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INTRODUCTION
A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data between users. The
main field on which we were working was networking and the course was CCNA which includes all
the parts of networking.
In a typical LAN, there are various types of network devices available as outlined below.
Hub Repeat signals received on each port by broadcasting to all the other connected ports.
Bridge A layer 2 device used to connect different networks types or networks of the same type.
It maps the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each segment and allows only the
necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. Packet destined to the same segment is dropped.
This "store-and-forward" mechanism inspects the whole Ethernet packet before making a
decision. Unfortunately, it cannot filter out broadcast traffic. Also, it introduces a 20 to 30
percent latency when processing the frame. Only 2 networks can be linked with a bridge.
Switch Can link up four, six, eight or even more networks. Cut-through switches run faster
because when a packet comes in, it forwards it right after looking at the destination address
only. A store-and-forward switch inspects the entire packet before forwarding. Most switches
cannot stop broadcast traffic. Switches are layer 2 devices.
Routers:Can filter out network traffic also. However, they filter based on the protocol addresses
defined in OSI layer 3(the network layer), not based on the Ethernet packet addresses.
Brouter:Has the best features of both routers and bridges in that it can be configured to pass the
unroutable protocols by imitating a bridge, while not passing broadcast storms by acting as a
router for other protocols.
the appropriate stack for the other side. Gateways operate at all
2.NETWORK MODELS
Application
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Transport
Data link
Physical
Mac Addresses:
3
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses consist of a subset of data layer addresses. MAC addresses
identify network entities in LANs that implement the IEEE MAC addresses of the data link layer. As
with most data-link addresses, MAC addresses are unique for each LAN interface. Mac addresses are
46 bits in length and are expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits. The first 6 hexadecimal digits, which are
administrated by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or vendor and thus comprise the Organizationally
Unique Identifier (OUI). The last 6 hexadecimal digits comprise the interface serial number, or another
value administered by the
specific vendor.
LLC
sublayer
Data-link
addresses
MAC
sublayer
MAC
addresses
Mapping Addresses:
Because internetworks generally use network addresses to route traffic around the network, there is a
need to map network addresses to MAC addresses. Different protocol suites use different methods for
determining the MAC address of a device. The following three methods are used most often. Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) maps network addresses to MAC addresses. Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) is the method used I the TCP / IP suite. When a network device needs to send data to another
device on the same network, it knows the source and destination network addresses for the data
transfer.
layer coding and conversion schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of
character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption
schemes.
2.1.9 Application Layer:
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application.
This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically
include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication
IPv4
IPv6
- It is 32 bit long.
Support
broadcasting, it
A to E.
Performs
3.1 IP Address Classes:-IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely
Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP defines Class D for experimental purpose. TCP
/IP address contains two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network address and host address
as shown in figure
NETWORK ADDRESS
0 bits
HOST ADDRESS
31 bits
Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16- bit network
ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network ID and 8-bit of host ID.
1. Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary connectivity to the network
or non-permanent devices such as portable computer. The most common protocol used for assigning
Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP
address to the computer on lease basis.
Valid
Numbers
This
Class
Of Per Network
Network
8
1.0.0.0
126.0.0.0
128.0.0.0
191.255.0.0
192.0.0.0
to 27 2 (126)
14
to 2 (16,384)
21
to 2 (2097152)
224 -2
Few
(164,777,214)
216 -2 (65,534)
organizations
Medium-size
2 2 (254)
223.255.255.0
large
organizations
Relatively
small
organizations
2. Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in the network remains
for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent IP addresses which remain
allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Server.
Straight cable
Crossover cable
Rolled cable
1.Straight cable
It is used when we have to connect
.PC TO Switch
PC to Hub
Hub to Router
Switch to Router
Colour Coding for straight Cable
568B
(one end)
(other end)
(one end)
(other end)
Green/white
Green
Green/white
Green
Orange/white
Orange
Orange/white
Orange
Orange/white
Orange/white
Green/white
Green/white
10
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Orange
Brown/white
Orange
Brown/white
Green
Brown/white
Green
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
2.Crossover Cable
It is used when we have to connect:
PC to PC
Hub to Hub
Switch to switch
Router to Router
PC to Router
Hub to Switch
Colour Coding for Crossover cable
Green/white
Orange
Green
Green/white
Orange/white
Blue
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Green
Green
11
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
3.Rollover Cable
Rollover cable isnt used to connect any Ethernet connections together, but Rollover cable can be used
to connect a host to a router console serial communication (com) port.
NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover cables are not used for
data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables:
Brown
Orange/white
Brown
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown/white
Orange/white
Orange
Green/white
Green
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Orange
Orange/white
Green
Green/white
Brown/white
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown
Green/white
Brown
Orange/white
4. DHCP SERVER
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol that allocates IP address to computer on a
network. DHCP centralized the management of IP address allocation and reduces human error
associated with manual IP configuration. DHCP server supplies all the necessary networking parameters. Two things are always handed out as a part of DHCP configuration: IP address and subnet mask.
Further DHCP will frequently configure clients with optional values, such as a default gateway, DNS
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server address, and the address of a Window Internet Naming Server, if one is present. Scenario
showing DHCP server IP address allocation.
Working of DHCP Server
(i)DHCP Scope
(ii)DHCP Super Scope
(iii)Exclusion IP Range
(iv)DHCP Lease Time
(v)IP Reservation
5. ROUTER
5.1 Routers
In packet-switched networks such as the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software in a
computer, that determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its
destination.
The router is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to send each information
packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is
located at any gateway(where one network meets another), including each point-of-presence on the
Internet. A router is often included as part of a network switch .
A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and use this
information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet.
Typically, a packet may travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving at its
destination. Routing is a function associated with the Network layer (layer 3 ) in the standard model of
network programming, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. A layer-3 switch is a switch
that can perform routing functions.
Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the permanent read/write
memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS
(Internetwork Operating System).The size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory
is Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).
2.NVRAM
NVRAM is a Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store the startup configuration of
the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.
Primary RAM
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from different interfaces. Size of
RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB. The types of memory that may be present in a RAM
are:
(i)DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
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Mini IOS
.Cisco 2500, 1600
ROM MOW
333333 Router Interfaces & Ports
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Interface is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router. Interface will use protocol
stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the configuration of routers. Ports are not used to connect
different networks. The primary purpose of port is the management of router.
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes. According to the
modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
1.User mode
Router>
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test connectivity and
perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change and save router configuration.
2.Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task, debugging,
testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here configuration editing of the
router.
The command to enter in this mode is enable. We have to enter enable password or enable secret
password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority than enable password. If both
passwords are configured then only enable secret will work.
3.Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global parameters applied to
the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But here we cannot see and save the
changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security. The command
to enter in this mode is configure terminal
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5.3 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into smaller parts or
smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is done to reduce the wastage of IP
addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for an organization smaller networks are created
within a given huge network. Subnetting allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a
single Class A, B or C based networks. In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts;
network id and host id. This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network
size does not shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within
the network.
Size of the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage.
Reduce network traffic.
Easy to troubleshoot.
Reduce the wastage of IP address.
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2.Check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to binary format .for this
example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and the equivalent binary format is;
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3.Check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class B, 16 bits 2 octat are
for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id.
4.Now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that is power of 2 and greater
than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the network field which has to be borrowed from the
host id field.
5.The total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of additional bits required
for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is32-20=12. which defines whole address.
6.Hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in
decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)
Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
Subnet mask for n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is 11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192
range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
TABLE5.2: SHOWING subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address
Sub network
Val
Host
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.1
192.168.10.63
Broabroadcast Address
to
192.168.10.63
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192.168.10.64
192.168.10.65
to
192.168.10.126
192.168.10.12
192.168.10.129
192.168.10.127
to
192.168.10.190
192.168.10.193
192.168.10.19
192.168.10.254
192.168.10.191
to
192.168.10.255
5.3.3 VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The network having
more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host comes at last and for each
network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario given:
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6. ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Routing is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from one network to
another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process of routing. The dial-in properties
also allow for specific IP address to be assigned to a user. This is the only way in Window Server 2003
that you can assign a specific IP to a user. To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign
A Static IP Address and enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as
per user. By defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks. In an
internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for effort websites, there are
hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer configured as router. In simple words
Router is a computer with two network cards. These two network cards, then, are attached to two
different logical IP networks. The routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router.
Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to configure the router in order
for that router to pass along traffic to the proper network. There are two ways the routing table can be
built and modified: either manually or automatically.
To route the packet the router must know the following things:
Destination network
Static routing.
default routing.
Dynamic routing.
Default routing is also used for unknown destination. A special address is used to perform the default
routing ie 0.0.0.0.The scenario for default routing is same and but the commands used at the routers
having single exit interface like R1 and R3 have different commands.
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router#show ip route
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The protocol that are used to perform this type of routing are known as IGP(Interior Gateway
Protocol).
These protocols are:(i)RIPv1 (Routing Information Protocol Version 1)
(ii)RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2)
(iii)EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
(iv)OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
(v)IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
26
network is determined to be the best route. The vector indicates the direction to the remote network.
They send the entire routing table to directly connected neighbors.
Ex: RIP, IGRP.
The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing table contents to neighboring routers. A
router receiving an update from a neighbor router believes the information about remote networks
without actually finding out for itself. Its possible to have network that has multiple links to the same
remote network, and if thats the case, the administrative distance is checked first.
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Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work by broadcasting
periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadcast includes the complete routing table.
Routing loops can occur because a every router isnt updated simultaneously. Example: Routing
information protocol(RIP).
Hop Count
It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15 routers, if there is one
more router in the network then this routing will fails.
Timers of RIP
(i)Update timers.
(ii)Hold timers.
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(iii)Invalid timers.
(iv)Flush out timers.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed. Routers will enter into
the hold-down state when an update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable. This
continues until entire an update packet is received with a better metric or until the hold-down timer
expires. The default is 180 seconds.
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OSPF Terminology
Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an interface is added to the
OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link.
Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses the Router ID by using
the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no loopback interfaces are configured
with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP address of all active physical interfaces.
Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common network, such as two routers
connected on a point-to-point serial link.
Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange of route
updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing information unlike EIGRP, which directly shares
routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also
established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends upon both the type
of network and the configuration of the routers.
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The topology database contains information from all of the Link State Advertisement packets that have
been received for an area. The router uses the information from the topology database as input into the
Dijkstra algorithm that computes the shortest path to every network. LSA packets are used to update
and maintain the topology database.
A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containinglink-state and routing information
thats shared among OSPF routers. There are different types of LSA packets. An OSPF router will
exchange LSA packets only with routers to which it has established adjacencies. A designated router
(DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the same multi-access network. A prime
example is an Ethernet LAN. A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR onmultiaccess links The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers, but doesnt flood LSA
updates
OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the same area share a
common Area ID.
Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to connect to (or access) the
same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single packet is delivered to all nodes
on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be elected for each broadcast multi-access network.
Non-broadcast multi-access
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25, and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access,but have no broadcast
ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF configuration to function properly and
neighbor relationships must be defined.
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Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct connection between two
routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to- point connection can be physical, as in
a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it can be logical.
Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of connections between a
single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All of the interfaces on all of the routers
sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs
or BDRs are needed.
Benefits of OSPF
(i)Minimum routing updates.
(ii)Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii)The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination Router)
3.Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol. Ex: EIGRP
Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that gives us a real edge
over IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an autonomous system to describe the set of
contiguous routers that run the same routing protocol and share routing information. But unlike IGRP,
EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates. The advertisement of subnet information allows
us to use VLSM and summarization when designing our networks.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics of
both distance-vector and link-state protocols. It sends traditional distance-vector updates containing
information about networks plus the cost of reaching them from the perspective of the adverting router.
EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.
Support for IP, IPX, and AppleTalk via protocol-dependent modules Considered classless (same as
RIPv2 and OSPf).
1. Support for VLSM/CIDR
2. Support for summaries and discontiguous networks
3. Efficient neighbor discovery
4. Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)
5. Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
Cisco calls EIGRP a distance vector routing protocol, or sometimes an advanced distance vector or
even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports different Network layer protocols through the use
of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series of tables
35
containing the routing information that applies to a specific protocol. It means that there will be
IP/EIGRP tables, IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.
Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become neighbors.
There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship establishment:
Hello or ACK received AS numbers match
Identical metrics (K values)
To maintain the neighbor relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue receiving Hellos from their
neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous systems (ASes) dont automatically
share routing information and they dont become neighbors.
The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new neighbor and forms
an adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When this happens, both neighbors
advertise their entire routing tables to one another. After each has learned its neighbors routes, only
changes to the routing table are propagated from then on. EIGRP maintains three tables containing
information about the internetworks.
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a single factor to
compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a combination of four:
36
.Bandwidth
.Delay
.Load
37
7.SWITCH
Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segments. Smaller switches such as the
Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable of creating 24 different network segment for the LAN.
Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 6500 can have hundreds of ports. Switches can also be used
to connect LANs with different media, for example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet
LAN can be connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, which reduces
latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-forward traffic switching.
Finally switches reduce collision on network segment . A switch is a networking device which filters
and forward packets through the network. It is a layer 2 device. It is more advanced then hub but not as
advanced as router. The basic function of a switch is to manage the signal flow. When the switch is
open, it allows the signal to flow through it and when it is closed, it stops the signal to flow. Switch
connects separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A switch is a
hardware device that filters and forward data packets between network segments. Ethernet switches are
used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward the traffic on the basis of MAC address.
Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC addresses and port numbers are used to perform
switching decision.
passes the data, switch receives it. Switch than checks the MAC address of the destination system. It
then transfer data to device B only instead of broadcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only
to the system to witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network
link.
1.Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before forwarding the frame. If the
frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes
including the CRC), or has CRC error, it will be discarded. It has the lowest error rate but the longest
latency for switching. However, for high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet
network), the latency is not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is
supported by most switches.
2.Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as the destination MAC
address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes following the preamble). It has the highest error
rate (because a frame is forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but
the shortest latency for switching.
39
Most
new
switch
models
also
use store-and-
forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches use fragment-free switching
by default.
40
VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices, which are
member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices of different Vlan may
communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan devices will use different n/w
addresses.
Vlan provides following advantages: Logical Segmentation of network
Enhance network security
It can group devices based on the requirements other than their physical locations.
Since each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain, devices in different VLANs cannot listen or
respond to the broadcast traffic of each other.
Inter-VLAN communication can be controlled by configuring access control lists on the router
or Layer 3 switch connecting the VLANs.
1. Static VLAN
42
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set up and
manage.
2.Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the devices connected to the ports. A
VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and configure the
switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the MAC addresses of the
connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is called VLAN Management Policy Server
(VMPS).
Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridge table for each VLAN.
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8.CONCLUSION
8.1General Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics and
communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations are using
multiple computers within their departments to perform their day to day work. Computer network
allows the user to share data , share folders and files with other users connected in a network. Computer
Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking processes like LAN,
MAN, WAN.
8.2Applications
Communication Field
Industries
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Medical Field
Rsearch Field
Organisations
School
Colleges
9.BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.CCNA Routing and Switching IT Certifications and Career Paths" .
2."Cisco Evolves Associate-Level Certifications, Redesigns CCNA Routing and Switching
Certification to Support Next-Generation Job Roles"
3."Major Updates to Cisco CCNA Exams Announced".
4."Cisco Certification Agreements" . "Introduction Training Resources Cisco Systems" .
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