Pipe Flow

General equations
All steady flow pipe flow problems may be solved by application of the
continuity and Bernoulli equations. An effective method of solving pipe flow
problems is by graphical representation of the head losses caused by surface
resistance and form resistance (minor losses). The construction of the total head
line (energy grade line) and peizometric head line (hydraulic grade line) can
clearly show the variation of pressure, velocity and energy along the pipe.
The total and peizometric head lines slope instead of being horizontal
in accordance with head losses due to surface resistance. Minor losses occur at
locations where pipe transitions, such as bend, contraction and valve, take place.
Although the influence of these pipe transitions can be felt at a considerable
distance downstream, the head losses (minor losses) due to these pipe transitions
are more conveniently represented by a series of abrupt discontinuity of the total
and peizometric head lines at the locations of pipe transitions.

The Bernoullis equation describing the flow includes all losses which
occur for flow in the pipe:

p1
V12 p 2
V22
+ z1 +
=
+ z2 +
+ HL

2g

2g
in which

H L = H LS + H LF
The total head loss HL is made up of head losses in the pipes due to surface
resistance, HLS and head losses (minor losses) due to pipe transition HLF.

L V2
H LS = f
D 2g
in which
f = friction factor which is a function of the Reynolds number of flow and the
pipe geometry and surface characteristics and can be readily determined from
the Moody Diagram
V = velocity of flow
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe

H LF

V2
= CL
2g

in which
CL = loss coefficient for various pipe transitions which can be determined from
tables and charts such as those found in the previous lecture set Form
resistance and in many textbooks.

Head losses along a pipe maintaining a steady flow between two reservoirs

While surface and form resistance cause a drop in the peizometric and total
heads, the installation of a pump increases the total head by an amount Hp. A
pump is usually required to overcome potential head rise and/or large head
losses.
When the peizometric head line falls below a pipe, negative pressure in the pipe
is indicated. Theoretically the absolute pressure in a pipe may fall to the vapour
pressure of the liquid at which point cavitation sets in and local vapourisation of
the liquid occurs, causing the development of a vapour-filled bubble or cavity in
the flow. For most engineering fluids, including water, dissolved gases will
come out of solution well before the cavitation point is reached and such gases
go back into solution very slowly. As a result, large bubbles of gases form and
move with the fluid, collect at the high points in the pipe, reduce the crosssection of flow, and disrupt the flow. In practice, large negative pressures in
pipes should be avoided if possible by proper design. If such negative pressures
can not be avoided, they should be prevented from exceeding approximately
two-thirds of the difference between the barometric pressure and the vapour
pressure of the fluid.
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A pump is installed to impart a head rise of Hp to overcome the head losses

and to maintain a steady flow from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir.

Common types of pipe flow problems

Practical engineering pipe flow problems usually consist of:
(1)
calculation of head loss and pressure variation from known flow rate
and pipe characteristics;
(2)
calculation of flow rate based on known pipe characteristics and the
head which produces the flow; and
(3)
determination of an appropriate diameter for a pipe to carry a given
flow rate between two regions of known head difference.
The solution to the first type of problem may be obtained by direct computation.
Since the size, length and roughness of the pipe are given, the head loss can be
readily determined by the application of the standard head loss equation together
with consideration of minor losses.
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The solutions to the second and third types of problems require a trial-and-error
procedure since the friction factor f depends on Reynolds number which in turn
depends on flow rate and pipe diameter which are unknowns in those types of
problems. The majority of practical engineering pipe flow problems are for
fully developed turbulent flow at high Reynolds numbers. Therefore, the usual
procedure is to assume a reasonable value of f at high Reynolds numbers. This
leads to an estimated flow velocity V and the corresponding Reynolds number
enables a more accurate value of f and hence V and flow rate Q to be
determined. As f varies little within the high Reynolds number range, a third
trial calculation is rarely necessary.

Consider the calculation of the flow rate in a pipe connecting two reservoirs
with a difference in water level of H. The total head line for this pipe flow
problem is characterised by an abrupt drop at the entrance and the exit
representing minor losses due to the pipe transitions, and a gradual drop which
represents head loss due to surface resistance.

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According to the Bernoulli equation

p1
V12 p 2
V22
+ z1 +
=
+ z2 +
+ HL

2g

2g

H L = H LF + H LS = H
and
H = ( H LF ) entry + ( H LF ) exit + H LS
By using the appropriate expressions for the head losses due to surface
resistance,
L V2
H LS = f
D 2g
and loss coefficient CL for minor losses,

H LF

V2
= CL
2g

L V2

H = 0.5 + 1 + f

D 2g

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Considering the relative contributions of friction losses and minor losses in the
total head loss HL

L V2

H = H L = 0.5 + 1 + f
D 2g

assuming a friction factor f of 0.03 for a fully developed turbulent flow in the
pipe, the value in parentheses becomes 4.5, 31.5 and 301.5 for L/D of 100,
1,000, and 10,000 respectively. It can be seen that the inclusion of loss
coefficients of 0.5 and 1 respectively for the minor losses has a decreasing effect
as L/D increases. The omission of these minor losses would represent errors of
approximately 18%, 2% and 0.3% respectively in the velocity and flow rate. It
is generally accepted that for pipes with L/D greater than 1,000, the error
incurred by neglecting minor losses is less than that inherent in selecting a value
of f. Furthermore, the calculation procedure is simplified appreciably when
minor losses are ignored. While this approximation is convenient in solving
practical engineering pipe flow problems, it should be applied with cautions and
common sense; for example, a fully open valve is a minor loss but when it is
partially closed, it may be the most important loss in the pipe system. A
preliminary calculation such as that shown here will usually indicate the effect
of such an approximation on the accuracy of the result.
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