PROCESS CONTROL Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance Thomas E. Marlin MeMaster University McGraw-Hill, Inc, New York St. Louis San Prancisoo Auckland Bogotd Caracas “Lisbon ‘London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto“This book was set in Times Roman by Publication Services, Inc. ‘The editors wore BJ. Clark and John M. Morris: the preisction supervisor was Kathryn Pozi. ‘The cover was designed by Initial Graphic Systems, Ic Project supervision was done by Publication Services, Ine. RR, Donnelley & Sons Company was printer and binder. PROCESS CONTROL Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance Copyright ©1995 by McGraw Hil, Ine, Al rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America, Excep as permitted under the United Sites Copyright Act of 1976, no part of thie publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or ‘Stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the proe written permission ofthe pab- lisher. ‘This book is printed on acid-free paper. 4567890 DOCDOC 9098 ISBN 0-07-040491-7, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Matlin, 7. Process con: designing processes and contro systems for dynamic performance / “Thomas Matin, P._ cm-—(McGraw-Hill chemical engineering series) Includes index ISBN 0.07-040491.7 1. Chemical process control. 1. Series TPISS75M365— 1995 6607 2815420 94.45967 ABOUT THE AUTHOR ‘Thomas E. Marlin is Professor of Chemical Engineering at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, where he holds the NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Process Control. He received his Ph.D. degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Massachusetts in 1972, after which he applied advanced process con- trol in industry for 15 years. In 1987, he served as the Visiting Fellow for a Warren Centre Study of process automation in Australia that identified potential benefits and. technology needs in a wide range of industries, He is currently Director of the Me- Master Advanced Control Consortium, a group of university personnel and industrial companies collaborating on automation research for the process industries. His re- search interests include real-time advanced control and optimization. In addition to teaching university undergraduate and graduate courses, Dr. Marlin consults widely and teaches numerous industrial short courses on control technology, control benefits analysis, and plant operations optimization, viia CONTENTS Preface Part intro iction 1 Introduction to Process Control 1 12 us 4 15 16 U7 18 19 110 Introduction ‘What Does a Control System Do? Why Is Control Necessary? Why Is Control Possible? How Is Control Done? Where Is Control Implemented? ‘What Does Control Engineering “Engineer”? How Is Process Control Documented” ‘What Are Some Sample Control Strategies? Conclusions 2 Control Objectives and Benefits 24 23 24 25 26 Introduction Control Objectives Determining Plant Operating Conditions Benefits for Controt Importance of Control Engineering Conclusions __Process Dynami: 3 Mathematical Modelling Principles 31 32 33 Introduction A Modelling Procedure Modelling Examples 4 3 3 4 ixi 34 35 36 37 Linearization ‘Numerical Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations “The Operating Window and Operating Point Conclusions 4° Modelling and Analysis for Process Control a 42 43 44 45 46 Introduction The Laplace Transform Tnput-Output Models and Transfer Functions Block Diagrams Frequency Response Conclusions 5 Dynamic Behavior of Typical Process Systems si 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Introduction Basie System Elements Series Structures of Simple Systems Parallel Structures of Simple Systems Recycle Structures Staged Processes Multiple Input-Multiple Output Systems Conclusions 6 Empirical Model Identification GL 62 63 6a 63 66 Introduction ‘An Empirical Model Buulding Procedure “The Process Reaction Curve ‘Statistical Model Identification ‘Additional Topics in Identification Conclusions Part II|__Feedback Control 7 The Feedback Loop aM 72 73 74 1s 16 1 Introduction Process and Instrument Elements ofthe Feedback Loop Block Diagram Control Performance Measures for Common Input Changes, Selection of Variables for Control ‘Approaches to Process Control Conclusion 8 The PID Algorithm 8 82 83 84 Introduction Desired Features of a Feedback Control Algorithm Proportional Mode Integral Mode 4 7 93 98 107 107 108 123 128 BI 139 148, 148, 149 156 166 13 176 183 185 196 196 197 201 210 218 220 29 233 233 24 29 242 288 253 237 263 263 264 266 270 10 u 12 85 Derivative Mode 86 The PID Contoller 8.7 Analytical Expression fora Closed-Loop Response 8.8 Importance ofthe PID Controller 89 — Conclusion PID Controller Tuning for Dynamic Performance 9.1 Introduction 9.2. Factors in Controller Tuning 9.3 Determining Tuning Constants that Give Good Control Performance 94 Contelations for Tuning Constants 95 FineTuning the Controller Tuning Constants 9.6 Conclusions Stability Analysis and Controller Tuning 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Concept of Stability 10.3 Stability of Linear Systems—A Simple Example 10.4 Stability Analysis of Linear and Linearized Systems 10.5 Stability Analysis of Control Systems: Principles 10.6 Stability Analysis of Control Systems: The Bode Method 10.7 Controller Tuning Based on Stability: Ziegler-Nichols Closed-Loop 10.8 Conuoller Tuning and Stahility—Same Important Interpretations 109 Additional Tuning Methods in Common Use, with a Recommendation 10.10 Conclusion Digital Implementation of Process Control 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Structure ofthe Digital Control System 11.3 Effects of Sampling a Continuous Signal 114 The Discrete PID Contol Algorithm 11.5 Effects of Digital Control on Stability, Tuning, and Performance 11.6 Example of Digital Control Strategy 11.7 Trends in Digital Control 18 Conclusions Practical Application of Feedback Control 12.1 Introduction 122 Equipment Specification 123 Input Processing 124 Feedback Contol Algorithm 12.5 Output Processing 126 Conclusions mm 24 276 280 281 287 287 288 290 299 309 315 323 323 324 324 326 329 334 350, 355 366 369 a7 377 378 32 386 388 393 398 395 401 401 403 407 418 424 42413 Performance of Feedback Control Systems 13.1. Introduction 132 Control Performance 133 Control Performance via Closed-Loop Frequency Response 134 Control Performance via Closed-Loop Simulation 13.5. Process Factors Influencing Single-Loop Control Performance 136 Control System Factors Influencing Control Performance 13.7 Conclusions 431 431 432 434 448 457 462 Part IV__Enhancements to Single-Loop PID Control an 14 Cascade Control 14.1 Introduction 142 AnExample of Cascade Control 143 Cascade Design Criteria. 144 Cascade Performance 145 Controller Algorithm and Tuning 14.6 implementation ses 17 Further Cascade Examples TER Catead Come nese os Disbated Deion Making 149 Conclusions 15 Feedforward Control 15.1 Introduction 152 An Example and Controller Derivation 1583 Feedforward Control Design Criteria, 15.4 Feedforward Performance 155 Controller Algorithm and Tuning 1546 Implementation Issues 15.7 Further Feedforward Examples 158 Feedforward Control Is General 159 Conclusions 16 Adapting Single-Loop Control Systems for Nonlinear Processes 16.1 Ttroduction 162 Analyzing « Nonlinear Process with Linear Feedback Control ve 16.3. Improving Nonlinear Process Performance though Deterministic Coot Lop Cautions 16.44 Improving Nonlinear Process Performance through Calculations of the Measured Variable 16.5 Improving Nonlinear Process Performance through Final Element Selection 415 415 416 49 480 487 488 490 496 498 504 504 508 508 sil 513 516 317 524 527 532 532 533 538 540 sa 7 18 19 20 16.6 Improving Nonlinear Process Performance through Cascade Design sa7 167 _ Real-Time Implementation Issues 548 168 Additional Topics in Contol Loop Adaptation 348 169 Conclusions 350 Inferential Control 355 17 troduction 555 172 An Example of Inferential Consol 387 173 ferential Control Design Criteria 5362 17.4 Implementation Isues 64 175 Inferential Control Example: Distillation 365 176 Inferesial Control Example: Chemical Reactor 370 17.7 Inferential Contol Example: Fired Heater 313 178 Additional Topics in Terentia Control 375 179° Conclusions 316 Level and Inventory Control sa 18.1 Towoduetion 381 18.2 Reasons for Inventories in Plants 582 183 Level Processes and Controllers 34 184 A Nonlinear Proportional-Iategral Controller 387 185 Matching Controller Tuning o Performance Objectives 588 186 Determining Inventory Size 593 187 Implementation Issues 505 188 Vessels in Series 595 189 Conclusions 598 Single-Variable Model Predictive Control con 19.1 Introduction 60s 192 The Model Predictive Control Stucture 60s 193. The IMC Controller si 194 The Smith Predictor 620 195 Implementation Guidelines 624 196 Algorithm Selection Guidelines on 19.7 Additional Topies in Single-Loop Model Predictive Control 629 198 Conclusions 630 Uti ible Control 635 Multiloop Control: Effects of Interaction 639 20.1 Introduction 639 202 Modelling and Transfer Functions 641 20.3 Influence of Imeraction onthe Possibility of Feedback Comtot ou 204 Process Interaction: Important Effects on Multivariable ‘System Behavior os 205 Process Interaction: The Relative Gain Array (RGA) 654xiv covresrs 206 207 208 [Effect of Interaction on Stability and Tuning of Multiloop Control Systems ‘Additional Topics in Interaction Analysis Conclusions 21 Multiloop Control: Performance Analysis 24 212 213 214 21s 216 27 218 Introduction Demonstration of Key Multloop Issues “Maltiloop Control Performance through Loop Pairing Multloop Control Performance through Tuning. Maliloop Control Performance through Enhancements Decoupling ‘Maltiloop Control Performance through Enhancements: Single-Loop Enhancements ‘Additional Topics in Muliloop Performance Conclusion 22. Variable-Structure and Constraint Control 24 22 na 24 2s Introduction Split Range Control for Processes with Excess Manipulated Variables Signal Select Control for Processes with Excess Controlled Variables Applications of Variable-Structure Methods for Constraint Control Conclusions 23° Centralized Multivariable Control 2. 232 23 24 235 236 237 238 Part VI_Pr Inuroduetion ‘Multivatiable Predictive Control ‘An Alternative Dynamic Modelling Approach ‘The Single-Variable Dynamic Matrix Control (DMC) Algorithm ‘Multivatiable Dynamic Matrix Control Implementation Issues in Dynamic Matrix Control Extensions to Basic Dynamic Matrix Control Conclusions cess Control Desi: 24 Process Control Design: Definition and Decisions 24 242 243 244 245 246 Introduction Defining the Design Problem Measurements Final Elements Process Operability Control Structure 658 669 673 682 682 683 702 703 m m™m 113 m4 na ns ns 735 740 745 74s 146 18 752 162 166 169 70 ns 19 n9 780 785 789 m2 809 24.7 Control Algorithms 248 Control for Safety 24.9 Performance Monitoring 24.10 The Flash Example Revisited 24.11 Conclusion 25 Process Control Design: Managing the Design Procedure 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Defining the Design Problem 25.3 Sequence of Design Steps 254 Temporal Hierarchy of Control Structure 25.5 Process Decomposition 25.6 Integrating the Control Design Methods 25.7 Example Design: Chemical Reactor with Recycle 258 Summary of Key Design Guidelines 25.9 Conclusions 26 Continual Improvement 26.1 Introduction 262 Optimization 26.3 Statistical Process Control (SPC) 264 Conclusions 812 814 B18 21 22 836 836 837 840 Ba 847 849 851 864 866 a7 871 sn 886 893 Appendixes ly A D E Process Control Drawings AL Identification Let ‘2 Final Element ‘3 Process Equipment Integrating Factor Chemical Reactor Modelling and Analysis C1 Energy Balance C2 Multiple Steady States C3 Continuous Oscillations Due to Limit Cycles C4 The Bffect of Recycle : C5 Conclusion Methods of Moments Determining Controller Constants to Satisfy Performance Specifications E1 Simulation of the Contoled System Tansient Response E.2 Optimization of the Tuning Constants ” 900 900 902 903 905 907 907 909 912 913 916 918xvi contents a 5 ee ee Discrete Models for Digital Control 928. 929 PREFACE [_ 5 G Guide to Selected Process Examples ae a (CSTR) oa H_ Model for Flash Process i 2 Sctoe2 oe Automation via feedback principles is not new. Early application of automatic a Le the nineteenth century, when machinery was becoming the dominant method for ‘manufacturing goods. Great advances have been made in theory and practice, so Ind eee automotive speed control and as excitin, 1g as the navigation of interplanetary ex- great change over the recent years is the —role of automation in our daily lives and industrial ploration and telecommunications. The integral—at times essential: systems, Process control is a subdiscipline of automatic control that involves the se lection and tailoring of methods for the efficient operation of chemical processes, Proper application of process control can improve the safety and profitability of Process while maintaining consistently high product quality. The automation of se. lected functions has relieved plant personnel of tedious, routine tasks, providing them With time and data to monitor and supervise operations. Essentially every chemical engineer designing or operating plants is involved with, and requires some expe tise in, process control. This book provides an introduction to process control with emphasis on topics that are of use to the general chemical engineer as well as the specialist. GOALS OF THIS BOOK Since many process control books already exis, itis worthwhile commenting on the goals ofthis book, Most university textbooks present essentially the same principles in contrast, books written for practitioners tend to concentrate on heuristics and case Studies, The intent of this book is to present the full complement of fundamental Principles with clear ties to application and with guidelines on theit reduction to Practice. The presentation is based on four basic tenets, xvii ftFundamentals . ri engines mst mst he faenal contol slg Bess sacra oto heute that ean srve hem trough ci eaers. (Tics that se Shrcatarby denon nae Sesh oan mst presented with mathematical rigor, the mathematical tools—basically modelling i Serena equations are reviewed inte arr chapten. The auomaton pn ices sti eae coal a othe med {Ste bck progres ial t may be wort empaizing tat these paeiples ae Joy mallee simpler approaches solving sng ars Practice : application. Aso, the Fundamental concept canbe best reinforced and enriched Complexity ‘The presentation in his hook follows the guideline, “Everything should be made as simple possible, and no simple” Naturally. many iss ae esi resolved us ing suightforward analysis methods. However the engineer must understand the complenity of automating system, because closed-form mathematica sautions dk natex athe ese tne or feedback on praes. Tis staan se ‘countered in addressing the latter topics of multivariable control and control desig Design Desisacasme top ates nie sp ban pet ca Hirth aig compere desig tho forming eras imetcking dig sss presented, lng wh ep yep apache thcengiserthogh lem dion, petininay palo eres of ea Scat and seeing ces am cont sites. Many ui Foc na examples id he Ser nang weld ia nd ening them thugh eration o achieve the design goals 2 0 he goals of process conto in Part ‘the book bens with rie introduction hes na Iewhich emphasizes the close relationship between the process and is automaton rassce xix Parts If and Ill present the fundamentals of mathematical modelling, stability anal- ysis, and analytical and numerical solutions of differential equations, whereas the engineering practice is addressed in the tuning, applications issues, and digital im. plementation chapters. Part IV presents enhancements such as cascade, feedforward, and adaptive tuning in a manner that reinforces the fundamental role of feedback, builds on its strengths, and compensates for its limitations. The level of complex. ity increases significantly in Part V on multivariable control. Analysis methods are given that provide a firm fundamental understanding and are useful in making many decisions, but it is recognized that the final control system and tuning may require some trial and error via simulation or plant trials. All parts provide intermediate prac tical design results, and Part VI addresses the topic of design from a rather broad per. spective that chooses control calculations, sensors, final elements, control structure, and even the process itself to achieve good dynamic performance. THE READERS Hopefully, readers with different backgrounds will find value in this treatment of Drocess contol. A few comments are now addressed tothe three categories of likely readers of this book: university students, instructors, and practitioners. (Perhaps the comments willbe of interest to all readers) Students Process control can be one of the most interesting and enjoyable courses in the cur- riculum. In this course you begin to apply the skills built in fluid mechanics, heat transfer, thermodynamics, mass transfer, and reactor design to process systems and. begin to consider how they should be designed and operated in realistic situations: ‘when goals change and disturbances occur. This presentation emphasizes the cen tral role of the process in the performance of control systems. Process control is not (merely) the study of algorithms, because the process dynamic response plays an integral part of every process control system. Therefore, quantitative understanding using dynamic models is introduced early and used throughout the book. To help the ‘student, realistic process systems are used as examples, Several example processes are used repeatedly in the book, and the student can refer to Appendix G fora puide to these key example processes In this topic the student may notice a subtle difference in emphasis from other Courses. Fist, process control is often concemed with operating plants in which ‘Process equipment has been built and can be modified only at considerable cost {asthe proper answer tothe question, “How can the exchanger outlet temperature be raised to 56°C?” is not, “Increase the heat transfer area rather, the heating FiRu™ flow rate should be modified. Thus, the variables available for change are fifferent in the plant operations situation. Also, process control must operate ever enue range of conditions in which the process behavior will change: thus, the crakear must design controls for good performance with an imperiect knowledge ofthe plant. Deciding operation policies for imperfectly known, nonlinear procestes [is challenging but provides an excellent opportunity to apply skills from previous courses, while building expertise in process control. Instructors ; mals and practice to enable is book is intended Io provide basis of fandamentals an ; Uevmaacrt mul ue meg the nets and negra with te sricula of most departments. It is expected that each instructor will Init the eng viet or pc sl, pers ling mo rh ‘on instrumentation, mathematical analysis, or a special process type ee 7 pulp her hach rasp cei. Te anneal wis ave raed to emblesubsqucnt ty of many PoCESES, van ae tints pat of the Hook allows the selection of materia most sited in euler considerably greats coverage of sngle-nop enancemens uti cnt and onl deg thas oer, Ti xeon edo ssn errs npr deta sosnge tant has bon excluded fo ise. The bk presents ancl meds oct Tee Sytem an, here necessary, ponies te dere formulation o Sgn ed pementaton Tos te te le tra te nt sascade, feedforward, gait iul- srt with antrest windup in singlelp. ch ing desptng ne sates we sy sine op IMC bua iin Ashen le stew le con ystems em eaten model using the fan squares metho. Ts gute Su ‘ndrgradste lve +a tec eveting th abe of conten, the instructor may ask where the hot tpc of iui ais Teaver hyve” Moding rig wh tent wos examples he eles finer broee Tmo he cy fa recs of ami tts TS ans mins thughothebosk se ew mousse inal tone Sopmodsing, ak cn prornce dened inde heer a inpartant ais letond mile fer vars proces mans i infeam menoemen ne, Ege tied nh aera en he eal eats of foeck slgrdims and open to more advanced analysis using she level mathemati! wel = fe materi cone ceil xceals at nesesay fo sige seme couse Min tts wan ser Pars though one “StSed ops othe emir of the tok fis cone A seinen Src an bul nh ly sl sn espn mater long wh ome Tar sili aeh chal oceesas Bay dst. ly, oe ts in ti ola te aft scons pi es Ime tsgh cob me th pres eng cue Cy. ear econ. nanipulatdvarble selection, and inferential mono eet anata proce design In adiion, the analysis of operaing rreeace xxi dows, degrees of freedom, and controltabilit grams used in a design course. The calculations associated with process control analysis can sometimes be Performed by hand for simple systems. However, these calculations stability analysis, frequency response, and dynamic responses—are complex and time consuming for most realistic systems; they must be performed by computer, To facilitate process control education, a complementary Software Laboratory and Workbook are available for use at universities. With this software, students can repeat over 100 textbook examples and the Workbook suggests many extensions to investigate additional issues, The Software and Workbook can be obtained by contacting a McGraw-Hill representative or the author. ty is facilitated by the flowsheeting pro- Practitioners ‘This book should be useful to practitioners who are building their skills in process Control. Fundamental theoretical concepts are reduced to practice throughout: in em. Pirical modelling; controller tuning; filtering; designing enhancements such as cas. ‘cade and feedforward; modifying methods for special situations such as level control, selecting loop pairings; and control system design. The development of practical cor. relations, design rutes, and guidelines is explained so that the engineer understands the basis, correct application, and limitations of each, This book includes more mod- elling and analysis, such as frequency response, than is typical for practitioners. Its my strong belief that these topics are essential for good engineering practice; in fact, one industrial challenge problem, recently defined by Tennessee Eastman, specifies control performance not only as the variability of selected variables but also as the frequency range of the variability (Downs, J., and E. Vogel, “A Plant-wide Indus- trial Process Control Problem,” Comp. Chem. Eng., 17, 245-255, 1993). Hopefully, the emphasis on the interpretation of the amplitude ratios (eg, in Chapter 13) ‘convince the reader of the merit in learning and using these concepts, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. am pleased to acknowledge the helpful comments and suggestions of many col- leagues. The following people reviewed drafts of this book and used it in teaching undergraduate courses: Yaman Arkun, Ali Cinar, Will Cluett, Andy Hrymak, Tom MeAvoy, Jim McLellan, Michel Perrier, Andrew Ogden-Swift, and Russ Rhinehart, ey Provided many corrections and suggestions, which improved the final product ‘Naturally, any remaining errors are my responsibility Also, many students have used early drafts ofthe book and have, through their ‘mestions, indicated where the explanations fell short of complete clarity ‘The Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada provides the opportunity for experienced practitioners to return to university teaching and ‘search through their Industrial Research Chair program. Without this program, I ‘Would not have enjoyed the stimulating environment at McMaster University with, =| xxli_oREFACE among ethers, Cam Crowe, Andy Frymak, John MacGregor and Pal Talo, nor ‘ten this book erty vou like wacked te grat asitane povided me by two mentors. Professor Tom McAvoy has always set high a aa oo nga ea enienng ples his poet sere grey when TEESE att parte nth tok ne see i a demanding admis ve ystion, Dr Ni Fal pe of he ost pasion of proces on sent sinded ‘me that good control theory must work in the plant ae ren eis ook pises on some ofthe Rents fom colaoration i fine engineers. PART FEEDBACK I Ferdi hot oe dtine mn te cnet Ss conte, Bu i also applies (0 a ood texto sie in rerun suggenions fom readers and can assre you that they wil be considered ae vont met INTRODUCTION I here is an old adage, “If you do not know where you are going, any path will do." In other words, a good knowledge of the goal is essential before one ad dresses the details ofa task. Engineers should keep this adage in mind when studying ‘anew, complex topic, because they can easily become too involved inthe details and lose track of the purpose of learning the topic. Process contra requires the application of previously studied principles in mathematics and the engineering sciences when eaming the new concepts associated with the dynamic operation of process systems Thus, the topic offers many interesting details, and the challenge to the reader is to eam these details as essential elements leading to the ultimate goal. Process control troduced inthis first, brief part of the book so thatthe reader will understand the overall goal of process automation and appreciate the need for the technical rigor of the subsequent pars, The study of process control introduces a new perspective to the mastery of Process systems: dynamic operation. Prior engineering courses in the typical cur. Ficulum concentrate on steady-state process behavior, which simplifies early study Of processes and provides a basis for establishing proper equipment sizes and de. {ermining the best constant operating conditions. However, no process operates at a 1 > -