CHG 2314

Heat Transfer
Part 1 (Chapter 1)
Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
- Physical origins and rate equations
- Application of thermodynamics

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts - Introduction

What is heat transfer?

What is thermal energy?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference.

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and electronic
states of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter.
It represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is directly linked to the
temperature of matter.

What is a measure of heat transfer?

The measure of heat transfer is heat flow, q [W], which is evaluated from:

Driving force T
q

Resistance
Rt

Temperature difference
Expression for resistance depends
on the mode of heat transfer

What are the modes of heat transfer?

Heat conduction

Heat convection

Thermal radiation

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts - Modes of heat transfer

Conduction

Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas

or liquid) due to the random motion of its
constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons

Rate equation - Fouriers law of heat conduction

(1822)

For 1-D, steady conduction across a plane wall of

constant thermal conductivity:

qx k

T T
dT
q
k 2 1 where: qx
dx
L
A

Heat flux [W/m2]

Thermal conductivity [W/m K]
Wall thickness [m]

Area for conduction [m2]

A is perpendicular to
direction of heat flow

L is parallel to the
direction of heat flow
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts - Modes of heat transfer

Convection

Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk

and random motion of fluid flow over a surface
Rate equation - Newtons law of cooling:

q h Ts T
convective heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K]

Types of convection:

Forced convection: movement of

fluid due to external force h: large

Free convection: movement of fluid

temperature gradient h: small

Convection with phase change:

e.g., boiling, condensation h:
very large

NB: Advection: transfer of energy from one location to another as a side effect of physically moving an
object containing that energy
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts - Modes of heat transfer

Radiation

Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the

electron configurations of its atoms or molecules and is
transported as electromagnetic waves (or photons)
governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law
Surface may also absorb radiation incident from the
surroundings (irradiation, G)
Rate equation

Heat flux from surface at temperature Ts due to radiation emission:

qs E Eb Ts4
Emissive power [W/m2]

Surface emissivity [-]

Absolute temperature [K]

Stefan-Boltzmann constant [5.68 x 10-8 W/m2 K4]

Radiation exchange between two surfaces in a special case of one surface (at
Ts) surrounded by the other (at Tsur) and for smaller surface = (surface
absorptivity):

4
2
Ts4 Tsur
hr Ts Tsurr , where: hr Ts Tsurr Ts2 Tsurr
qrad
or qrad

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts - Heat transfer rates

General representation of rate equation

Regardless of the mode of heat transfer, the rate equation can be written as

Driving force T
q q" A

Resistance
Rt

The expression for Rt depends on the mode of heat transfer:

Conduction:

L
Rt
Ak

Convection:

1
Rt
Ahc

Radiation:

1
Rt
Ahr

Multiple heat transfer modes example heat transfer from a solid surface below:

Simultaneous (parallel) convection and

radiation from a surface at Ts:
"
"
"
4
qtot
qconv
qrad
h Ts T Ts4 Tsur

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Example 1 (Problem 1.9)

A glass window of width W = 1 m and height H = 2 m is 5 mm thick and has a thermal conductivity
of kg =1.4 W/m K. If the inner and outer surface temperatures of the glass are 15oC and -20oC,
respectively, on a cold winter day, what is the rate of heat transfer loss through the glass?
To reduce heat loss trough windows, it is customary to use a double pane construction in which
adjoining panes are separated by an air space. If spacing is 10 mm and the glass surfaces in contact
with air have temperatures of 10oC and -15oC, what is the rate of heat loss from a 1 m x 2 m
window? The thermal conductivity of air is ka = 0.024 W/m K.

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Example 2 (Problem 1.40)

Chips of width L = 15 mm on a side are mounted to a substrate that is installed in an enclosure
whose walls and air are maintained at a temperature of Tsur = T = 25C. The chips have an
emissivity of = 0.60 and a maximum allowable temperature of Ts = 85C.

a) If heat is rejected from the chips by radiation and natural convection, what is the maximum
operating power of each chip? The convection coefficient depends on chip-to-air temperature
difference and may be approximated as:
h CTs T

1/4

where: C 4.2W/m2 K5/4

b) If a fan is used to maintain airflow through the enclosure and the heat transfer is by forced
convection with h = 250 W/m2 K, what is the maximum operating power?
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

Deals with systems in equilibrium

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: when system A is in thermal equilibrium with

system B, then: TA = TB

Calculation of the energy required to change the system from one equilibrium state to
another
Does not provide information about the rate at which the change between states
occurs nor about the mechanism of energy flow

Heat transfer

Deals with non-equilibrium systems

Rate process which requires temperature gradient as a driving force

Rate process can be steady-state or transient (non steady state)

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only
changed from one form to another

First law will have a different form depending whether it refers to an open system or a
closed system

System is represented by
a control surface (dashed
line) at the boundaries.

In a closed system mass does not

flow across the control surface

In an open system mass can flow

across the control surface

First law can be expressed for a time interval (increase in amount of energy stored,
Est) or at an instant (rate of increase of energy stored, st)
Est has units of work [J]; st has units of power [W] and it is of interest in this course
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

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Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system at a time instant

Typically, the work done on or by the system (W) will be negligible in this class, thus:

Est

Energy (power) terms in this equation are related to surface and volumetric phenomena

Surface Phenomena

Volumetric Phenomena

Energy inflow (in) and energy outflow (out)

are the combination of heat transfer modes, i.e.
conduction, convection, radiation

dEst
Ein Eout Eg
dt

Energy generation (g) is associated with

converting chemical, electrical, nuclear energy into
thermal energy
Energy storage (st) is associated with kinetic,
potential and internal energy; in heat transfer
problems only internal energy (U) is important

If st = 0, the system is at steady state; if st 0, the system is at transient state

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

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Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

Application of 1st Law of Thermodynamics

First law is a starting point to determine temperature of the system as a function of

time and position; it leads to an ordinary or partial differential equation.

Electrical current starts passing through a long cylindrical rod that was initially in
thermal equilibrium with surrounding environment

Since no work is done on or by the system

1st Law for the system (incompressible)
within dashed line is:
dU
dT
Est
Vc
Ein Eg Eout
dt
dt

Where: Ein 0 why?

, c are the density, specific heat (for solids and
incompressible fluids, cp = cv = c) and V is the volume of
the system, respectively, and I and Re are the electrical
current and the electrical resistance per unit length.

Sub-in terms to the 1st Law leads

to the following ODE:

Vc

Eg I 2 Re' L
Eout qconv qrad

4
h DL T T DL T 4 Tsur

dT
4

I 2 Re' L DL h T T T 4 Tsur

dt

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

12

Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

1st Law of Thermodynamics for an open system at a time instant

Mass flow across the system boundary provides

for the transport of kinetic and potential energy
into and out of the system

Referring to the figure, at steady state

the 1st Law of thermodynamics becomes:

V2
V2
m u pv
gz m u pv
gz q W 0
2
2

in

out
u = specific internal energy
pv = specific flow work*

u + pv = i = specific enthalpy

* work done by pressure forces moving the fluid through the system

V2/2 = the specific kinetic energy

gz = the specific potential energy
W = the work done by the system

In the case of heat exchangers (open system of interest in this course) the 1st Law
of thermodynamics simplifies to:

V2

V2

mi
gz m i
gz q W 0 m iin iout q 0 q mc p Tout Tin
2
2

in

out
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

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Basic Concepts Application of

thermodynamics

Surface energy balance

Thickness of surface is zero; thus volume

of even infinite surface area is still

As already indicated energy generation (g) and

energy storage (st) are volumetric phenomena,
which require a non-zero volume

If the chosen system is a surface (as on

the figure), which is closed system, the 1st
Law of thermodynamics becomes:

Est Ein Eout Eg Ein Eout 0

Surface energy balance has the same form at steady and transient state; it may be used
to determine the temperature at a given instant, which may be constant or vary with time.

Surface energy balance of the system shown in the figure can also be written as:

q "cond q "conv q "rad 0

k
T1 T2 h T1 T T14 Tsur4
L

University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

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Example 3 (Problem 1.64)

A spherical, metal canister is used to store reacting chemicals that provide for a uniform heat
flux to its inner surface. The canister is suddenly submerged in a liquid bath of temperature
T < Ti, where Ti is the initial temperature of the canister wall.

a) Assuming negligible temperature gradients in the canister wall and a constant heat flux,
develop an equation that governs the variation of the wall temperature with time during
"
the transient process. What is the initial rate of change of the wall temperature if q i = 10 5
W/m2?
b) What is the steady-state temperature of the wall?
c) What would be the steady state temperature of the canister if it was removed from the
liquid bath to a cold room in which T = 263 K, h = 80 W/m2 K, Tsur = 268 K. Use surface
emissivity of canister, = 0.9.
University of Ottawa, CHG 2314, B. Kruczek

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