Andrey Elenkov's Measurement and Instrumentation Lectures

WELLCOME !
I am:
Andrey Elenkov
Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Technical University of Sofia
Room 2448
Contacts / Councils :
Tuesday 12:00 - 14:00h
Thursday 12:00 - 14:00h
Measurement and
Instrumentation
4-th semester Part 2
Lectures part 2
15 hours/ 7 weeks tutor Assoc.Prof.Dr. Andrey Elenkov
Laboratory works
start 3-th week
Exam end of the semester

part 1 + part 2 R. Dinov, (A. Elenkov)
Sources:
Main:
Measurement and Instrumentation Part 2, edited by N.Kolev,

Technical University of Sofia, 2006
Measurement and Instrumentation Part 1, edited by N.Kolev, Technical University of

Sofia, 2006
John Bentley, Principles of measurement Systems, Longman Scientific @ Technical 1992
Doebelin E.O. Measurement Systems, Application and Design, IV edition, McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company, 1990
Galeyer J.F.W., C.R. Shotbolt, Metrology for Engineers, Cassel Publishers Limited, London,
1990
Anthony D.M. Engineering metrology. Pergamon Press, oxford, 1992

Auxiliary:
George Barney, Intelligent Instrumentation microprocessor applications in measurement and

control, Prentice Hall International, University Press, Cambridge, 1990.
John Fulcher, Microcomputer Systems Architecture and interfacing, Addison- Wesley Publishing
company, 1991
Optical Methods in Engineering Metrology, Edited by D.C.Williams, Chapman&Hall, 1993
Dakin J., Culshaw B., Optical Fiber Sensors: Principles and Components, vol.1, Artech House, Inc.,
Norwood, 1988
Part 2
Andrey Elenkov
8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

MEASUREMENTS
8.1. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Length is probably the most measured
physical parameter. This parameter is
known under many alternative names:
displacement, movement, motion
The displacement may determine

the extent of a physical specimen,
or it may establish the extent of a
movement. It is characterized by
the determination of a component
of space .
The position of a point P can be
defined in various coordinate
systems. Cartesian coordinate
system is usually employed in
manufacturing engineering .

MEASUREMENTS
In each instance the

general position of a point P
will need three
measurement numbers,
each being measured by
separate sensing element.
Two measurement numbers
are needed to determine
the position of a point in a
plane (P1) and only one
sensor is required for length
measurement in single axis
(P").

MEASUREMENTS

The basic equations related to linear
displacement, velocity and
acceleration are as follows:
- displacement
S f (t )[m]
dS
[m / s ]
dt
2
- acceleration a dv d S [m / s 2 ]
dt dt 2
- velocity
The corresponding relationships for

angular motion are:
- displacement
f (t )[rad ]
d
[rad / s]
- velocity
dt
d d 2
- acceleration a
2 [rad / s 2 ]
dt dt

MEASUREMENTS
8.2. INDUSTRIAL RANGE OF LENGTH MEASUREMENTS
8.2.1. General Length Measurements
A large proportion of industrial range of length measurements can be

performed quite adequately using simple sensors in conjunction with
advanced electronic interrogating and measurement circuitries. A number of
devices that are basically linear and angular displacement sensitive is
listed:
Resistance potentiometers;
Resistance strain gauges;
Inductive sensors;
Variable inductance sensors;
Linear variable differential transformers; Variable reluctance sensors;
Electromagnetic generating se nsors;
Capacitance sensors;
Differential capacitance sensors;
Hall - effect sensors;
Magnetoresistive sensors;
Photoelectric sensors;
Optical grating sensors, both incremental and absolute;
Fiber - optic sensors

MEASUREMENTS
Some sort of displacement measurements are covered in Chapter 9 for

micro - displacements and in Chapters 10 and 11 and 12 for comparatively
small - scale displacements.
One field of interest for manufacturing engineers is the measurement of
displacement and positioning of numerically controlled and computerized
numerically controlled (NC and CNC) machine tools, robots and flexible
manufacturing systems (FMS).
The fundamental measurement task related to the positioning of NC and

CNC machine tools, robots and FMS is the measurement of linear and
angular displacements.

MEASUREMENTS
The measurement of angular displacements basically are accomplished by

rotary encoders. Such optical grating sensors are commercially available
with up to 20 000 pulses per revolution. Both incremental and absolute
sensors are available with built - in advanced electronics providing
information for position, displacement, velocity and direction. Their dynamic
response is up to several meters per second and meets successfully the
entire requirements of manufacturing engineering.
Linear displacement measurement at NC and CNC machine tools
can be accomplished in two ways: indirectly by using rotary sensors in
conjunction with the corresponding lead screw or directly by using linear
displacement sensors.

MEASUREMENTS

The principle of measurement of linear displacement by rotary
sensor is depicted in a simplified form in the figure.

MEASUREMENTS

The driving motor rotates the leadscrew. The slide has a nut working
with the leadscrew. When the leadscrew rotates, the nut (and the
slide itself) is forced to move linearly in a direction corresponding to
the direction of rotation of the leadscrew.

MEASUREMENTS
The displacement of the slide is proportional to the product of the number of the leadscrew
angular displacement and of the step - constant of the leadscrew thread:
- l is the displacement of the slide [m]
- kt is the step-constant of the leadscrew thread
- is the angular displacement of the leadscrew
t
l k [m]

MEASUREMENTS
The angular displacement is measured by a rotary displacement sensor.

Thus, by measuring the angular displacement we can obtain the relevant
information for the linear displacement. The fundamental disadvantage of
this approach is caused by the backlash which normally exists in the
"leadscrew and nut" junction. Any leadscrew error due to the pitch,
backslash, torsional wind-up or end float will result in a loss of accuracy
when rotary sensors are used. These hindrances can be drastically
minimized by using recirculating -ball leadscrew - and - nut arrangement.
The load, the friction and the backslash are reduced by introducing balling
friction in place of sliding friction in the leadscrew nut. Such devices are
commercially available in broad range of sizes and driving power,
designated basically for CNC machine tools, robots and photoplotters.

MEASUREMENTS
8.2.2. The inductosyn
The Inductosyn is in
effect, a linear transformer.
The philosophy of the
metamorphosis of the ordinary
transformer leading to an
inductosyn-type linear
displacement sensor is
illustrated in the Figure.
As shown in Fig. (b) the
windings of the ordinary
transformer are modified in
rectangles.

MEASUREMENTS
The primary and secondary

coils can be placed in two
parallel plains, the primary coil
(called scale) being fixed and
the secondary coil (called
slider) being movable (c).

MEASUREMENTS
Both coils are produced by the

printed - circuit board techniques
(d) with one important difference:
metal plates are utilized instead of
insulating plates. The printed coils
are electrically isolated from the
metal plate base.
Fig. (e) illustrates the assembly of
the slider and the scale with
spacing . One plate is fitted to
the machine bed and the other to
the machine slide, with an air gap
maintained between them at a
constant value of about 0.2 mm.

MEASUREMENTS
The principle of operation of the linear

inductosyn is depicted in Figure. The
voltage induced in the secondary coil for
an ordinary transformer is (8.1):
v0 kvs kVsp sin t
k is the transformation ratio of the
transformer
vs = Vsp sin t is the transformer
excitation voltage
Vsp is the peak value of the transformer
supply voltage
=2f is the frequency of the excitation
voltage . For various reasons f is in the
frame of 5 to 10 kHz.

MEASUREMENTS
From equation (8.1):
Vop kVsp
v0 Vop sin t
If the secondary coil is displaced from its

"optimal" position (shown in Fig. a) the
factor Vop also will change due to the
changing of the coupling effect between
secondary and primary coils (say due to
the change of the mutual inductance
between the two coils).
The physical phenomenon of this effect is
shown successively in Fig. (b to h)

MEASUREMENTS
The change of the secondary voltage

peak value with the displacement is
depicted in Fig. (h)
v0 Vop sin l
is the angular velocity
l is the displacement
Taking into account the relationship

f*T*= 1 we get
vop Vop sin

vop Vop sin
2
l
*
T
2
l
s
vo Vop sin t sin
2
l
s

MEASUREMENTS
The draw back of the above inductosyn

design is that is still not capable of
sensing the direction of displacement.
To detect direction of motion the slider is
designed to include a second coil,
displaced s/4=/2 from the first coil.
vo1 Vop sin t sin
2
l
s
s
2
2
vo 2 Vop sin t sin l Vop sin t cos l
4
s
s
With both a sine and a cosine output

available the inductosyn electronics can
sense the direction of motion.

MEASUREMENTS
8.2.3. Laser Interferometer
The laser interferometer is,

without doubt, the superior
length measuring instrument
for general purpose industrial
work with a range (parts of
micron up to more than 10 m)
not provided by any other
length sensor.
The interferometer is
illustrated in Figure as
suggested by Albert Michelson
(1852 -1931).

MEASUREMENTS
8.2.3. Laser Interferometer
One reflector can be traversed along

a length to be measured . When the
motion is a distance l, the path of its
light beam increases by 2l . The
number of successive dark fringes
that occur at the photodetector
during this motion is equal to the
number of wavelengths in the path
change:
2l N
l - is the moved distance [m]

- is the wavelength
[m]
N - is the number of wavelengths

MEASUREMENTS
8.3 SUMMARY
Length is the most measured physical parameter, known also as

displacement, movement, motion. Some times the length is affiliated
with the direction of the motion, as well as with the velocity and the
acceleration of motion. The industrial range of length measurement is
limited from 10-8 to 102 m.
A large proportion of industrial range of length measurements can be
accomplished using the sensors described in Chapter 7 III-th
Semester.
Angular displacements are measured by rotary sensors. Linear
displacements are measured by rotary sensors in conjunction with the
leadscrew or directly by linear - sensitive sensors.
The inductosyn is the most sensitive and widely used linear sensor for
computerized numerically controlled CNC machine tools.
The laser interferometer is the superior length - measuring
instrument for generalpurpose industrial works.
9. STRAIN, STRESS AND FORCE

MEASUREMENT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 Strain, Stress and Force

Consider a free solid body (simply a
rod) in uniaxial tension stretched by a
force as shown on Figure.
Due to the force applied to the rod,
normal to the area s, the rod
increases in length by l. The ratio of
the change in length of the rod
(which results from applying the load
F) to the original length l is the axial
strain defined as:
l
l
is the axial strain [-]

l is the change of length [m]
l is the original unloaded length [m]

MEASUREMENT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 Strain, Stress and Force

In many handbooks strain is reported
in units of 10-6 m/m. These units are
equivalent to a dimensionless unit
called a microstrain (s).
Typically, = 10-6 + 10-3 (i.e. 1 to
1000 s). When the force is applied
to the body as shown in Figure the
material is subject to a stress (i.e.
the internal force per unit area):
F
s
is the stress [N/m2]

F is the force applied [N]
s is the cross-sectional area of the
rod [m2]

MEASUREMENT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 The Hookes Law

The stress - strain relationships are
very important for understanding the
properties as well as the behaviour of a
material under load.
The general relationship is shown in
Figure. For the linear region the
stress/strain ratio is a constant figure
(the Hook's law):
const
l l
is the stress of the material [N/m2]

is the strain of the material [-] or[s]
E is the modulus of elasticity or
Young's modulus. Typically, E= 1011
[N/m2] for carbon steel.

MEASUREMENT
9.2 STRAIN MEASUREMENT

The measurement of strain is of particular importance for a broad range of
engineering design, control, measurement evaluation and maintenance
activities.
As mentioned above the strain in the linear region (which is the usual case)
is comparatively very small (10-6 to 10-3). This is in the range of 1m to
1000 m change for an 1 m original length. Direct measurements of such
small relative changes are both extremely difficult as well as non-accurate.
The application of strain gauges offers a good solution for this problem since
the bridge measurement circuits offer an easy and accurate measurement of
the strain gauge resistance change associated with the strain change.
Once we can transfer the strain of the body under measurement to equal
strain of a strain gauge we can measure the strain of the strain gauge by a
Wheatstone bridge, i.e. the strain of the body under measurement itself.
This strain transfer is possible if we can fix properly the strain gauge to the
body. The strain gauge fixed adequately to a solid body is known as
bonded strain gauge.

MEASUREMENT

9.2.1 Installation of the Strain Gauge
The surface where the strain gauge is to be fixed must be thoroughly cleaned,
probably best by abrasion followed by chemical degreasing.
The next step is the fixation of the gauge by a special cement. Cements
commonly used are cellulose nitrate (up to 100 C), epoxy (up to 200 C) and
ceramic (above 200 C), where special techniques must be used.
Gauge manufacturers usually provide a particular cement for their strain gauges
accompanied with the relevant techniques descriptions.
After the gauge is fixed down, its leads should be fastened in position and
accordingly connected. It is most important for leads to be mounted securely (by
soldering or spot-welding) in order to withstand the vibrations they may be
subjected.
In practice there are more failures of leads than in strain gauges themselves.
Unless the installation is in a friendly environment it must be protected by
covering with wax, rubber or similar protective materials. Moisture could cause
corrosion and electrical leakage conductance.

MEASUREMENT
9.2.1 Example 9.1

Assume that a 10 M leakage resistance is introduced in parallel
with a 100 strain gauge (G=2) due to the moisture. Calculate
the false strain indication due to the above leakage resistance.
Solution
l 1 R 1 R
l
G R
2 R
The changed equivalent resistance of the strain gauge will become (10 M in
parallel to 100):
10 7100
I
Rs
10 7 100
107100
The absolute change of the resistance is
R R R 100 7
10 100
7
10 100
100 7
R
1 10 7
10
100
The relative resistance change is
7
10 5
R
100
10 100
I
s
1 R 1 5
10 5.10 6 5s
2 R 2

MEASUREMENT

9.2.2 . Measurement Circuits for Strain Gauges
For measurement of its small resistance
changes a strain gauge is generally
connected in a Wheatstone bridge
(balanced for laboratory measurements or
unbalanced for industrial multitask
applications) - Figure.
V0 is the bridge output voltage
[V]
Vs
[V]
RSG is the absolute change of the
is the bridge supply voltage
resistance of the strain gauge due

to the strain of the strain gauge (i.e. the
strain of the body under
measurement) []
RSG is the original resistance of the strain
gauge []

MEASUREMENT

The bridge circuit may be energised with
DC voltage or current or AC voltage or
current. The last offers some advantages
of avoiding errors from thermocouple
potentials that can arise in the leads when
the junctions of dissimilar metals are at
different temperatures. The output
voltage from the above bridge with
common metallic strain gauge is quite
small (a few V to a few mV), therefore
an amplification is needed, usually an
operational amplifier with very high input
impedance. The fixed stable resistors are
normally with equal value
R2 R3 R4 R0 RSG
which for various reasons is a common

practice.

MEASUREMENT

The output voltage V0 for a balanced bridge is zero. The out-of-balanced voltage
V0 (assume high input resistance operational amplifier or high input digital
voltmeter) is:
V0 Vab Vac Vbc
Vs
Vs
RSG
R4
RSG R2
R3 R4
RSG
Vs
Vs
1 Vs
RSG
R0 V s

RSG R0
R0 R0
RSG Ro 2 2
RSG R0
RSG Ro
In order to calculate the output voltage change, relevant to the strain gauge
resistance change we first take the natural logarithm of both parts of the
equation:
Vs
ln V0 ln ln RSG R0 ln RSG R0
2

MEASUREMENT

Vs
ln RSG R0
ln
ln
R
SG
0
2 R
R SG

SG
Next we take the partial derivatives:
V0
V0
Vs
which gives (Vs=const; R0=const):
dV0
2R0
1
1
0
dRSG
dRSG
dRSG
RSG R0 RSG R0
V0
RSG R0
RSG R0
Finally
dV0
Vs
2
RSG R0
2 R0
dRSG
RSG Ro RSG R0 RSG R0
In case R0=RSG we get:
dV0
Vs dRSG
4 RSG
Since the changes are very small we can take the finite increments:
V0
Vs RSG
4 RSG

MEASUREMENT
9.2.2 Example 9.2
Calculate the strain of a solid body SB with properly bonded strain gauge
under the following conditions: the bridge supply voltage VS=10V; the
gage factor of the strain gauge is G=2. The bridge output voltage change
(due to the strain) measured by a digital voltmeter is Vo =500 V.
Solution
The strain of the solid body SB is equal to the strain SG of the bonded on its surface strain gauge:
SB SG
SG
1 RSG
G RSG
The strain of the strain gauge is
The strain gauge relative resistance change is
SG
1 RSG 4V0
4
V0
G RSG
GVs GVs
And finally, the strain of the solid body is
RSG 4V0
RSG
Vs
SB SG
4V0 4.500.10 8
10 4
GVs
2.10

MEASUREMENT

9.2.3. Temperature Effect
Since the strain gauge is a metal wire, its resistance will vary with the
temperature:
RSGt f T
This temperature resistance change will be sensed by the measuring circuit

and will be indicated wrongly as a strain
1 RSGt
G RSG
The above indication is a temperature error. In order to avoid such an error a

temperature compensation is required.

MEASUREMENT
9.2.3. Temperature Effect
For temperature compensation a DUMMY

strain gauge (identical to the active one)
is used in the adjacent leg of the
Wheatstone bridge.
This dummy strain gauge is in

"temperature contact" with the
active strain gauge, i.e. the
temperature of both gauges is equal.
If we repeat the calculations for the
circuit shown in Figure we shall see that
the temperature resistance change of the
live strain gauge will be completely
compensated by the corresponding
temperature resistance change of the
dummy strain gauge, thus the
temperature error will be eliminated.

MEASUREMENT
9.2.3. Lead Wire Effect
Gauges are often mounted some

distance from their associated
interrogating circuitries - figure.
Therefore care must be taken that
the long leads involved do not
introduce error - these leads are
metal wires and are subject to
temperature resistance change.

MEASUREMENT
When the live strain gauge is located at a remote placethe resistance r+r=2r of its
connecting leads are part of the gauge bridge leg and any changes in their resistance
will be indistinguishable from the live gauge resistance change, thus introducing lead
wire effect error. This can be avoided by so called three leads configuration as shown in
Figure.

MEASUREMENT
As shown in Figure the connecting leads resistances (as well as their temperature
changes) are neutralised since they are in the adjacent legs of the bridge circuit (r1 and
r2). The third lead going to the power source is not critical. The above circuit is
identical in function to the three-wire RTD circuit (shown in Fig. 7.21).

MEASUREMENT
9.2.3. The Bridge Power Supply

We have called the power source "bridge
supply voltage", implying that the supply
is at constant potential. It can
alternatively come as a constant current
source and this has some advantages for
linearity. As shown in Figure the constant
current IS, flows into two parallel
resistance legs RSG+R2 and R3+R4
Applying the Ohm's law we get
Vs I S RSG R2 R3 R4
In case RSG=R2=R3=R4
VS I S 2RSG 2RSG I S RSG

and yields
IS
V0
RSG
4

MEASUREMENT
9.2.3. The Bridge Power Supply

The sensitivity of the strain gauge bridge
circuit is expressed by the relationship
between the input strains and the
output voltage of the bridge V0.
V0
SV
Vs
G
4
V0 V0 Vs G
l l
4
V0 I S
SI
G.RSG
As follows from equations the larger the

voltage or current applied to the strain
gauge bridge, the higher will its sensitivity
be. The practical limit is set by selfheating in the gauge. Self-heating varies
a lot with the details of an installation, but
with metal substrates, can generally be
ignored below 1 mW/mm2 of gauge area.

MEASUREMENT
9.2.3. Half Bridge Configuration
The considerations in the

above paragraphs have been
based on single strain gauge
(quarter bridge)
arrangement as shown in
Figure (a).
Let us consider now the
double strain gauge (half
bridge) arrangement as
shown in Figure (b).

MEASUREMENT

9.2.3. Half Bridge Configuration
Following the procedure described in
paragraph 9.2.2 we get:
V0 Va Vb Vac Vbc
Vs
Vs
RSG1
R4
RSG1 R2
RSG2 R4
Assuming RSG1=RSG2=Rs and

R2=R4=R0 and in case R2=R4=Rs we
get:
dV0 Vs
2 Rs
Vs dRs
dR
s
2 Rs
4 Rs2
Corresponding sensitivity is:
V0
SV
Vs Rs
2 Rs
V0 Vs G
l l
2
Half bridge configuration provides a two

times better sensitivity

MEASUREMENT
9.3 STRESS MEASUREMENT
The measurement of the stress is based on the Hooke's law (refer to paragraph 9.1.2:
The Young's modulus E is given in manufacturer's data sheets for a specific type of
material. The strain is proportional to the relative change of the bonded strain
gauge(s):
1 RSG
SG
G RSG
The Gauge factor G is given by the manufacturer of the strain gauges or can be defined
by special laboratory experiments.
The relative resistance change of the bonded strain gauge is measured by bridge
configurations (refer to paragraph (9.2). For instance for a quarter Wheatstone bridge
configuration the relative resistance change is:
RSG
4V0
RSG
Vs
After substitution:
4E

V0
GVs

MEASUREMENT

9.3 Example 9.3
Calculate the stress for the case given in example
9.2. if the Young's modulus E = 1011N/m2.
Solution
1011
4
500.10 6 10 7 N 2
m
2.10

MEASUREMENT
9.4 FORCE MEASUREMENT
The unit of force is a derived unit - N [kgm/s2]. The measurement of

force is intimately related to strain and (or) stress measurements as
far as the engineering constructions are concerned. The stress and
strain of a solid body varies with the force acting on the solid body, as
well as with the mode of acting of the force applied. The force can be
a product of acceleration of the mass of the solid body.
We shall limit the presentation of force measurement concerned with
strain gauge application for some typical cases only.

MEASUREMENT

Case No1
F force
l length
S cross sectional area
F
= l/l strain
sE
=E. stress
F
E Youngs modulus

s
Quarter-bridge strain gauge
configuration
F 4
E.s
V0
GVs
Half bridge configuration
F 2
E.s
V0
GVs

MEASUREMENT

Case No2
F force
l length
I Moment of inertia
E Youngs modulus
1 FI 2

x
strain
48 El
stress
1 sI 2
x
3

configuration
E.l
F 192
V
2
GVs I
E.l
F 96
V
GVs I 2

MEASUREMENT

Case No3
F force
l length
I Moment of inertia
E Youngs modulus
strain
1 FI 2
x
stress
3
El
1 sI 2
x
3
l

configuration
E.l
F 12
GVs I 2
F 6
E.l
V
2
GVs I

MEASUREMENT

9.4 Example 9.4
Calculate the force applied to the solid body, case 1 under the following
conditions:
the output voltage of the quarter bridge configuration of the bonded strain
gauge V = 100VDC
the cross - sectional area of the solid body s = 3.14 cm2.
the bridge supply voltage Vs = 10 V.
the gauge factor of the strain gauge G = 2
the Young's modulus of the material of the solid body E = 1011 N / m2.
Solution
1011 x3.14 x10 4

F 4x
x100 x10 6 628 N
2 x10

MEASUREMENT
9.5 SUMMRY
The application of strain gauges for strain / stress

measurements can be made an analogue for essentially any of
the various mechanical - type variables of interest to the
engineer: force, torque, displacement, pressure, temperature,
motion, acceleration, etc.
For this reason strain gauges are very widely used in measuring
systems. Their response characteristics are excellent and they
are reliable, relatively linear and inexpensive.
It is important, therefore, that the engineer concerned with
experimental and measurement works be well versed in the
techniques of their basic use and application.
10. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The pressure exists both in solids and fluids.

Pressure on the surface of solids is
measured by force transducers (refer to
Chapter 9), and the force is divided by the
appropriate area.
This chapter will be devoted only to the fluid
pressure measurements.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 Units
Pressure is a derived quantity and is formulated as force per unit area that a
fluid exerts on its surroundings:
F is the force [N] ; s is the area [m2]
The units of the pressure are named the Pascal [Pa] so that
Other commonly used units to be mentioned are:
1 atmosphere (at) = 101 325 Pa = 101.325 kPa 1
bar = 100 000 Pa = 100 kPa
1 psi = 1 Ib / in2 * 6 895 Pa = 6.895 kPa
1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa
F
s
Pa = 1 [N/m2]
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.2 Gauge pressure, absolute pressure, differential pressure
The earth's atmosphere exerts a
pressure (because of its weight) at
the surface of the earth of
approximately 1 at = 101.325 kPa.
Therefore if a closed tank at the
earth's surface contained a gas at
an absolute pressure of 101.325 kPa
then it would exert no effective
pressure on the walls of the tank
because the atmospheric gas exerts
the same pressure from the outside
- Figure.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The illustration in Figure shows,
that the reaction of the gauge
sensing element, i.e. the gauge
reading will be:
p g pabs pat
where:
pg is the gauge reading
pabs is the absolute gas pressure in
the tank
pat is the atmospheric pressure
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Practically, the absolute
pressure is not the quantity of
major interest in describing the
pressure since it is based on the
assumption that the
measurement is accomplished
in absolute vacuum
environment - Figure.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In ordinary pressure
environment the
atmospheric pressure is
always present Figure.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
A special case is shown in

Figure, when the reaction of
the pressure gauge is due to
the action of two pressures.
The reading of the pressure
sensor now will be related
not to the absolute pressures
under measurement but to
their difference.
Therefore the last measurement
is referred to as differential
pressure.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.3 Head pressure
For liquids the expression head pressure

or pressure head is often used to
describe the pressure of the liquid in a
container. This refers to the static
pressure, (i.e. the liquid is at rest)
produced by the weight of the liquid
above the point at which the pressure
is described - Figure.
p gh[Pa ]
p is the pressure
[Pa]
is the density of the fluid [kg/m3], i.e.
the units are mass per volume.
g =9,8 is the acceleration due to gravity
[m/s2]
h is the depth (height) of the liquid [m]
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Example 10.1
A tank holds mercury with a depth of 760 mm.
Define the pressure at the tank bottom
(The density of mercury is pHg =13604 kg/m3).
Solution
The pressure is given by equation
p Hg Hg ghHg 13600 x9.8x0.760 101322Pa 101.322kPa
10.2 U-TUBE MANOMETERS
The principle of the U- tube manometer is

based on the balance between the
unknown pressure against the pressure
produced by a column of liquid of known
density - usually mercury. Thus the
derived quantity pressure is traced to
the two fundamental quantities mass
and length.
The level difference of the liquid in Figure
(a) is a result of the interaction of two
opposite forces acting in the two legs
II
sp xII
s is the cross-section area of the U-tube
The force in the left-hand leg is a sum of

two force components. The first
component is due to the pressure pxI:
F1I ap xI
The second component is due to the weight
of the liquid column with height h:
F2I mg shg
m = V is the mass of the liquid column

the density of the liquid
V = sh is the volume of the column
s
is the cross-section area of U-tube
g
is the acceleration due to gravity
F I F1I F2I ap xI shg
At equilibrium
F 0
spxI sgh spxII
F I F II
p xII p xI
h
p x
g
The above equation shows that the scale may

be calibrated directly in differential pressure
units.
If for the case shown in Figure (b)

we substitute p'x with pat,
respectively p"x with p'xabs we get:
pxabs pat
pxabs pat pg
g
The above equation shows that

the scale may be marked-off in
gauge pressure units.
If for the case shown in Figure ( c) we

substitute in px with zero (i.e.
vacuum), respectively p"x with p'xgbs
we get:
pxabs 0
1
pxabs
g
g
The above equation shows that the

scale may be marked-off in absolute
pressure units.
U-tube manometers although very
simple and reliable have poor
dynamic response and are not system
oriented.

Define the liquid height h for a U-tube manometer with p'x =102 kPa and
p"x =122 kPa if the liquid substance of the manometer is:
Water
(p = 1000 kg/m3)
Mercury
Example 10. 2.
(p = 13604 kg/m3)
Solution
This is a differential pressure U-tube manometer. The substitution of the above
data in equation yields: II
I
a) For water
p x p x 122 x10 3 102 x10 3

h
2m
g
1000 x9.8
b) For mercury
122 10210 3
13604 x9.8
0.15m
10.3 ELASTIC SENSNG ELEMENT CONCEPT
Elastic pressure sensors operate on

the principle that the deflection (or
deformation) accompanying a
balance of pressure and elastic
forces (Hooke's law!) may be used
as a measure for pressure. This
phenomenon may be
demonstrated by objects generally
referred to as springs.
A traditional spring of coiled steel
wire serves as good example Figure.
If an external force is applied to the

spring, this causes the spring to
extend from l to a new length
l + l, where the system again
becomes stationary - equilibrium
takes place due to the interaction
between the internal elastic F and
the external force Fext:
F Fext
The Hook's law states that the

equilibrium force of a spring
compression or extension is given
by:
F kl
F is the equilibrium force [N]

k is the spring constant [N/m]
l is the change in length [m]
The negative sign indicates that
the spring force is opposite the
applied force so that they balance.
The term spring is used as a

general term to describe any
configurations that relate
displacement to force.
Selected such configurations,
transducing the pressure to
displacement are shown in next
Figures.
The Bourdon tube, normally of
oval cross-section is coiled into a
circular arc as shown in Figure (a).
As a pressure is applied the oval

section tends to round out (equal
pressure on the tube walls !),
becoming more circular in shape. The
inner and outer arc lengths will remain
approximately equal to their original
lengths, and hence the only recourse
is for the tube to uncoil, thus
producing a deflection l which is
proportional to the gauge pressure
applied. Spiral, helical and twisted
tube versions are also used for various
applications.
The bellows sensing element is a

thin-walled, flexible metal tube
formed into deep convolutions and
sealed at one end as shown in
Figure (b).
The pressure applied will cause the
bellows to change in length.
The bellows can be arranged to react
to absolute, to gauge and to
differential pressure.
The diaphragm is a thin elastic

circular plate supported about its
circumference. The diaphragms
may be flat (Figure c) or
corrugated (Figure d). The
deformation of the diaphragm is
proportional to the pressure
applied. By using relevant
chambers the diaphragms may
provide deflection l proportional
to absolute, to gauge and to
differential pressure.
The flat diaphragms provide small
deflections, while the corrugated
diaphragms are useful when
larger deflections are required.
10.4. INTELLIGENT PRESSURE SENSORS
The achievements of microelectronic semiconductor technology has

led to development of a variety of very fast, very small, highly
sensitive pressure gauges. Supported by advanced microelectronics
such pressure sensors offer flexible interface with the computerized
process control systems, both analog and digital output signals,
temperature compensation, autocalibration, self diagnostic, high
reliability operation in hazardous environment and many other
process oriented advantages.
Two specific examples that illustrate features we feel to be
particularly significant and interesting.
- Strain-Gauge Pressure Sensors
- Capacitance Based Pressure Sensors

10.4.1 Strain-Gauge Pressure Sensors
The advanced strain-gauge-based

pressure sensors make use of a
flat diaphragm with bonded strain
gauges fabricated on a single chip.
The principle is illustrated in Figure.
The pressure stresses the diaphragm
as shown in Figure (c).
Four strain gauges are bonded on the
appropriate places in order to
achieve the best sensitivity
Figure (a),(b),(d).

The design shown in Figure (b) offers

separation of the strain gauges
from the fluid under measurement,
which for some processes is of
vital importance.
The full bridge arrangement provides
theoretically complete temperature
compensation in terms of the
strain gauge temperature
variations

The intelligent pressure sensor is

based on the above concept.
The pressure chamber, the
diaphragm and the strain gauge
are fabricated on a single chip.
The sensing device is supported by
powerful microprocessor circuitry
which is in the sensor
encapsulation or even on the
sensor's chip, i.e. sensing
element and electronics on a

single chip\\\
A thin-film polysillicon sensor is

depicted in Figure.

When the pressure is applied to

the isolating diaphragm, it is
transmitted to the
polycillicon sensing
diaphragm by means of a
silicon fill fluid (or Neobee fill
fluid for sanitary standard
processes) - the thin straight
tube shown in Figure.

The silicon fill fluid (proportional to the

process pressure) creates a very small
deflection of the sensing diaphragm,
which in turn applies strain to a
Wheatstone bridge circuit containing
strain gauges.
The change in resistance is sensed and
converted to a digital signal for
processing by the microprocessor.
This digital signal is then converted to a 4
- 20 mA DC signal to be used by the
customer in parallel or independently
with the digital output, if required.

The sensor contains a build-in

temperature sensor.
The microprocessor-based circuitry uses
this temperature measurement to
make corrections to the pressure
measurement and minimises the
effects of temperature changes.
This greatly reduces the errors caused by
temperature changes.
The accuracy offered is 0,25% with a
range up to 30 000 kPa.
Absolute, gauge and differential pressure
sensors are readily available.

10.4.2 Capacitance Based Pressure Sensors
The principle of operation of this type

of pressure sensors is based on
the differential capacitor
described in paragraph 7.7.1.

The two parts of the differential
capacitor are incorporated in a
inductive bridge circuit. The sensor
Module Cross Section is shown in
Figure.
The sensor module also has a built-in
temperature sensor that is used to
correct for temperature effects

10.4.2 Capacitance Based Pressure Sensors
The analog pressure and temperature signals from the sensing module enter
the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and are converted to a digital format
for the microprocessor.
The module memory EPROM stores data from the factory characterization
process. The microcomputer controls operation of the sensor.
In addition, it performs calculations for sensor linearization, reranging,
engineering units conversion, self-diagnostic, and digital communication.
The digital - to - analog converter (DAC) changes the corrected digital signal
from the microcomputer into 4-20 mA analog signal.
The digital communications circuitry provides an interface between the
sensor and external devices of the network
10.5. MEASUREMENT OF VACUUM
The pressure range below 1O7 Pa is very frequently referred to as the

ultrahigh or extra-high vacuum region. The interest in measurement of
these pressures is usually confined to systems where the main
objective is to have as minimal an amount of gas as possible in a
prescribed volume.
Limitations
The techniques for the measurement of these pressures are limited
usually by the difficulties in achieving stable, reproducible low
pressures, and the fact that these pressures are so small that the
mechanical force exerted (i.e. momentum transferred) by the gas
molecules is extremely small and hence virtually impossible to
measure directly.

Difficulties
The main difficulties in achieving low, stable pressures are due to the
dependence of the rate of vacuum degradation from the walls and
other materials of the vacuum enclosure on the cleanliness, leaktightness, and temperature of the system. Other difficulties are
sometimes related to the capacity and stability of the vacuum pumping
system. The difficulty in measuring the mechanical forces exerted
directly by the gas molecules in this pressure regime has not been
overcome. Gauges designed for use in the ultrahigh vacuum region
typically detect gas density and not gas pressure directly.

Some kinetics backgrounds
While primary techniques based on the kinetic theory of gases have been developed
that could, in principle, be used to calculate the absolute gas pressure in ultrahigh
vacuum systems, in practice it is found that these techniques for measuring pressures
below 10-7 Pa are inadequate. What has been done instead is to use the primary
techniques at higher pressures, where the techniques work well, to measure pressure or
flow ratios, and then to use these directly measured ratios to indirectly determine the
lower pressures. It is reasonably assumed that the measured ratios are valid at the
lower pressures since the mean free paths of the gas molecules are so large that
molecular collisions are a negligible factor even at the relatively higher pressures where
the ratios are measured.
For pressure measurement in the vacuum range (less than atmospheric
pressure) only the more specialized instruments are applicable.

10.5.1 Thermocouple Gauge
This gauge works on the thermal

conductivity principle. There exists a
linear relationship between pressure and
thermal conductivity. Operation of the
gauge (Figure) depends on the thermal
conduction of heat between a thin hot
metal strip in the center and the cold
outer surface of a glass tube.
The metal strip is heated by passing a
current through it (at a temperature of
about 320 K) and its temperature is
measured by a thermocouple. The
temperature measured depends on the
thermal conductivity of the gas in the
tube and hence on its pressure. The
measurement range is from 500 Pa to
0.1 Pa.

10.5.2 Pirani Gauge
The Pirani gauge is similar to a
thermocouple gauge but has a
heated element which consists of
four tungsten filaments connected
in parallel - Figure.

10.5.2 Pirani Gauge
Two identical elements are normally

used connected in a bridge circuit.
The resistance of the element

changes with temperature and
causes an imbalance of the
measurement bridge.
The measurement range is from
10 Pa to 0.1 Pa.

10.5.3 The McLeod Gauge
The principle of operation is based on measuring the force exerted by a sample
of the gas of known volume after a known degree of compression.
The low-pressure fluid is compressed to a higher pressure which is then
measured by manometer techniques. This gauge can be visualized as a Utube manometer, sealed at one end, and where the bottom of the U can be
blocked at will. To operate the gauge, the piston is first withdrawn, causing the
level of mercury in the lower part of the gauge to fall below the level of the
junction J between the two tubes marked Y and Z. Fluid at unknown
pressures px is then introduced via the tube marked Z from where it also flows
into the tube marked Y, of cross sectional-area S. Next, the piston is pushed
in, moving the mercury level up to block the junction J. Thus, the under
pressure px is trapped in S tube volume.

Measurement of the height (h)
above the mercury column in tube
Y then allows calculation of the
compressed volume of the fluid
Vc :
VC h.s
VC is the compressed volume[m3],

h is the height [m],
s is the area [m2].

Then, by Boyle's law:
p x .V0 pC .VC
Px is the unknown pressure [Pa]

pc is the compressed pressure [Pa]
V0 = const is the volume of Y tube
from the top up to junction J

[m3]
Vc is the compressed gas volume [m3]

Applying the normal manometer
equation:
pC p x h.g
px is the unknown pressure [Pa],

pc is the compressed pressure [Pa],
is the density of mercury[kg/m3],

typically pHg = 13604 [kg/m3]
g is the gravity acceleration [m/s2].

Hence:
or
sh 2 g
px
V0 sh
sh 2 g
px
V0
because
sh V0
px is the unknown pressure [Pa],
pc is the compressed pressure [Pa],
is the density of mercury[kg/m3],

typically pHg = 13604 [kg/m3]
s is the area [m2].
V0 = const
g is the gravity acceleration [m/s2].

10.5. Example 10.3
Calculate the vacuum measured by McLeod gauge under the

following conditions:
- the measured height h = 10 mm
- the standard volume of the gauge V0 = 22 500 [cm3]
- Hg = 13604[kg/m3]
- the cross sectional area of the top sections of Y and Z tubes s = 1
[cm2]
- the local gravity acceleration g = 9.8 [m/s2]
Solution
After relevant substitution we get:
px
1x10
x10 x10 x13604 x9.8

0.059Pa
6
22500 x10
3 2
10.5. SUMMARY
An attempt has been made to introduce the student to some of the

problems attending measurement of pressure.
Absolute pressure, differential pressure and gauge pressure have been
explained and illustrated by U-tube manometer concept.
Blasting sensing element concept has been described and illustrated by
diaphragm strain gauge pressure sensors and by diaphragm
differential capacitor - based Intelligent pressure sensor.
Measurement of vacuum has been briefly covered.
We realize that many approaches to the problem have been omitted and
that in certain respects the coverage has been brief and somewhat
superficial
Such is the penalty that must be paid in assembling a textbook of this
general nature.
11. FLOW MEASUREMENT
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Historical background
Fluid flow has been measured since the dawn of civilization. The
Egyptians measured river Nile flow to control the crop irrigation. Flow
measurement helped the Romans to develop heating systems,
aqueducts, baths, fountains.
The history of flow measurement is closely related with the
establishment of the principle of conservation of mass, namely that of
a steady state mass m entering a system over a unit time t equals the
mass leaving the system over the same period:
m m

t in t out
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.1.2 General consideration
Flow measurement is mainly concerned with fluids, defined as liquids, gases, vapours
and slurries. The flow measurement methods considered here are for use in closed
conduit systems. Besides there are methods for use in open ducts. The basic quantities
measured are:
mean flow velocity in a pipeline v or point velocity in [m/s] using a velocity
meter as a sensing element, not concerned here
- flow rates of two types - volumetric flow rate Gv in [m3/s], when the volume of a
fluid flow per unit of time is measured, or mass flow rate Gm =Gv in [kg/s], when the
measurement of the weight of a fluid of density flowing past a point is considered, the
sensor used in both cases is a ratemeter,
-
quantity of fluid passed in a given time in [m3], the sensing element being a
quantity meter
11.1. INTRODUCTION
The important fluid characteristics related

to flow measurement are :
* density
m
3
, kg m
where
m is the fluid mass, [m]
V is the fluid volume, [m3]
(Typically pair =1.184 [kg/m3] and water =1000 [kg/m3]);

11.1. INTRODUCTION
viscosity in [N s/m2] or [Pa s], defined as the

tangential force on a unit area of either of two horizontal
planes separated by unit distance, one plane fixed and the
other moving with unit velocity, the space between the
planes being filled with the viscous substance
air =18.2x10-6 [Pa s]
water =10-3[Pa s]
11.1. INTRODUCTION
Reynolds number
Vl
Re
that specifies the flow form laminar for Re<2000

or turbulent for Re>4000, where l is the flow
length
4 xsurfaceARE AofTHEflow SECTION
l
perimeterOFtheFLOW sec tion
and l =0 for round pipes of diameter D.
11.2. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

11.2.1 Principle of operation
Differential pressure flowmeters or else pressure difference flowmeters
measure the pressure drop over an introduced constriction to the flow

in a pipe. The constriction is the reason for the velocity v of the fluid to
increase until it reaches a maximum at the area of minimum
contraction. The increase of velocity causes the static pressure p to
decrease. Thus the pressure drop is correlated with the rate of the fluid
flow. The maximum pressure is located slightly downstream from the
restriction where the stream is the narrowest and is called vena
contracta. Beyond this point the pressure rises due to the partial
transformation of the kinetic energy of the fluid back into pressure but
does not restore its upstream value.

This part of the kinetic energy that has been spent to

overcome the friction and vortex shedding due to the
obstruction was turned irreversibly into heat. The heat
leads to an increase of the enthalpy E
E u p
where
u is internal energy, [J]
is the specific volume ( = V/m - volume per unit of
mass), [m3/kg]
p is the pressure, [N/m2].

Hence, as a result of the introduced extra resistance in

the flow system a permanent loss of pressure is observed
that depends on the type of restriction and the ratio of
the diameter of the constriction d to the diameter of the
pipe D, called diameter ratio (d/D= 0.2+0.6).
The smaller the diameter ratio the more considerable the
losses are but the more accurate the flow rate
measurement is.

11.2.2 Derivation of the equation for mass flow rate of a
compressible fluid through a constriction
The subsonic flow of a perfect gas

flowing horizontally through a
constriction is considered in Figure.
The gas flows from conditions (p1, T1,
v1, 1) at cross-sectional area of fluid
flow s1 to conditions (p2, T2, v2, 2)
at the area of maximum contraction
s2, where by p is denoted the
absolute pressure, by T - the absolute
temperature, by v -the fluid velocity
and by -the fluid density.

From the conservation of energy

equation
v12
v22
E1
E2
2
2
it follows that the change of the kinetic

energy is equal to the change in the
enthalpy per unit mass
v 22 v11
E1 E 2
2

Since the processes are isentropic (the student is referred to subject Physics, 1st year), it
holds
p
p
p
1
2
2
p2
K
or
or
1
2
1 p1
K is a constant
du
y = Cp / CV is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure c p
dt p const
du
and the gas constant is R = cp - cv.
cV
p2
p1
dt V const
1
E
.
dp
Besides, dE = vdp, which after integration yields 1

2
dp
and at constant volume
p1
p2

Expressing from
p
1

1
and substituting in, it is obtained

Where r p 2
1

E1 E2 K dp K
p1 1 r
1
p2
1 p1
p1
The final result is reached after substituting K

1
v v
p1

1 r
2
1 1
2
2
2
1


From mass continuity equation the theoretical fluid flow rate GT = sv
at the inlet GT1 is equal to the theoretical fluid flow rate at the outlet
1
GTZ, i.e. 1s1v1 = 2s2v2 . Hence:
p2 s2
2 s2
v1
v 2
v2
1 s1
p1 s1
After substituting into for v2 is obtained
p1
v2 2
1 r
1 p2
s2 2
1 r 2
s1
Considering that in p1 can be expressed as p1=(p1-p2) / (1- r) and

(p2/p1)2 as (p2/p1)2 =r 2/, for the mass flow rate is finally
obtained:
GT 2 s 2 v2 .s 2 2 p1 p2

GT 2 s2 v2 .s2 2 p1 p2
Equation
forms the basis for the design of differential pressure devices and is
modified for different constrictions used.
1
r
1 r
1 r 11 r
s2
s1
d12
s1
4
s2
d 22
4
For ideal incompressible flow, where 1= 2= are constant, the

Bernoulli's law yields
v12
v 22
p1
p2
d 22
2
d1

After substituting and expressing v2, for GT is obtained

GT
s1s2
s s
2
1
2
2
2 p1 p2 K p
p = p1 - p2 is the pressure difference or drop over the restriction

K is a constant for constant areas s1 and s2 and constant density .
The actual flow rate G is always less than the theoretical GT mainly
due to fluid friction effects and density gradients which is reflected by
the introduction of a discharge coefficient cd. As a result the actual
flow rate is:
G cd GT

The above equations are derived after some simplifications in order to

enhance understanding.
In reality the fluid pressure and temperature are changing
during process continuity.
The density changes with temperature as well.
This could lead to unacceptable increase of measurement errors.
Therefore, more advanced flowmeters are manufactured which besides
the pressure difference account for the fluid pressure and
temperature.
These data are used by the advanced microprocessor circuitry to
introduce the relevant error corrections.

The differential pressure sensor is based on the differential capacitance concept refer to para 10.4.2. The absolute pressure sensor consists of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit made of polysilicon resistors deposited on a silicon substrate refer to para10.4.1. The absolute pressure sensor is hydraulically connected to
the high pressure side of the transmitter. Process pressure is transmitted
through the fill fluid to the sensing element, creating a very small deflection of
the silicon substrate, acting as a diaphragm. The resulting strain of the
substrate changes the bridge resistance in proportion to the pressure applied,
and the resistance change produces an "out-of-balance" voltage as described
in para 7.5. and Chapter 9. The differential pressure signal, the absolute
pressure (high) signal and the temperature signal from a 4-wire RTD
configuration (refer to para 7.10.1.) are fed to a microprocessor based
electronics for relevant calculations, corrections, calibrations, communications
and diagnostic procedures as illustrated on the block diagram shown in.
The above intelligent sensor provides high accuracy flow measurement by
dynamically compensating flow equation variables like discharge coefficients,
velocity factor, thermal expansion effects and density.

11.2.3 Types of restrictions
The main types of restrictions used

are:
orifice plate - Fig.a),
nozzle - Fig.b)
Venturi tube Fig. c).
The discharge coefficient depends
on the type of the flow,
obstruction device and Reynolds
number and is the least for
Venturi meter, where the
pressure loss is the least.

The Venturi meters Fig.c) however

are expensive and occupy
substantial space.
Orifice meters Fig.a) are the least
expensive, the easiest to install and
require the smallest possible space
but at the same time suffer from
head losses and the accuracy is
highly affected by the dirt in the
fluids, their edge tends to wear.
The common disadvantage is the
square-root relationship between
pressure drop and flow rate.

For a nozzle Fig. b) the area of

maximum contraction occurs at
the throat while for an sharpedged orifice the minimum
contraction is slightly
downstream the plate.
The isentropic assumptions are not
valid for orifice plates and is
determined experimentally.

Example 11.1
A nozzle is fitted in a horizontal pipe of diameter

D=15 [cm], carrying a gas of density =1,15
[kg/m3] for the purpose of flow measurement.
The differential pressure head indicated by a Utube manometer containing oil of specific gravity
0.8 is hoil=10 [cm]. If the discharge coefficient
and the nozzle diameter are cd=0.8 and d=5
[cm] respectively, determine the flow of gas
through the nozzle flowmeter.

Example 11.1
Solution
s1 s 2
Gactual c d
2 ghgas
since
The specific gravity of oil is 0.8, so:
0.8
s12 s 22
moil
mdistilledWater
V oil
V distilledWater
V const ,
distilledWaterAT 4
1000,
oil 0.8 x1000 800kg m 3
p gas hgas g
hgas hoil oil

Example 11.1
Solution
Hence, hgas hoil oil 10 800 6956.52cmofGas
s1
D 2
1.15
3.14 x 225 / 4 176.71 cm 2
4
s 2 3.14 x 25 / 4 19.62 cm 2
Gactual
176.71x19.62 x 2 x9.81x6956.52
176.71
19.62
58348.21 cm 2 / s 58.348l / s
11.3. VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETERS

11.3.1. Principle of operation
The most widely used form of
variable area flowmeter

(rotameter) is the tapered tube
and float meter - Figure.

Flow is in vertical plane upwards in a
tapered vertical tube of circular
cross-section with a narrow inlet
end.
The flow supports a float which, in
certain designs, is provided with
slots cut slantwise as shown.
These slots cause the float to rotate
giving central stability.

Since the tube is tapered, for a given

flow rate the velocity of the fluid
varies along the length of the tube
and the float achieves equilibrium
position at a height where the fluid
velocity is sufficient to support it.
When flow is increased to a new
steady value, the float support
velocity occurs at a greater crosssectional area higher up the tube
and the float rises to assume the
new equilibrium position.

The height of the float is therefore a

measure of the flow velocity or flow
rate provided that the fluid density
and the pressure difference across the
float remain constant.
For measurements at pressures and
temperatures close to ambient, the
tapered tube is made of transparent
glass and the float position can be
observed directly against a scale,
scribed on the tube wall and
graduated in flow rate units.
Otherwise for high pressure the tube is
made of metal and a magnetic
coupling indicates the flow position.

11.3.2. Derivation of the theoretical flow equation for
compressible fluids
It is assumed that the metered fluid is an ideal gas, the taper angle of the tube is
negligibly small and the potential energy differences between plane 1 and
plane 2 can be neglected. The mass flow rate is then expressed as:
1
2
2
GT2 a 2 2
p1 p 2 r 1 r 1 1 r
s
1

where
a is the annular area between tube and float at plane 2, [m2] a=[Stube(x)-Sfloat]
Sfloat is the float area, [m2] Sfloat = d 2/4
s is the area corresponding to diameter D, [m2]
is the isentropic exponent
r is the pressure ratio p2 /p1.

compressible fluids
Denoting by a2=s/S1 and a/s=(a2-1)/a2
and putting p1=(p1 -p2 )/(1-r),
it is obtained
1 r
2
2
GT 2s p1 p 2 1
1 1 r
a
1
a 2 1 2 r
The force balance at the float if the pressure difference due to

elevation is neglected, yields
s p1 p2 F GT (v2 v1 )
where F is the Buoyed weight of the float.

compressible fluids
The velocities v-i and vz are expressed from mass flow continuity
equation:
v1
GT
s1
GT
a 2 GT
v2
1
2
a 2 2

a
1
s
r
1
after inserting
2
GT2
a
s p1 p 2 F
s1 a 2 1 r
The last equation is used to eliminate (p1 -p2 )

compressible fluids
GT a 1 Y 2sF1
where
2
a
a 1
a 2 1 r 1

1
2
a
1
1
2
a 1 r
1 r
For incompressible fluids Y=1

11.3.2. Area of application
The variable area meters for not very high flows are less
expensive than the pressure difference flowmeters.
The accuracy without special calibration is about 2% of
full scale deflection.
The range of flow rates covered is 0+0.5 [m3/s] for gases
and 0+0.1 [m3/s] for liquids.
Pressures and temperatures are generally close to ambient
but there are special instruments suitable for pressures
up to 3.5 [MPa] and temperatures up to 350 [C].
Rangeability of 10:1 can be achieved.

Example 11.2.
A rotameter is calibrated for metering a liquid of density 1000

[kg/m3] and has a scale ranging from 1 to 100 [l/min]. It
is intended to use this meter for metering the flow of gas of
density 1.25 [kg/m3] with a flow range between 20 to
2000 [l/min].
Determine the density of the new float, if the original one has a
density of 2000 [kg/m3].
The shape and the volume of both floats is assumed to be the
same.

Example 11.2.
Solution
Let the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the liquid flow and the gas flow
respectively through the rotameter. Consider the equation:
Gactual
c d st s f
1
sf
2g
Vt f ff
sf f
st
where
f and ff are the densities of the float and the flowing fluid respectively
Vf is the float volume
St and Sf are the tube area at the float level and the area of the
float respectively
cd is the discharge coefficient which is slight if (st - sf) / st 1.
2

Example 11.2.
The simplified equations are:
for liquid flow
G1 k
k
for gas flow
ff 1
c d s t s
1
G2 k
where k is the rotameter constant.
f 1
ff 1
s t2
f 2
2g
ff 2
ff 2
Vf
s

Example 11.2.
The scale ratio between gas flow and liquid flow is
20:1=2000:100=20.
Therefore G2=20G1 or G2/G1=20 and considering the above equations
for G1 and G2 it is obtained:
G2
G1
20
f2
f1
ff 2 ff 1
ff 1 ff 2
which solved with respect to f2 yields f2 =501. 25 [kg/m3].
11.4. TURBINE FLOWMETERS

A typical turbine flowmeter
is depicted in Figure.
The rotary speed of a
turbine wheel placed in a
pipe depends on the flow
rate of the fluid and can be
simply measured by
counting the rate at which
the turbine blades pass a
given point using a
magnetic proximity pickup
to produce voltage pulses.

By feeding these pulses to
an electronic pulse-rate
meter a flow is measured or
by accumulating the total
number of pulses during a
time interval, the total flow
is obtained.
Thus the turbine meter can
serve both as a ratemeter
and a quantity meter. If
analogue voltage signal is
desired the pulses can feed
a frequency-to-voltage
converter.

11.4.2. Transformation equation
If the bearing friction, the shaft power output and the kinetic viscosity effects,
usually limited mainly to low flow rates, are neglected, the following
kinematic relationship holds:
GV Kn
where
n is the rotor angular velocity, [r/s]
K is a constant, independent of the fluid properties, that is determined by the
length of the rotor lead, the rotor-hubdiameter, meter bore diameter, the
rotor blade thickness and number.
At low flow rates linearity is degraded by both viscous effects and magnetic
pickup drags.

Commercial turbine meters are available with full-scale flow rates ranging from
0.17x10-8 to 0.23 [m3/s] for liquids and from 0.17x10-3 to 250 [m3/s] for gases.
The repeatability is particularly good with a typical value better than 0.1%.
The nonlinearity of a range 10:1 is less than 0.05%. The output voltage of the
magnetic pickups is of order of 10 [mV] at the low end of the flow range and
100 [mV] at the high. Pressure drop across the meter varies with the square of
the flow rate and is about 21-70 [kPa]. Turbine meters behave as first order
dynamic systems for small changes about the operating point with typical timeconstant 2 - 10 [ms]. Operating frequencies of the turbine meter are of the
order 100 - 2000 [Hz], so the frequency-to-voltage converter requires a lowpass filtering which adds to the lag of the overall system. The calibrated
accuracy is within 0.25%.
Turbine flowmeters are susceptible to a flow pattern varying from ideal.
Asymmetry or swirl may cause significant errors. That is why they should be
installed in a section where the velocity profile is close to fully developed else
flow-straightening device should be incorporated
11.5. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETERS

The electromagnetic flowmeters are
suitable for conductive liquids. Their
operation is based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, namely
that when a conductor of length l
moves with a transverse velocity v
across a magnetic field of field
intensity B an electromotive force
(emf) is induced in the conductor. In
the flowmeter as a cylindrical jet of
conductive fluid flow is transversing a
magnetic field, the positive and
negative jons are forced to the
opposite sides of the jet, giving
potential difference e.

Electrodes make contacts with
the fluid to obtain the potential
difference across it and a magnet
supplies the magnetic flux Figure.
Usually an alternating magnetic
field substitutes in the devices
the magnet in order to prevent
galvanic and polarisation effects
on the electrodes.

Provided that the magnetic field is uniform and the velocity profile is
axisymmetric, the voltage between the electrodes can be expressed as:
e BDvav
where
B is the magnetic field intensity, [T]
D is the pipe diameter, [m]
vav is the average fluid velocity, [m/s].
The volumetric flow rate for a circular pipe is given by:
Gv D 2 vav / 4
Expressing vav and substituting the relationship between the flow rate Gv and
the induced voltage e finally takes the following form:
4 BG v
, V

An accuracy better than 0.5% can be obtained over a typical flow range
of 0.5-10 [m/s] per unit of cross-sectional area.
The linear range is wide enough with good transient response. Having
no moving parts the device is less prone to breakdown.
Besides, it causes no obstruction in the flow line. This makes it

particularly suitable for fluids containing solid matter, cement slurries,
sewage, paper pulp, corrosive acids, detergents, etc.
The main withdrawals are in the difficulty to maintain calibration and
zero setting, they are usually expensive and their use is limited to fluids
with conductivity higher than ID
11.6. ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS

The principle of operation of

ultrasonic flowmeters is based
on the change of the velocity
of propagation of sound
waves in a fluid with the
change in the fluid flow
velocity.
If the wave has a component in
the direction of the flow then
the magnitude of its velocity
increases and the direction of
the wave is altered towards
the flow direction and vice
versa. The flowmeter is
illustrated in Figure.

Another approach is the frequency

difference method, also known as
the sing-round method or the
oscillating loop.
It is illustrated in Figure.
Two pairs of transducers are arranged
in a X configuration (cross location
of receivers and transmitters).
A short pulse is emitted from one
transducer to the other where it is
amplified and triggers off another
pulse in the same direction,
generating a sequence of pulses in a
closed loop.

The second pair of transducers in

the other leg of the X form
generates a similar loop whose
pulses travel in the opposite
direction.
The pulse repetition frequency
difference in the two loops is
proportional to the fluid velocity
and hence to the volumetric flow
rate.

In the first approach Figure (a) pair of ultrasonic transducers are separated by a distance l.
If the acoustic pulses are transmitted through the fluid in either direction, the transit time f for
uniform fluid velocity is given by
l
vs
for Vs>>Vp
t
vp
1
vs
vs is the velocity of sound in the still fluid, [m/s]

vp is the velocity component of the fluid in the direction of the acoustic path that is
assumed constant.
The negative and positive signs refer to the downstream and upstream transit times
respectively. With no flow f0=l/ vs , so the difference f= t0- t can be a measure of the
fluid velocity.

Since t0 is not measured in the present arrangement, it is preferable to have

an additional set of transmitter-receiver system along with the present in
order to determine the transit time along and against the flow direction
so that:
2lv p
l
l
t
2 , v s v p
vs v p vs v p
vs
Since vs may be subject to small variations due, for instance, to
temperature variations, both t0 and t must be simultaneously measured.
Furthermore, the fluid velocity can only be measured along the acoustic
path. Thus, in order to obtain volumetric flow rate, the effect of the fluid
velocity profile has to be considered.

The major advantage of the ultrasonic flowmeters is that the flow is not
disturbed as there need be no obstruction within the pipe.
Besides, the actual velocity profile is accounted for directly with minimal
assumptions about its form.
The accuracy is fairly good 2% of the full scale value and the relationship
between the velocity and output is linear.
These flowmeters are suitable both for liquids and gases. The technique is well
suited to large diameter ducts, path lengths of several hundred feet have been
used. The devices find special applications, namely measurement of ocean
currents, vessel speeds, water flows in large conduits, flows of various biomedical and industrial fluids, etc.
The main disadvantage is the relatively high cost of the instrument due to its
manufacturing expenses. The major limitation at present is the gas flow rate
measurement where signal strength would be expected to be much less.
11.7. VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOWMETERS

A bluff body, placed in a stream

of fluid, induces alternating
equally spaced vortices at a
frequency f that depends on the
velocity of the flow past the body.
The vortices formed on opposite
sides of the body are carried
downstream in the body's wake
forming a "vortex street", each
vortex having an opposite sign of
rotation. This behaviour is
captured in Figure.

The alternating vortices are
manifestations of an oscillating
pressure field about the body that
exerts an equal but opposite force on
the body. Encountering the body the
stream divides to pass around the
barrier. Because of viscous adhesion
the boundary layer (the fluid moving
along the obstruction surface) moves
slower than the outer layers. After the
obstruction has been passed, both the
boundary layer and the fast moving
layer separate from the obstruction
before they recombine. At low flow
rates recombination invokes not much
turbulence since the velocity difference
between the two layers is small.

As the flow rate increases, however, the
boundary layer tends to cling longer to
the obstruction than the outer layer
causing local separation in the fluid
behind the obstruction. As the flow rate
increases further the vortices become
relatively stable and long-lasting so they
line up directly behind the bluff body
and alternate in sequence from one side
to another due to a strong pressure
pulse accompanying the vortex
formation which in turn temporarily
inhibits a vortex formation from the
opposite edge. As soon as the newly
formed vortex has moved downstream,
the pressure at this edge suddenly falls
and a vortex is produced there.

The frequency f of the oscillations of the
bluff body is determined by the
dimensions of the bluff body (for
instance, the diameter d for a circular
rod), the fluid mean velocity vav and the
Strouhal number S, a basic nondimensional relationship, introduced by
Rayleigh
fd
S
vav
The Strouhal number is dependent on
the shape of the bluff body and the
Reynolds number as becomes evident
from experimental studies, the results of
which are depicted in Figure.

A constant S over a broad range of flow
Reynolds number is achieved via
selection of special geometrical forms of
the shedder, thus producing strong
stable vortex flow. In general, abrupt
edges on the shedder restrict the
dependence on Reynolds number by
fixing the separation points. For a
constant Strouhal number the flow rate
can be deduced from continuity based
on measured shedding frequency:
Gv K1 f
where K1 is a constant, provided by the

manufacturer that depends on the
shedder design.

Shedding frequency can be

measured in many ways.
The shedder strut can be
instrumented to detect the
force oscillations by using
strut-mounted strain
gages, for example, or to
detect the pressure
oscillations by means of
piezoelectric crystal Figure.

Another construction of a vortex meter
uses a heated pair of thermistors placed
in the paths of the vortices on both sides
of the body, that are cooled at a faster
rate when they encounter the swirling
fluid.
Consequently the thermistors alternately
change resistance to produce a train of
electrical pulses with a frequency linearly
proportional to the flow rate - Figure.
Another variant is to replace the
thermistors with a transverse ultrasonic
beam. The vortices interrupt the beam
and produce an oscillatory voltage at the
receiver.

A wide range of bluff bodies and sensor types are commercially

available and new ones are intensively being developed.
The lower flow rate limit on vortex meters appears to be Reynolds
numbers near 104, below which the Strouhal number varies nonlinearly
with flow rate and shedding becomes unstable regardless to shedder
design.
This can be a problem in high viscosity pipe flows (>0.02 [Pa s]).
The upper flow rate bound is outlined by the onset of cavitation in
liquids or compressibility effects in gases at Mach numbers, exceeding
0.2.
Density variations affect the strength of the shed vortex while viscosity
affects the operating Reynolds numbers.

The potential advantages of vortex meters are numerous.

They have no moving parts, which leads to good reliability with little
maintenance, and relatively low pressure losses compared to
obstruction meters.
The theoretical non-dependence on fluids make them potential transfer
standards.
The operating flow range of up to 20:1, linearity within 1% over the
working range and high repeatability make vortex meters claim to be
the best flowmeters. On the other hand the shedding frequency is
inversely related to the pipe diameter cubed which suggests that meter
resolution can drop quickly in large diameter pipes, placing a limit on
the maximum meter size that can be effectively used. Vibration is
another unsolved problem. However, vortex meters with no doubt will
soon attain a pre-eminent position in the flow-metering field.
11.8. CORIOLIS FLOWMETERS

The flowmetering system is

comprised of a sensor and
a signal processing
transmitter.
The sensor consists of one
or two flow tubes in a
sensor housing - Figure.

The flow sensor's tube is

mounted and fixed at one end
and free at the other resembling
a spring and mass assembly as
shown in Figure.
Each tube vibrates at its natural
frequency, driven by an
electromagnetic drive coil located
at the center of the bend in the
tube.
The vibration is similar to that of
a tuning fork with an amplitude
of less than 2.5 [mm] and a
frequency of about 80 cycles per
second.

The operation is based on the Newton's Second Law of Motion Force=mass x acceleration. The fluid flows into the sensor tube and is
forced to take on the vertical momentum of the vibrating tube. The fluid
flowing into the tube opposes the movement of the tube. When the tube
is driven upward during half of its vibration cycle, the fluid resists being
forced upward by pushing down on the tube. Having the tube's upward
momentum as the fluid flows around the tube bend, the leaving fluid
resists having its vertical motion decreased by pushing up on the tube Fig. 11.17.d. This causes the flow tube to twist as is shown in Fig.
11.17.e. When the tube is moving downward during the second half of
its vibration cycle, it twists in the opposite direction.
This twisting is called the Coriolis effect.

According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the amount of tube twist

is proportional to the mass flow rate of the fluid flowing through the
tube. Electromagnetic velocity detectors on each side of the tube
measure the velocity of the vibrating tube. The time difference between
the two velocity detector signals is proportional to the tube twist,
therefore it determines directly the mass flow rate.

The first practical Coriolis mass flowmeters, introduced by Micro Motion,

Inc., in 1977, set new fluid measurement standards. This is the first time
to provide direct, accurate, on-line reliable measurement of mass flow in
harsh process environment, which is critical for controlling many
processes.
There exists a wide range of Coriolis sensors models for measuring of
hazardous and corrosive materials, high temperature fluids and sanitary
products.
Some models are designed to operate at temperatures up to 426 [C],
pressures up to 39 [MPa] or to withstand sterilization, covering Sanitary
standards.
Wide rangeability provides a single sensor capable of measuring various
process streams.

The maximum range covered is from 0 to 680 400 kg/h.

The accuracy reached is 0.1%. The improved design significantly lowers
pressure drop, enabling replacement of existing volumetric meters.
The sensors are engineered for reduced susceptibility to field effects
such as vibration, pressure and temperature.
The Coriolis technology was expanded to include accurate on-line
density and temperature measurement for a variety of applications.
They are used with various types of transmitters with digital SMART
FAMILY microprocessor-based electronics with explosion- and flameproof housing and communication facilities, to allow digital, analog or
frequency output signals cover areas up to 300 [m]. There exist
transmitters which provide additional outputs for density and
temperature indication.
11.9. SUMMARY
In this chapter are considered the principle of operation, the

transformation equation and the area of application of the most widely
spread in industrial practice types of flowmeters.
The differential pressure meter has a leading position. It is based on
measuring the pressure drop across various restrictions. Its main
advantage is the simplicity, reliability, no practical restrictions on type of
flows and fluids, pressures and temperatures.
The basic disadvantages are the square root relationship and the
isentropic assumptions about the flow.
The rotameter as the most commonly used variable area flowmeter
requires vertical mounting, is limited to not very high pressures and
temperatures and is cheaper than differential pressure type of
flowmeters. The turbine flowmeter can be used to measure both flow
rate and total flow having a frequency or DC voltage output.
11.9. SUMMARY
The electromagnetic flowmeter operates on the principle of

electromagnetic induction, so it causes no obstruction in the flow line
and has no moving parts.
Its implementation is restricted to measurement of flow rate of
conductive liquids in plastic pipes, slurries, sewage, liquids with solid
matter.
The ultrasonic flowmeter operates on the dependence of the sound
propagation in fluids, mainly liquids, on the flow velocity.
The technique is well suited to large diameter ducts and path lengths,
requires no assumptions about the velocity profiles but is expensive as
technology.
11.9. SUMMARY
The expected standard in flow measurement belongs duly to the vortexshedding flowmeters which equipped with numerous types of shedders
and oscillation detectors are non-dependent on fluids, have no moving
parts, small pressure losses,
linear relationship for Reynolds numbers above 104. Unsolved problems
are vibration meter resolution in large diameter pipes since vortex
shedding frequency depends on the pipe diameter cubed.
The Coriolis flowmeters are leading in providing direct, accurate (0.1%),
on-line reliable measurement mass flow rate in harsh process
environment.
They are used with various transmitters ensuring density and
temperature indication, communication facilities, digital, analog or
frequency output signals.
12. LEVEL MEASUREMENT
12.1. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing processes require
knowledge of the level of content of
tanks, batch reactors, stock chests,
bleach and cooling towers, digesters,
steam boilers and other containers.
The content may be liquid substances
(such as water, oil, petroleum, milk,
drinks), liquid-solids mixture (such as
slurry, pulp) as well as solids (such as
flour, mineral ores, food grain, etc).
The knowledge of level provides
information about the volume and the
mass of a substance in a specific
container Figure.
12.1. INTRODUCTION
The volume of the content of the

tank shown in Figure is:
V
where
D 2
4
, [m 3 ]
V is the volume of the substance
in the tank [m3]

D is the diameter of the tank
[m]
h is the level of the substance in
the tank [m]
12.1. INTRODUCTION
The mass of the

substance is
m V
D 2
4
where
is the density of the
substance [kg/m3]
12.2. DIPSTICK AND SIGHT- GLASS CONCEPT
A great variety of measurement techniques exist for level measurement.

Some of them although primitive are quite user's-friendly, easy to
operate and are easily understood by a wider range of plant operators two examples are shown in Figure.
12.2. FLOAT GAUGE TECHNIQUE
Float gauge technique is widely

used combined with suitable
motion transducer to produce an
electrical signal proportional to
the level: potentiometric (refer to
paragraph 7.4) or inductive (refer
to paragraph 7.6.1 and 7.6.2)
sensors for linkage with display
instruments or with process
control configuration - Figure.
12.3. CAPACITANCE CONCEPT
Capacitance variations are

employed for level
measurements of wide
range of substances:
liquids, powdered and
granular solids, petrol,
acids, alkali, liquid metals,
liquefied gases, hydrofluoric acid etc.
The principle is illustrated in
Figure.
The level of the substance

partially occupies the space
between the plates of the
capacitor, with air in the
remaining part.
This device acts like two
capacitors in parallel, one
with the dielectric constant
of the air (1) and the other
with the dielectric constant
of the substance (2)
Figure b).

Thus the variation of the level causes
variation of the electrical capacity
measured between the capacitor plates:
C X C1 C 2
Since for air r 1
C1 1
bH h
bH h
0
d
d
C2 2
bh
d
where
r , is the relative permitivity of the
substance
o = 8.85 x 10-12 [F/m] is the absolute
permitivity of the free space.
The substitution yields
CX 0
bH h
bh
0 r
d
d
After some transformations we get
d
H
h
CX
k1C X k 2
0b r 1
r 1
where the constants k1 and k2 since

d, b, r, o and H are constant for a
particular configuration and
substance.
Many capacitance level

systems are based on a
cylindrical bare-probe
contained in a tank and
acting as one electrode,
while the grounded tank is
acting as the other electrode
of the capacitor. For
conducting substances the
bare-probe must be
insulated to prevent shortcircuiting of the capacitor.

As shown in
d
H
CX
k1C X k 2
0 b r 1
r 1
by measurement of Cx we obtain
relevant information about the level
h.
The measurement of the capacitance

may be accomplished in several ways
- refer to Chapter 3.
Electrical potential and power are usually
low enough to eliminate hazards

Example 12.1.
The level of ethyl alcohol in a tank is

measures by using a capacitance
system shown in Figure. The
following specifications define the
system:
The height of the tank

H = 10 m
The permitivity of the ethyl alcohol
r = 26
The capacitor plates width
b = 10 cm
The plates separation
d = 5 mm
Find the range of capacity variations
as the alcohol level varies from 0 to
10 m.

Example 12.1.
Solution
For empty tank (h=0) the capacitance is
b H h
bh
0 r
d
d
0.110 0
9
8.85 x10 12
1
.
77
x
10
, F 1.77nF
3
5 x10
CX 0
For the tank completely filled with alcohol (h = H) the capacitance is

b H h
bh
0 r
d
d
0.1x10
9
0 8.85 x10 12 x 26
46
x
10
, F 46nF
3
5 x10
C X from1.77nF to 46nF
CX 0
12.4. RADIATION TECHNIQUES

The microwave and ultrasonic
radiation methods are favoured
recently for use in hazardous
regions, because they are "noninvasive" techniques, that is, they
do not involve placing anything in
the material.
In both cases a pulse of radiation
is transmitted down to the surface
Figure a) where some portion is
bounced back by the reflecting
substance surface.
12.4. RADIATION TECHNIQUES

The same concept can be used
with the waves being sent upward
through the material to be
reflected downward from the
surface Figure b).
The flight time of the waves is
measured by electronic circuitry
and the corresponding distance is
calculated accordingly.
12.5. PRESSURE TECHNIQUES

The pressure concept is used for noncontact level measurement of fluids with
determined density Figure.
If the atmosphere pressure is neglected
for simplification, then the hydrostatic
pressure produced by the liquid on the
bottom is given by the equation:
p gh
where:
p is the static pressure [Pa] or [N / m2]
is the liquid density
[kg / m3]
g = 9.8 is the acceleration due to the
gravity [m / s2]
h is the depth of the liquid [m]
12.5. PRESSURE TECHNIQUES

Thus, by measuring the pressure
(refer to Chapter 10) we can
calculate the level
p
h
, m
g

Example 12.2.
A tank holds water with a depth of 2 m. What is the pressure
at the tank bottom? (Neglect the atmosphere pressure).
Solution
The density of the water is = 1000 , [kg / m3] .
p = gh =1000x9.8x2 =19600Pa = 19.6,[kPa]
12.6. HYDROSTATIC TANK GAUGING (HTG)

Based on the above concept highly
sophisticates Hydrostatic Tank
Gauging (HTG) systems have been
developed.
The above system uses three high precision capacitance based silicon
sensors -refer also to Figure.
The above concept provides
automatic density calculation (refer
to 12.8):
p1 p 2 kg
,
gH 2 m

The pressure sensor p3 provides
automatic information about the
pressure above fluid level, thus
(refer to 12.9):
h
p1 p3
H 1 , m
g
The volume is calculated by the

equation
D 2
4
h m3
And the mass is calculated by
m V , kg

All calculations are provided
automatically by the system.
The data from the temperature
sensor are used as a reference point
for volume and to convert data to
standard temperature values.
Many other techniques are in use for
level measurement:
buoyant force displacers,
balance systems,
load cells,
conductivity, optical, hot - wire
element, radioisotope etc.
12.7. SUMMARY
Manufacturing processes require intensive level

measurements of liquids, liquid-solids mixtures and solids.
Various techniques are used with respect to the accuracy
and flexibility required, to the material under measurement
and to the safety to be secured.
Dipstick and sight-glass concepts provide simple and lowcost local display.
12.7. SUMMARY
Float gauge technique provides flexible remote

measurement by using potentiometer or LVDT motion
sensors.
Capacitance concept provides high accuracy and safe
system oriented measurement.
Radiation techniques are hazards-tolerable.
Pressure techniques offer high accuracy and intelligent
measurement of level, mass and volume of fluids, the HTG
system being the most advanced today.
13. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Temperature is one of the most used process parameters.

A great variety of processes are temperature-dependant.
Some areas to be mentioned: chemical and metallurgical
industries, steam raising, electricity generation, plastics
manufacture and moulding, milk and food-processing
industries, heating, air-conditioning, etc.
In some cases, loss of control of temperature can result in
catastrophic plant failure with the attendant damage and
possibly loss of life.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat and temperature estimation is closely related to

everyday life and could be traced back to the times when
the fire has been discovered and became an indispensable
partner of Homo Sapiens.
However, the heat and temperature are such measurands,
which can not be measured in a simple way, by using an
easy-to-understand unit like the length unit, the meter. The
ordinary temperature estimation has been (and still is)
based on relative comparison: the temperature of this body
is higher (or lower) than the temperature of another body".
13.1 INTRODUCTION
It is interesting to mention the German physicist Gabriel

Fahrenheit (1686 -1736), who proposed in 1710 a
Temperature scale with one of the fixed marks of 96F,
being the temperature of the armpit of a healthy man.
The above quotations show that the fundamental units
associated with temperature are distinctly different in
physical manifestation to those of previous chapters and
need special consideration.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter concentrates largely, but not solely upon the

basic units and scales associated with temperatures upon
electric output methods, introducing, in the short space
available, the most commonly used.
Reference is made to Chapter 7, where basic temperature
sensors are covered.
13.2. DEFINITIONS, UNITS AND TEMPERATURE SCALES
Heat and temperature are quite different measurands but
are closely related.

The Collins Concise Dictionary defines heat as "a form of
energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature. It
is equal to the total kinetic energy of the atoms and
molecules of a system".
The temperature is defined in the same dictionary as "the
degree of hotness of a body, substance or medium,
especially as measured on a scale that has one or more
fixed reference points".
The heat flows (is transferred) from the hotter to the

colder state where two different regions occur.
Noltingk is more precise from engineering point of view
when defining temperature and heat: "Temperature is the
potential to cause heat to move from a point of high

temperature to one of low temperature. The rate of heat
transfer is a function of that temperature difference. Heat is
thermal energy and is measured in units of energy [Joules].
The quantity of heat in a body is proportional to the
temperature of that body, i.e. it is its heat capacity multiplied
by its absolute temperature".
The heat is transferred from a hot body to a cooler one by

conduction and/or by convection and/ or by radiation.
The heat exchange between systems is covered by the
science of thermodynamics.
The temperature, among volume and pressure is one of
the three basic quantities of thermodynamics reflecting the
substance's state - the temperature characterises the heat
(or the thermal) state of the substance.
The ideal gas law states:

pV RT
where
p is the absolute gas pressure [Pa]
V is the gas volume
[m3]
R = 8,314 is the gas constant [J/mol.K]
T is the gas temperature
[K]
No ideal gas exists, but a few come dose enough; for
others corrections can be made. We shall come back to this
law later in this chapter.

As mentioned above the temperature can be evaluated only relatively
to other temperature referred to as reference temperature (or
reference point).
Historically the temperature of the melting (pure water) ice is widely
accepted as a reference temperature, known as triple point of water.
This is the temperature at which the three phases of the water are in
equilibrium: solid (ice), liquid (water), and vapour.
he reason of referring to this temperature is that it is reproducible in a

easy, simple and low-cost way. The triple point of water can be
reproduced with an error less than 0.0001 C [66].
A temperature unit must be established besides the

reference temperature, in order to evaluate qualitatively
the temperature as a measurand.
The temperature unit chosen together with the reference
point(s) accepted is known as temperature scale.
The temperature scale is the foundation for design of any
temperature measuring device referred to as thermometer.
The temperature cannot be measured directly but only through its

manifestation, of its repercussion in the material world. For instance
most substances (liquids and gases) increase in volume with increase
of temperature - refer to equation :
VX V0 1 TX
V0 is the volume at the reference temperature

VX is the volume at the new temperature
Tx = Tx-T0 is the temperature difference
T0 is the reference temperature
Tx is the new temperature
is the coefficient of thermal cubical expansion
The linear, rather than volume expansion of solid materials is that

property often employed to form thermometers. These thermometers
make use of a change in length, occurring in response to an imposed
temperature difference:
I X I o 1 TX
I0 is the length at the reference temperature (say T0

lx is the length at the new temperature (say Tx )
Tx = Tx-T0 is the temperature difference
T0 is the reference temperature
Tx is the new temperature
is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion
Based on the above relationships and phenomena many

attempts have been made to design thermometers.
Although the origin of the first thermometer is something
for historians to argue over it is clear that Galileo Galilee
has proposed an temperature measuring device in 1592,
based on the thermal expansion of the air.
Ferdinand II count of Toskanini designed a liquid
thermometer in 1660 based on two reference
temperatures: the snow temperature (digit 20) and the
temperature of the most hot summer day (digit 80).
The well known glass thermometer was designed by

Gabriel Fahrenheit (German physicist) in 1724. The first
version was based on alcohol, the next was based on
mercury. This form is still in use today.
As already mentioned he used melting ice to fix the 32F
mark and for 96F he used the armpit of a healthy man.
The 212F mark represents the boiling point of the pure
water under standard atmospheric pressure.

The Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701 - 1744) invented the
well known mercury thermometer, based on the Celsius scale.
This is a temperature scale in which 0C represents the temperature of
the melting ice and 100C represents the boiling point of water under
standard atmospheric pressure.
It is clear that the temperature difference 0 to 100C is divided by 100
in order to obtain an unit.
Hence 1/100 of this range is accepted as Celsius temperature unit.
This unit is referred to as One degree CelSIUS (1C).
This temperature scale and this temperature unit became widely used
and popular.
Kelvin (William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, 1824 -1907) tried

to put temperature scales on a more rational foundation by
proposing the so called Thermodynamic scale, 1844 1852.
He was guided by the empirical scales already developed
and by the fundamental relationships of thermodynamics.
A short description of the thermodynamic scale, proposed
by Kelvin follows.

The French physicist Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778 - 1850)
conducting experiments with gases came to the conclusion that the
volume or pressure of an ideal gas increases with 1/273,15 of its value
when the temperature increases by 1C. Related to the volume (by
keeping constant pressure) this gives:
Vt
p const
V0
1
V0
273,15
p const
for 10C temperature increment
V0 is the volume at a reference temperature
Vt is the volume at a reference temperature plus 1C.

Further careful experiments with
different gases, different
volumes (always keeping
p=const) have proved the
validity of the above relationship
Figure
Voi - Vok are different volumes of
gas at a reference temperature
t = 0C;
Voi - Vok are the values of the
expanded gas volumes when the
gas temperature is raised from
0C to tC

As shown in Figure a series of
measurements have been
conducted with real gasses for
the temperature range 0C - tC.
For each temperature (0C or
tC) precise measurements of
the corresponding volumes is
made.
Thus the co-ordinates of the
points Voi and Vot , respectively
V02 and Va, etc. can be fixed.

The extrapolation of the curves Voi
,Vot , respectively V02, Va up to V02
,Vtk (see dotted lines) shows that
they define the zero crossing point Z
on the temperature co-ordinate. The
distance of this zero point Z from
0C is exactly - 273,16C.
This crossing point Z is referred to
as absolute zero and is taken as one
of the reference points of the new
scale known as thermodynamic
temperature scale, or also called
Kelvin scale.
The absolute zero temperature is a

theoretical abstraction, because
absolute zero can only be
approached, not reached.

As a second reference point of the
thermodynamic scale is chosen the
water triple point temperature. The
temperature unit proposed for the
thermodynamic scale is named
Kelvin, symbol K and is defined as
the fraction 1/273,16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water.
Thus the thermodynamic

temperature scale is completely
fixed with an unit 1K and two
reference points: absolute zero
temperature (0 K) and water triple
point temperature (+273.16 K).

It is clear that the unit of Celsius temperature (the degree Celsius,
symbol C) is, by definition, equal in magnitude to the Kelvin (symbol
K). Nevertheless, the temperatures are expressed in different ways for
Celsius temperature and for Kelvin temperature
A Celsius temperature can be expressed in Kelvin temperature and vice
versa as follows:
t = T - 273.16
or
C = K - 273.16
T = t + 273.16
or
K =C + 273,16
where
t is the Celsius temperature
T is the Kelvin temperature

Over the years the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) has
been generated and improved by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures (Conference General des Poids et Mesures) known as CGPM and
currently the IPTS-68 is used.
Reference temperature point
triple point hydrogen

boiling point hydrogen
boiling point neon
triple point oxygen
triple point water
boiling point wate
freezing point zinc
freezing point silver
freezing point gold
All temperature measurements should be traceable to the IPTS.
18.18
20.28
27.102
54.361
273.16
373.15
692.73
1235.08
1337.58
-259.34
-252.87
-246.048
-218.789
+0.01
100.0
419.58
961.93
1064.43
EXAMPLE 13.1.
Define the following temperatures:

The Celsius equivalent of T= 13.81 K
The Kelvin equivalent of t= 1064.43 C
The Kelvin equivalent of t =150.53 C
Solution
C = K - 273.15 = 13.81 - 273.15 = 259.34
K = C + 273.15 = 1064.43 + 273.15 = 1337.58
T = t =150.53 C = 150.53 K
13.3. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
The heat and temperature influence the real world by inducing some
changes on the parameters of the material substances both on
microscopic and macroscopic level: volume, pressure, length, resistivity,
conductivity, kinetic energy, radiation spectre and radiation intensity,
etc.
Such temperature manifestation phenomena have been extensively
exploited for design of various temperature measuring devices, known
as thermometers.
The field of research is still open for discovery of new techniques or for
radical improvement of well-known old techniques.
13.3.1. Liquid expansion
The mercury-filed glass thermometer is

based on the cubical expansion of
mercury according equation.
VX V0 1 TX
It is the most familiar of all

thermometers. Its simplified construction
is shown in Figure.
In certain industrial uses, particularly in
industries where the escape of mercury
from a broken bulb might cause
considerable damage to the products
other liquids are used to fill the
thermometer.
13.3.1. Liquid expansion
The basic liquids used with their

ranges (in C) are:
Mercury
Alcohol
Toluene
Pentane
Creosote
-35 to
-80 to
-80 to
-200 to
-5
to
+510
+70
+100
+30
+200
13.3.2. Gas Expansion

The principle of the gas-filled
instruments is based on the ideal
gas law - equation:
pV RT
As mentioned above, both

pressure and volume of the gas
are increasing with the
temperature rise.
Therefore, "constant - volume'
and "constant - pressure"
versions are possible for
temperature measurement
sensing.
Constant - volume version is more

practical from engineering point of
view: from the basic equation
pV RT
R
p
T
V
R = constant and V is kept constan

Hence
p kT
which shows that, the pressure of

the gas is proportional to the gas
temperature.

Therefore, the pressure
measuring device may be
calibrated in temperature units.
The sensing element can be any
pressure sensing element
described in Chapter 10 or in
Chapter 7.
The use of Bourdon tube (see
Fig. 10.6.a) is the most
illustrative example -Figure.
An advantage of the gas - filled

thermometers is that the gas has a
lower thermal capacity than a similar
quantity of liquid, so the dynamic
response to temperature changes is
better than that of a liquid - filled
system with a bulb of the same size
and shape.
The measurement range covered by
gas - expansion type thermometers
(constant -volume) is -130C to
+540 C with a measurement error
about 1 %.
13.3.3. Vapour Pressure Thermometer

A variation of the gas - expansion
method is the vapour pressure
thermometer.
The bulb (Figure) is partly filled with

liquid and the rest is occupied by the
saturated vapour of that liquid. The
pressure of the saturated vapour is
again proportional to the liquid
temperature.
Vapour pressure thermometers are
less expensive than liquid- and gasfilled versions. Their temperature
range is -50 C to 320 C, the
accuracy being 1%.
13.3.4 A Solid Expansion
This technique is based on the relationship

defined by equation related to the linear
expansion of solid materials exposed on
temperature rise - Figure.
The linear expansion of the temperature
sensing rod Figure a) may be sensed both
by mechanical displacement sensing
element, (for instance a pointer) or by one
of displacement sensors described in
Chapter 7.
The bimetal strip arrangement is used for
"on - off temperature sensing in various
equipment, mainly for overheat protection.
The Trademark invar is an alloy containing
iron, nickel and carbon and has a very low
coefficient of expansion. The above
arrangements provide a temperature
sensing with an accuracy of 1%.
13.3.5. System Oriented Techniques
The system oriented temperature sensors have been

described in Chapter 7, namely Metallic Electrical
Resistance Temperature Sensors (Section 7.10.1),
Semiconductor Temperature Sensors - Thermistors
(Section 7.10.2), Thermocouples (Section 7.10.3),
Semiconductor Junction Temperature Sensors (Section
7.10.4). For details the student is referred to above
sections.
13.3.6. Radiation Techniques
As was mentioned in Section 13.2. thermal energy may be

transferred from one body to another by radiation.
The amount of thermal energy or heat leaving a body by
radiation and the wavelength of that radiation are
functions of the temperature of the body.
This dependence in temperature of the characteristics of
radiation is used as the basis of temperature measurement
by radiation thermometers.
The basic radiation techniques for temperature
measurement are: total radiation, pyroelectric,
photoelectric and optical.
13.3.7. Miscellaneous Temperature Measurement

The scope of this textbook does not permit description of all methods and
techniques for temperature measurement. Nevertheless, we feel that a listing
of other techniques may be of help for our students:
Narrow Band Optical Pyrometers
Thermal Imaging Thermometry
Acoustic Thermometry
Liquid crystals
Temperature - Sensitive Pigments
Fluidic Sensors
Johnson Electrical Noise Sensors
Two Colour Radiation Thermometers
Blackbody-Tipped Fibre-Optic Radiation Thermometers
and many others to come...
13.4. SUMMARY
Heat and temperature are quite different measurands, but are closely related.
The heat is transferred from a hot body to a cooler one by conduction and/or
by convection and/ or by radiation.
The temperature is measured with reference to a reference point, i.e. to a
reference temperature.
The temperature unit chosen together with the reference point(s) accepted is
known as temperature scale.
The thermodynamic temperature scale is now internationally accepted.
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) based on thermodynamic
scale is currently used.
The temperature measuring instruments are called thermometers.
Thermometers are based on the changes in material substances due to their
temperature change.

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4-th semester Part 2

15 hours/ 7 weeks tutor Assoc.Prof.Dr. Andrey Elenkov

Exam end of the semester

Measurement and Instrumentation Part 2, edited by N.Kolev,

Measurement and Instrumentation Part 1, edited by N.Kolev, Technical University of

John Bentley, Principles of measurement Systems, Longman Scientific @ Technical 1992

Doebelin E.O. Measurement Systems, Application and Design, IV edition, McGraw-Hill

Anthony D.M. Engineering metrology. Pergamon Press, oxford, 1992

George Barney, Intelligent Instrumentation microprocessor applications in measurement and

Optical Methods in Engineering Metrology, Edited by D.C.Williams, Chapman&Hall, 1993

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.1. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The displacement may determine

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

In each instance the

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.1. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

The corresponding relationships for

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.1. General Length Measurements

A large proportion of industrial range of length measurements can be

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.1. General Length Measurements

Some sort of displacement measurements are covered in Chapter 9 for

manufacturing systems (FMS).

The fundamental measurement task related to the positioning of NC and

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.1. General Length Measurements

The measurement of angular displacements basically are accomplished by

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2. INDUSTRIAL RANGE OF LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.1. General Length Measurements

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.1. General Length Measurements

The angular displacement is measured by a rotary displacement sensor.

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.2. The inductosyn

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.2. The inductosyn

The primary and secondary

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2.2. The inductosyn

Both coils are produced by the

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2. INDUSTRIAL RANGE OF LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

8.2.2. The inductosyn

The principle of operation of the linear

v0 kvs kVsp sin t

k is the transformation ratio of the

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2. INDUSTRIAL RANGE OF LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

8.2.2. The inductosyn

From equation (8.1):

If the secondary coil is displaced from its

8. DISPLACEMENT AND MOTION

8.2. INDUSTRIAL RANGE OF LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

8.2.2. The inductosyn

The change of the secondary voltage