An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water.

Communities of organisms that

are dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two
main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.[1]
Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They
include oceans, salt marshes,intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep
sea, and the sea floor. They can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a
lower salt content. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are
considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa. See food
chains.
Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial
environments. According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for
approximately 1/3 of all marine biological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt marshes,
seagrasses, mangrove forests) are among the most productive regions on the planet. In addition,
other marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, provide food and shelter to the highest levels of
marine diversity in the world.[1]

Large marine ecosystems (LMEs) are regions of the world's oceans, encompassing
coastal areas from river basins and estuaries to the seaward boundaries ofcontinental
shelves and the outer margins of the major ocean current systems. They are relatively large
regions on the order of 200,000 km or greater, characterized by distinct bathymetry,
hydrography, productivity, and trophically dependent populations.
The system of LMEs has been developed by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) to identify areas of the oceans for conservation purposes. The
objective is to use the LME concept as a tool for enabling ecosystem-based management to
provide a collaborative approach to management of resources within ecologically-bounded
transnational areas. This will be done in an international context and consistent with
customary international law as reflected in 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.[1]
Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They
include lakes and ponds, rivers, streams,springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted
with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can be
classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, and vegetation.

Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic ecosystems (still water) and lotic
ecosystems (flowing water).
Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is a study about freshwater ecosystems. It is
a part of hydrobiology.
Original efforts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by
threats to human health (ex. Cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination). Early
monitoring focussed on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and
protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves differing groups of organisms
(macroinvertebrates,macrophytes and fish) and the stream conditions associated with them.
A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well
as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. [1]
Lake ecosystems are a prime examples of lentic ecosystems. Lentic refers to standing or
relatively still water, from the Latinlentus, which means sluggish. Lentic waters range
from ponds to lakes to wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in
general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing
terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two fields form the more
general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology.
The ecosystem of a river is the river viewed as a system operating in its natural
environment, and includes biotic(living) interactions amongst plants, animals and microorganisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. [1][2]
River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water,
from the Latin lotus, washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimeters wide to
major rivers kilometers in width.[3] Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general,
including related lotic systems such as streams and springs. Lotic ecosystems can be
contrasted with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as
lakes and ponds. Together, these two fields form the more general study area of freshwater
or aquatic ecology.
The following unifying characteristics make the ecology of running waters unique from that
of other aquatic habitats.[4]

Flow is unidirectional.

There is a state of continuous physical change.

There is a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity at all scales

(microhabitats).

Variability between lotic systems is quite high.

The biota is specialized to live with flow conditions.

A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally,
such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem.[2] Primarily, the factor that
distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the
characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants,[3][4] adapted to its unique hydric soil. Wetlands
play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, and
shoreline stability. Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all
ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. [5] Wetlands occur
naturally on every continent except Antarctica,[6] the largest including the Amazon River
basin, the West Siberian Plain,[7]and the Pantanal.[8] The water found in wetlands can
be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.[4] The main wetland types
includeswamps, marshes, bogs, and fens;[9] and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin,
and varzea. They can also be constructed artificially as a water management tool, which
may play a role in the developing field of water-sensitive urban design. The UN Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent
within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth.
International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of
rapid assessment tools to inform people about wetland issues. [citation needed]
A terrestrial ecosystem is an ecosystem found only on landforms. Six primary terrestrial
ecosystems exist: tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, tropical rain
forest, grassland and desert.[1]
A community of organisms and their environment that occurs on the land masses of
continents and islands. Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems
by the lower availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting
factor. Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both
a diurnal and seasonal basis than occur in aquatic ecosystems in similar climates. The
availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because
the atmosphere is more transparent in land than in water. Gases are more available in
terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems. Those gases include carbon dioxide that

serves as a substrate for photosynthesis, oxygen that serves as a substrate in aerobic

respiration, and nitrogen that serves as a substrate for nitrogen fixation. Terrestrial
environments are segmented into a subterranean portion from which most water and ions
are obtained, and an atmospheric portion from which gases are obtained and where the
physical energy of light is transformed into the organic energy of carbon-carbon bonds
through the process of photosynthesis.
Terrestrial ecosystems occupy 55,660,000 mi2 (144,150,000 km2), or 100%, of Earth's
surface. Although they are comparatively recent in the history of life (the first terrestrial
organisms appeared in the Silurian Period, about 425 million years ago) and occupy a much
smaller portion of Earth's surface than marine ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems have
been a major site of adaptive radiation of both plants and animals. Major plant taxa in
terrestrial ecosystems are members of the division Magnoliophyta (flowering plants), of
which there are about 275,000 species, and the division Pinophyta (conifers), of which there
are about 500 species. Members of the division Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts), of
which there are about 24,000 species, are also important in some terrestrial ecosystems.
Major animal taxa in terrestrial ecosystems include the classes Insecta (insects) with about
900,000 species, Aves (birds) with 8500 species, and Mammalia (mammals) with
approximately 4100 species.
A forest is a large area of land covered with trees or other woody vegetation. [1] Hundreds of
more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such
as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. [2][3][4] According
to the widely-used[5][6] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests
covered an area of four billion hectares (15 million square miles) or approximately 30
percent of the world's land area in 2006. [4]
The littoral zone is the part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. In coastal
environments the littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated,
to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged. It always includes this intertidal
zone and is often used to mean the same as the intertidal zone. However, the meaning of
"littoral zone" can extend well beyond the intertidal zone.
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and
a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen
terrestrial biomes of the earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins
and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic plants. Riparian

zones are significant in ecology, environmental management, and civil engineering because
of their role in soil conservation, their habitatbiodiversity, and the influence they have
on fauna and aquatic ecosystems, including grassland, woodland, wetlandor even nonvegetative. In some regions the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian
buffer zone, orriparian strip are used to characterize a riparian zone. The word "riparian"
is derived from Latin ripa, meaning river bank.
Subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems, or "SLIMEs" (also abbreviated
"SLMEs" or "SLiMEs"), are defined by Edward O. Wilson as "unique assemblages
of bacteria and fungi that occupy pores in the interlocking mineral grains of igneous rock
beneath Earth's surface."[1]
Urban ecosystems are the cities, towns, and urban strips constructed by humans.
This is the growth in the urban population and the supporting built infrastructure has affected both
urban environments and also on areas which surround urban areas. These include semi or 'periurban' environments that fringe cities as well as agricultural and natural landscapes.
Scientists are now developing ways to measure and understand the effects of urbanisation on
human and environmental health.
By considering urban areas as part of a broader ecological system, scientists can investigate how
urban landscapes function and how they affect other landscapes with which they interact. In this
context, urban environments are affected by their surrounding environment but also affect that
environment. Knowing this may provide clues as to which alternative development options will lead
to the best overall environmental outcome.
CSE's urban ecosystem research is focused on:

Understanding how cities work as ecological system

Developing sustainable approaches to development of city fringe areas that reduce negative
impact on surrounding environments

Developing approaches to urban design that provide for health and opportunity for citizens.

A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living
conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the
unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one third of the
land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the polar regions where
little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called "cold deserts". Deserts can be
classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that prevails, by the
causes of desertification or by their geographical location.