
= 0 l = 0
q

The potential everywhere inside the conductor is

constant and equal to its value at the surface (why?).
Section 16.3

Potentials and Charged Conductors

All points on the surface of a charged

conductor in electrostatic equilibrium
are at the same potential.

Wsurface= Fe l= qEsurface l=

Esurface l cos 90=

0

PE
W
Vsurface = =

=
0
q
q

Vsurface=constant

The electric potential is constant everywhere on the

surface of a charged conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium and equal to its value at the inside.
Vinside=Vsurface
Section 16.3

More Information About the Unit for Electric

Potential Energy: The Electron Volt (eV)
The electron volt (eV) is defined as the kinetic
energy that an electron gains when accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 V.
PE= eV =1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Electrons in normal atoms have energies of 10s
of eV.
Excited electrons have energies of 1000s of eV.
High energy gamma rays have energies of millions
of eV.
Section 16.3

Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface on which
all points are at the same potential.
V = VB VA = 0

No work is required to move a

charge at a constant speed on an
equipotential surface.
The electric field at every point
on an equipotential surface is
perpendicular to the surface.
Section 16.4

Equipotentials and Electric Fields Lines

Positive Charge
The equipotentials for a
point charge are a family of
spheres centered on the
point charge.
In blue
The field lines are
perpendicular to the
electric potential at all
points.
In orange
Section 16.4

Equipotential surface

Equipotentials and Electric Fields Lines Dipole

Equipotential lines are
shown in blue.
Electric field lines are
shown in orange.
The field lines are
perpendicular to the
equipotential lines at all
points.

Section 16.4

Equipotentials in the Two Parallel Plates

y

WAB=qExcos90=0
d

V=VA-VB=0

Equipotential lines are shown in blue.

Electric field lines are shown in orange.
The field lines are perpendicular to the
equipotential lines at all points.

Section 16.4

Application Electrostatic Precipitator

It is used to remove
particulate matter
from combustion gases
Reduces air pollution
Can eliminate
approximately 90% by
mass of the ash and
dust from smoke
Recovers metal oxides
from the stack
Section 16.5

Application Electrostatic Precipitator (Cont.)

The wire is maintained at a
negative electric potential with
respect to the outer wall, so the
electric field is directed toward
the wire.
The electric field near the wire
reaches a high enough value to
cause a discharge around the wire
and the formation of positive
ions, electrons, and negative ions.

Section 16.5

+q/-q
E

Application Electrostatic Precipitator (Cont.)

These negative charge particles
accelerate and the dirt particles
become charged negatively by
collision and ion capture.
These negatively charged dirt
particles are drawn to the outer
wall.
When the duct is shaken, the
particles fall loose and are
collected at the bottom

+q/-q
E

Application Electrostatic Air Cleaner

Used in homes to reduce the discomfort of allergy
sufferers.
It uses many of the same principles as the
electrostatic precipitator.

Section 16.5

Application Xerographic Copiers

The process of xerography is used for making
photocopies.
Uses photoconductive materials
A photoconductive material is a poor conductor
of electricity in the dark but becomes a good
electric conductor when exposed to light.

Section 16.5

The Xerographic Process

The drum is coated with the photoconductive material
and charged positively
The positive charges in the light stroked area are
neutralized with the electrons from the photoconductor
The positive charges remain on those areas of the
photoconductor without exposed on light leaving a
hidden image of the object.

Section 16.5

The Xerographic Process (Cont.)

The negatively charged powder, called toner, is dusted
onto the photoconductor and adheres only to the
areas that contain the positively charged image (but
not neutralizes the positively charge image).
It is then transferred to the surface of a sheet of
positively charged paper
Finally, the toner is fixed to the surface of the paper
by heat, resulting in a permanent copy of the original.

Section 16.5

Application Laser Printer

The steps for producing a document on a laser printer
is similar to the steps in the xerographic process.
Steps a, c, and d are the same.
The major difference is the way the image forms
on the selenium-coated drum.
A rotating mirror inside the printer causes the
beam of the laser to sweep across the seleniumcoated drum.
The electrical signals form the desired letter in
positive charges on the selenium-coated drum.
Toner is applied and the process continues as in
the xerographic process.
Section 16.5

Capacitance
Two parallel plates: V=Ed=Qd/(A00)
Q/V=0A0/d : characterize the
conductor and is independent of
Q and V, called capacitance.

Q=A0

V=Ed

The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the

ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either
conductor (plate) to the magnitude of the potential
difference between the conductors (plates).
SI Units: Farad (F)
1F=1C/V
A Farad is very large
Often will see F or pF
Section 16.6

Parallel-Plate Capacitor
A capacitor is a device used in a variety of electric circuits.
The capacitor consists of two
parallel plates.
Each has area A.
They are separated by a distance d.
The plates carry equal and
opposite charges.
When connected to the battery,
charge is pulled off from one plate
and transferred to the other plate.
The transfer stops when Vcap =
Vbattery
Section 16.7

-e

Parallel-Plate Capacitor (Cont.)

The capacitance of a device depends on the
geometric arrangement of the conductors.
For a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates are
separated by air:
=
C

Q A
= =
V Ed

A
A
= 0
d
( / 0 ) d

The larger area can store more charge, therefore

enhances the capacitance.
The small plate separation can decrease the potential
difference and hence enhances the capacitance.
Section 16.7

Electric Field in a Realistic Parallel-Plate Capacitor

The electric field between the plates is uniform.

Near the center
Nonuniform near the edges
The field may be taken as constant throughout the
region between the plates.

Section 16.7

Capacitors in Parallel

When capacitors are first connected in the circuit,

electrons are transferred from the left plates through
the battery to the right plate, leaving the left plate
positively charged and the right plate negatively
charged.
The capacitors reach their maximum
charge when the flow of charge
ceases (completely charged).
The flow of charges ceases when
the voltage across the capacitors
equals that of the battery.
V1=V2 =V
Section 16.8

-e

-e

+Q1

-Q1
V1

-e
+Q2

-e
V2

-Q2

Capacitors in Parallel (Cont.)

The potential difference
across the capacitors is the
same: V1=V2
and each is equal to the
voltage of the battery
V1=V2 =V
The total charge, Q, is
equal to the sum of the
charges on the capacitors.
Q = Q 1 + Q2
Section 16.8

V1

V2

Capacitors in Parallel (Cont.)

The capacitors can be
replaced with one capacitor
with a capacitance of Ceq
The equivalent capacitor
must have exactly the
same external effect on
the circuit as the original
capacitors.
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1V1 + C2 V2

Q = (C1 + C2 )V = Ceq V
Section 16.8

Ceq= C1 + C2

Capacitors in Parallel (Cont.)

V1=V2 ==V
Q = Q1 + Q2+
Ceq = C1 + C2 +
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel
combination of capacitors is greater than any of
the individual capacitors.

Section 16.8

Capacitors in Series
When a battery is connected to the circuit, electrons
are transferred from the left plate of C1 to the right
plate of C2 through the battery.
As this negative charge accumulates on the right
plate of C2, an equivalent amount of negative
charge is removed from the left plate of C1, leaving
it with an excess positive charge.
The magnitude of the
charge must be the same
on the left plate of C1 and
the right plate of C2.
Section 16.8

-e

-e

Capacitors in Series (Cont.)

How about the charge on the right plate of C1 and
the left plate of C2?
induced
left plate of C2 are not
connected to the battery but
connected together and are
electrically neutral. Their
charge are induced by the left
plate of C1 and the right plate
of C2.

-e
??

All of the right plates gain charges of Q and all

the left plates have charges of +Q.
Section 16.8

Capacitors in Series (Cont.)

An equivalent capacitor can be
found that performs the same
function as the series
combination.
The potential differences add
up to the battery voltage.
V=
1

Q
Q
; V=
2
C1
C2

Q Q
Q
V = V1 + V2 =
+
=
C1 C2 Ceq
1
1
1
=
+
Ceq C1 C2
Section 16.8

Capacitors in Series (Cont.)

Q=Q1=Q2=

The equivalent capacitance of a series combination is

always less than any individual capacitor in the
combination.

Section 16.8

Problem-Solving Strategy
Combine capacitors following
the formulas.
When two or more capacitors
are connected in parallel, the
potential differences across
them are the same V1=V2.
The charge on each capacitor
is proportional to its
capacitance: Qi=CiV.
The capacitors add directly to
give the equivalent
capacitance.
Section 16.8

Parallel

V1=V2
Q = Q1 + Q2
Ceq = C1 + C2 +

Problem-Solving Strategy (Cont.)

Be careful with the choice of units.
Combine capacitors following the
formulas.
When two or more unequal
capacitors are connected in
series, they carry the same
Q1=Q2 charge, but the potential
differences across them are not
the same.
The capacitances add as
reciprocals and the equivalent
capacitance is always less than
the smallest individual capacitor.
Section 16.8

Series

Q1=Q2

Problem-Solving Strategy (Cont.)

A complicated circuit can often be reduced to one
equivalent capacitor.
Replace capacitors in series or parallel with
their equivalent.
Redraw the circuit and continue.
Repeat the process until there is only one single
equivalent capacitor.
To find the charge (Q) on, or the potential difference
(V) across, one of the capacitors, start with your
final equivalent capacitor Ceq and work back through
the circuit reductions.
Section 16.8

Problem-Solving Strategy, Equation Summary

Use the following equations when working through
the circuit diagrams:
Capacitance equation: C = Q / V; Q=CV; V=Q/C
Capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 +
Capacitors in parallel all have the same voltage
differences as does the equivalent capacitance:
V1=V2=V3=
Capacitors in series: 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +
Capacitors in series all have the same charge, Q, as
does their equivalent capacitance:
Q1=Q2=Q3=
Section 16.8

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

A capacitor can store energy
The battery transfers charges
from one plate to another when
they are connected to a battery.
The stored energy is the same
as the work required to move
charge onto the plates done by
the battery.

-e

Wbattery =
Estore

How to calculate the stored energy?

Section 16.9

-e
-e

Energy Stored in a Capacitor (Cont.)

The work Wi required to transfer
charge Qi from one plate to the
other must be done against the
potential Vi of the capacitor:
Wi =PEi =Vi Qi ;

Qi Vi -Qi

Q
Vi = i
C

The total work done by the battery :

V

1
W = Wi = QV
2
i

Vi

Section 16.9
i

Energy Stored in a Capacitor (Cont.)

The stored energy is the same as the work required
to move charge onto the plates.
Energy stored = W= QV
From the definition of capacitance, this can be
rewritten in different forms.
Q

Q=CV
V=Q/C
Section 16.9

C=

Q
V

Applying Physics (Maximum Energy Design)

How should three capacitors and two batteries be
connected so that the capacitors will store the
maximum possible energy?
1
1
2
2
E=
Ceq Veq EMax =
CMax ( V ) Max
2
2

To have maximum capacitance, the three capacitors

must be parallel. Why?
CMax = Ci = C1 + C2 + C3

To have maximum the potential difference, the two

batteries must be series. Why?
VMax = Vi = V1 + V2
Section 16.9

Energy Stored in a Capacitor (Cont.)

Maximum energy stored/maximum operating
voltagebefore discharging the capacitor
-Q

Qmax
Q
=
C =
V Vmax

1
2
E=
C ( V )max
max
2

Discharge
+Q

In general, capacitors act as energy reservoirs that

can be slowly charged and then discharged quickly to
provide large amounts of energy in a short pulse.

Section 16.9

Capacitors with Dielectrics

A
C
=
=
C0
0
d
C0 = 0
=
E0

A
d

=
E

1
C0 V0 2
2

Section 16.10

1
C V0 2
2

Capacitors with Dielectrics (Cont.)

A dielectric is an insulating material that, when placed
between the plates of a capacitor, increases the
capacitance.
Dielectrics include rubber, plastic, or
waxed paper.
C = Co = o(A/d) C0 where 1
The capacitance is multiplied by the
factor when the dielectric completely
fills the region between the plates.
is called the dielectric constant.
Section 16.10

Dielectric Strength
For any given plate separation, there is a
maximum electric field Emax that can be
produced in the dielectric before it breaks
down and begins to conduct.
This maximum electric field is called the
dielectric strength.

Section 16.10

Section 16.10

Capacitors with Dielectrics (Examples)

Two capacitors in series:
1
=
Ceq

1
1
+
C1 C2

d/2 d/2

A
A
=
=

C1 1=
2
21C0 ;
0
1 0
d /2
d

C1 C2

A
A
=
=

C2 2=
2
2 2C0 ;
0
2 0
d /2
d
A
C0 = 0
d

Two capacitors in parallel:

Ceq= C1 + C2

A/ 2
C1 1=
=
0
d
A/ 2
C2 2=
=
0
d

A 1
C0 ;
=
0
2 d 2
2 A 2
C0
=
0
2
d
2
Section 16.10

A/2

C1

A/2

C2

An Atomic Description of Dielectrics

Polarization occurs when there is a separation
between the average positions of its negative charge
and its positive charge.
In a capacitor, the dielectric becomes polarized
because it is in an electric field that exists between
the plates.

Section 16.10

More Atomic Description

The field generated by the two plates produces an
induced polarization in the dielectric material.

Section 16.10

More Atomic Description (Cont.)

The electric field from the polarized
dielectric will partially cancel the
electric field from the charge on the
capacitor plates.
This decreases the net field inside the
capacitor, and decreases the potential
difference across the capacitor.

Enet
= E0 + Eind

Enet = < E0 = ; > 0

Section 16.10

=
Vnet Enet d < V0

More Atomic Description (cont.)

To return the capacitor to its original
potential difference, more charge is
needed.
Q (with dielectric)>Q (vacuum)

Q
Vnet < V0

The net effect of the dielectric is to

increase the amount of charge stored on
a capacitor, and then increase the
capacitance.
Q
Q
C=

>

= C0

Vnet =
V

C
= C = C0
C0
Section 16.10

Application Computers
Computers use capacitors in
many ways.
Some keyboards use
capacitors at the bases of the
keys.
When the key is pressed, the
capacitor spacing decreases
and the capacitance
increases.
The key is recognized by the
change in capacitance.
Section 16.10

Commercial Capacitor Designs

Section 16.10