Highway 3rd Sem Lecture Note

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering
Geometric Design of Railway Track

A railway track laid along a straight line is said to be an ideal track. But due to general
topography of the area and some other factors, it becomes necessary to deviate from straight
alignment. Hence a curve for or a combination of curves is inserted between straights. Proper
design of component parts of the curve constitutes the geometric design of the track.
Horizontal curves:
The use of curves in railway track is warranted in the following situations:
To bypass the neutral and artificial obstacles
To provide easier gradients by diverting the straight track alignment
To connect the area of potentialities
Locations where curves to be avoided:

Bridges, tunnels, viaduct, steep gradient, stations and yards, level crossings and deep cuttings.
Classification of horizontal curve:
Simple curve: Horizontal curve with single arc of a circle
Compound curve: Horizontal curve which consists of two or more arcs with different radii
having different centers on the same side of the common tangent and bending in the same
direction.
Reverse curve: Horizontal curve which consists of two arcs with different circles of the same or
different radii bending in the opposite direction with a common tangent at the junction.
Transition curve: Horizontal curve of varying radii introduced between a straight and a circular
curve.
Radius and degree of a curve:
The radius of the curve is some times represented by degree of the curve.
Degree of a railway curve: The angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord of length
30.5 m length.
Relationship between the radius and degree of a curve: D = 1750/R
Effect of curves on tracks:
Length of trains is to be restricted
Use of heavy locomotives is to be restricted
Unequal distribution of load and hence running of train will not be smooth
Extra track fittings are needed
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Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY
Rails get bent due to rigid wheel base

Operation and maintenance cost is more
Super elevation:
The difference in elevation of outer rail with respect to inner rail to counter balance the
centrifugal force is called super elevation or cant and is equal to GV2/127R, where G is the
dynamic gauge, V is the speed of the train and R is the radius of the curve.
Cant deficiency: It is the difference between the cant necessary for the maximum permissible
speed on a curve and the actual cant provided.
Cant excess: It is the difference between the equilibrium cant and the theoretical cant required
for the given lower speed.
Cant gradient: It is the amount by which cant is increased or decreased in a given length of the
transition curve.
Rate of change of cant: It is the amount by which cant is increased or decreased per second.
Safe speed on curves: It is the maximum speed of train based on the type of gauge, amount of
super elevation, provision or absence of transition of curve at the ends and weight of the trains.
Maximum sanctioned speed for the section: It is the speed for the section determined by the
factors such as track conditions, standard of locking, type of locomotives etc.
Negative super elevation or Negative cant: When branch line meets main line on curve, outer
rail of one line and the inner rail of the other line should be at the same level and it is called as
negative cant.
Gradients:
The rate of change of slope in the longitudinal direction is called grade or gradient. When a
track rises in the direction of movement of trains, it is known as a up-gradient or positive
gradient, where as a down gradient or falling gradient is the one when the railway track loses
elevation in the direction of the movement of trains.
Gradients are provided in the railway track for the following purposes:
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To reach the stations at different elevations
To reduce the cost of earth work
To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible
Classification of gradients:
Ruling gradient: It is the gradient which determines the maximum weight of a train, which can
be pulled by a locomotive along a particular section of a track.
Momentum gradient: It is the up gradient which exceeds the ruling gradient along which the
increased load of the train may be hauled by the locomotive after gaining momentum during
descending a falling gradient.
Pusher or helper gradient: It is the steep gradient along which an additional locomotive is
required to push the train up the gradient.
Gradients in station yards: As far as possible the track along the stations and yards should be
level. But, in level track in stations and yards, complex drainage problem is created. To
overcome the drainage problem, Indian railways have prescribed a normal gradient of 1 in 1000
in station yards.
Grade compensation: whenever train is pulled along a curve, an additional tractive force is
required. In order to avoid the total resistance beyond the permissible ruling gradient, the
gradient is reduced on curves and is called as grade compensation. For BG track 0.04% per
degree, MG track 0.03% per degree and NG track 0.02% per degree.
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UNIT IV Railway Operation, Control, Construction and Maintenance

Points and Crossings:
Turn Outs: The assembly of various components which enables trains to move from one track
to any other track either parallel to or diverging from the first track is called turn out or points
and crossing.
Points:
Stock rails: Rails of the main line track
Tongue rails: The tapered rails whose thicker ends known as heel are fixed to the main track
and thinner ends known as the toe of the switch to obtain a snug fit with respective stock rails.
Switch: Combination of stock rail and its respective tongue rail
Heel blocks: The block which connects the heel of the tongue to the stock rail with a pair of
ordinary fish plates and fish bolts.
Sliding plates: The metal plates, which are provided for supporting and sliding tongue rail to
obtain a snug fit against stock rail.
Stretcher bar: Bars which are used to connect the ends of the tongue rails to ensure the
movement of both the tongues through the same distance.
Throw of switch: The distance through which the tongue rails move at the toe of the switch.
Crossing:
The arrangement of rails, which is provided to enable the flanges of wheels to cross the rails of
the other track.
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Important terms used in Points and Crossing:
Types of Crossings:
1.
2.
3.
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Classification based on the shape of crossing

(a)
Acute angle crossing or V crossing or Frog
(b)
Obtuse angle crossing or diamond crossing
(c)
Square crossing
Classification based on the assembly of crossing

(a)
Spring or movable wing crossing
(b)
Ramped crossing
Classification based on manufacturing purposes

(a)
Built up crossing
(b)
Cast steel crossing
(c)
Combined rail and cast crossing
Number of Crossing:
It is the ratio of the spread of the crossing to the length of the crossing from theoretical nose of
crossing.
Number of crossing = Distance of straight rail from toe to heel in feet/Sum of spreads at each
end equal to one foot
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Types of Switches:
(ii)
Split Switch
These consist of a pair of stock rails and a pair of tongue rails. Split switches may again of two
types. Loose heel type and Fixed heel type.
Loose heel type: In this type, the switch or tongue rail finishes at the heel of the switch to
enable movement of the free end of the tongue rail. The fish plates holding the tongue rail may
be straight or slightly bent. The tongue rail is fastened to the stock rail with the help of a fishing
fit block and four bolts. All the fish bolts in the lead rail are tightened while those in the tongue
rail are kept loose to allow free movement of the tongue,
Fixed heel type: In this type, the switch or tongue rail does not end at the heel of the switch but
extends further and is rigidly connected. The movement at the toe of the switch is made
possible on account of the flexibility of the tongue rail.
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Design of Turnouts:
Curve lead = Switch Lead + Crossing Lead = SL + Cl
Track Junctions and Simple track layouts:
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1.
Turnout of similar flexure
2.
Turnout of contrary flexure
3.
Symmetrical split
4.
Three throw switch
5.
Double turnout
6.
Cross over
7.
Diamond crossing, Diamond crossing with Single slip and double slip
8.
Scissors cross over
9.
Gauntleted track
10.
Gathering line
11.
Triangle
12.
Double Junctions
STATIONS AND YARDS:

Site selection for railway stations:
Acquisition of adequate land
Level ground with good drainage
Availability of water
Availability of space on both sides
Alignment of the track
Approach road to the station site
Easy accessibility
Basic requirements of a railway station:
1.
Public requirements: Waiting rooms, retiring rooms, sanitary arrangements,

refreshment rooms, bath rooms, drinking water, passenger platforms, STD booths,
water coolers, boards for station name at suitable positions, enquiry office etc.
2.
Traffic requirements: Station masters office, telecommunication office, staff rooms,

signal cabins, signals, sufficient number of sidings and platforms.
3.
Requirements of locomotives: Sufficient water for locomotives, arrangement for

cleaning and examining locomotives, facilities for inspection and repair, loco shed,
turn table, triangle, inspection pit etc.
4.
General requirements: Approach roads, installation of clocks, boards indicating

platform numbers, availability of authorized coolies etc.
Classification of railway stations:

1.
Based on operational characteristics
Block stations Class A, B and C stations in the descending order of their importance
A driver of a train has to obtain a permission to approach an authority to proceed is called block
station. (Min. requirements: Home signal, starter signal and Warner signal)
Non-block stations Class D or flag stations
Special class stations: The stations which are not covered under the above categories
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2.
Based o functional characteristics
Way side stations: The stations where movement of train is only two directional. It may be
further classified as
Halt stations: It is usually provided with rail level platform. Neither a building nor a booking
office is provided. Tickets will be issued in train by TTE. Train will stop for a while to permit
entraining/detraining of passengers.
Flag stations: It is more important than halt stations. It is provided with station building and
staff. It will be provided with telegraph or telephone facility.
Crossing stations: An arrangement is provided to permit trains from opposite directions to pass
one another.
Junction Stations: The stations where a branch line joins a main line. A facility to interchange
the traffic from main line to branch line, a loco workshop for repair of locomotives, an
arrangement of changing the direction engine will be available.
Terminal Stations: A railway line or one of its branch lines terminates. The reception line
terminates at a dead end. Facilities for reversing engine, repair of wagons, locomotives,
hydraulic buffer, building with booking office etc.
Platforms:
1.
Passenger platforms: Min. length: 61 m, width: 3.66 m, ends with ramp, light
arrangement, drinking water, toilets at either end, suitable length with shelter.
2.
Goods platforms: Goods shed, proper drainage facility, easy accessibility, weighing
equipments, trolleys etc.
Yards:
A system of tracks laid within definite limits for sorting out and dispatching, making up of
trains.
Types of railway yards:
Passenger yards: To provide the safe movement of passengers during entraining and
detraining. It has to accommodate passenger trains.
Goods yards: For loading and unloading the goods and also for the movement of goods
vehicles. Facilities like over head cranes, cranes traveling on rails, fixed or gantry rails and
cranes mounted on road vehicles should be available. Weigh bridge and loading gauge also
should be available.
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Marshalling yards: Meant for sorting out of wagons according to traffic requirements.
Salient features: Reception sidings, Sorting sidings and departure sidings.
Types of marshalling yard:
Flat yard: All sorting is done by locomotives
Gravitational yard: The tracks are laid over suitable gradient so that wagons can move of their
own under the action of gravity.
Hump yard: Artificially built humps are provided and wagons are pushed upon the hump by an
engine and further running will be due to gravity.
Locomotive yards: They are meant for accommodating the locomotives for watering, repairing,
oiling, cleaning, servicing etc.
SIGNALLING:
A signal is a mechanical or electrical device erected beside a railway line to pass information relating to
the state of the line ahead to train/engine drivers. The driver interprets the signal's indication and acts
accordingly. Typically, a signal might inform the driver of the speed at which the train may safely
proceed or it may instruct the driver to stop.
Originally, signals displayed simple stop/proceed indications. As traffic density increased, this proved to
be too limiting and refinements were added. One such refinement was the addition of distant signals on
the approach to stop signals. The distant signal gave the driver warning that he was approaching a signal
which might require a stop. This allowed for an increase in speed, since trains no longer needed to be
able to stop within sighting distance of the stop signal. Under timetable and train order operation, the
signals did not directly convey orders to the train crew. Instead, they directed the crew to pick up orders,
possibly stopping to do so if the order warranted it.
Signals are used to indicate one or more of the following:
that the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked.
that the driver has permission to proceed.
that points (also called switch or turnout in the US) are set correctly.
which way points are set.
the speed the train may travel.
the state of the next signal.
that the train orders are to be picked up by the crew.
Signals can be placed:
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at the start of a section of track.
on the approach to a movable item of infrastructure, such as points/switches or a swingbridge.
in advance of other signals.
on the approach to a level crossing.
at a switch or turnout.
ahead of platforms or other places that trains are likely to be stopped.
at train order stations.
'Running lines' are usually continuously signalled. Each line of a double track railway is normally
signalled in one direction only, with all signals facing the same direction on either line. Where 'bidirectional' signalling is installed, signals face in both directions on both tracks (sometimes known as
'reversible working' where lines are not normally used for bi-directional working). Signals are generally
not provided for controlling movements within sidings or yard areas.
Classification of Signals:
Audible Signals:
Audible signals such as detonators and fog signals are used in cloudy or foggy weather when
hand or flag signals are not visible. The sound can immediately attract the attention of drivers.
These detonators are kept 90 m ahead of a signal to indicate the presence of signal to the
drivers.
Visible Signals: Hand Signals - flags, lamps, bells, and whistles
Hand signals include signals given by hand, or by flags or lamps used by the signalman,
drivers, guards, or station staff. At most stations and signal box cabins, it is still customary to
use hand-held flags (green and red) to signal trains. In many cases these confirm the semaphore
or colour-light signals, but can be used to override them. At night hand-held lamps (red or
green) are used instead. The all-right signal refers to the display of green flags by station
masters (or other staff), lineside workers, level crossing gatekeepers, and others, to passing
trains, or for the driver of one train to another passing train (see drivers' signals below), or from
the signal cabin to the driver or guard of a passing train. It indicates a few different things. For
trains passing stations, it is a confirmation that the train is allowed to be passing through as the
semaphore or colour light signal indicates. The station staff person also keeps a watch for
problems such as hot axles, derailed bogies or dragging equipment, or parted couplers, and the
green flag indicates there are no such problems observed. Customarily, the green flag is held in
the left hand, and the red flag is kept ready to be displayed in case of a problem in the right
hand - the custom arose from the idea that the right hand is usually the more vigorous one for
most people and the red danger signal could be shown more promptly in case of a problem.
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Fixed Signals:
Semaphore Signal:
The semaphore arm consists of two parts: A movable arm pivoted in a vertical post through a
horizontal pin as shown in Figure. The arm of the semaphore signal on the side facing the
driver painted red with vertical white stripe. The other side of the signal is painted with black
vertical stripe. The complete mechanical assembly of the signal consists of an arm, a pivot, a
counter weight spring stop etc., and is housed on the top of a tubular or lattice post. A spectacle
holding coloured lenses which move in front of a lamp in order to provide indications at night.
arm projects horizontally in its most restrictive aspect; other angles indicate less restrictive
aspects. Lower quadrant and upper quadrant: Semaphores come in lower quadrant and upper
quadrant forms. In a lower quadrant signal, the arm pivots downwards for the less restrictive
(known as "off") indication. Upper quadrant signals, as the name implies, pivot the arm upward
for "off".
Calling on Signal:
This consists of a small arm fixed on a home signal post below the main semaphore signal arm.
When the main home signal is in the horizontal position and calling on signal is in inclined
position, it indicates that the train is permitted to proceed cautiously on the line till it comes
across the next stop signal.
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Co-acting signals Co-acting signals are duplicate signals fixed below ordinary signals and are provided where, in
consequence of the height of the signal post, or of their being an over-bridge or other obstacle,
the main arm or light is not in view of the Driver during the whole time that he is approaching
it. Co-acting signals shall be fitted at such height that either the main arm or light or the Coacting arm or light is always visible.
Repeater signals A signal placed in rear of a fixed signal for the purpose of repeating to the Driver of an
approaching train the aspect of the fixed signal in advance is called a Repeater signal. A
Repeating shall be provided with an R marker and shall be of banner type, or a square ended
semaphore arm, or a color light signal.
Shunt signals:
Signals used for shunting purposes are distinct from stop signals as their function is different.
They do not indicate that the line ahead is clear, but that movements may proceed as far as the
line is clear. Shunting signals are in the form of a miniature semaphore arm, mounted at ground
level or on a signal post. Many of those at ground level have the arm superimposed on a white
or black disc to aid visibility. This type is generally called a disc signal.
Signals based on their location
Outer Signal, Home Signal, Routing Signal, Starter Signal and Advanced Starter Signal
Signalling systems
Mechanical signaling system and Electrical signaling system
Component
Signals
Points
Level
crossing gates
Transmission
systems
Operating
units
Monitoring
units
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Mechanical
Mechanically operated lower
quadrant or Upper quadrant
Mechanically operated
Manually operated swing leaf gate
or mechanically operated
Single or double wire transmission
systems to the requisite points
Mechanical interlocking with
tappets
With the help of detectors
Electrical
Coloured light signals with 2, 3 and
4 aspect signaling
Electrically operated
Electrically operated lifting barriers
Electrical transmission through over
head wire or under ground cable
Interlocking through relays
With the help of DC or AC track
circuits, axle counters etc.
Systems for controlling train movement:

Time interval system (There is time interval between two successive trains in this system) and
space interval system (There is time interval between two successive trains in this system)
Methods of controlling train movement:
One engine only system: This system permit only one train to remain in a section at one time.
The movement is controlled with the help of a wooden staff or token with suitable
identification marks. This system is suitable only for short branch line.
Following train system: In this system train follow one another after a time interval that is
generally less than 15 min. Trains scheduled after the first train can run at a maximum speed of
25 km/h. Since adequate time interval is kept between two successive trains safety is ensured to
a limited extent.
Pilot guard system: In this system a person known as pilot guard accompanies a train by
riding on the foot plate of the engine and returns to the same station with another train. The
pilot guard normally identified by his/her uniform.
Absolute block system: In this system entire length of track is divided into a number of
sections called block sections. A section is usually the distance between two stations. Two
adjacent block sections are separated by block station, where block instruments are installed in
pair. The block instruments are used to show whether the block section is occupied by train or
clear. Each block instruments are electrically connected in series, telegraphically operated and
verbal exchange is done telephonically. Each block station is under the control of a station
master where as each block section is under the charge of two block stations situated at the
either end of block section.
Automatic block system: the signals are actuated by the movement of trains and therefore the
trains can follow each other between two stations. It is controlled by track relays, and when a
train enters a particular block, the signal is at danger position until the train leaves the block.
Centralized Train Control (CTC):
The operation of all points and signals of the various stations of a section in centralized at one
place in such a system and controlled by a single official called CTC operator. CTC operator
virtually takes the responsibility of various station masters of individual stations and operates
all the points and signals through remote control. The coverage will be upto a distance of 120
km on either side. In CTC panel interlocking is provided which ensures highest level of safety.
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Interlocking:
Interlocking is an arrangement of signals, points and other apparatus so interconnected by
means of mechanical or electrical locking that can be operated in a predetermined sequence to
ensure that there is no conflicting movement of signals and points and trains run safely.
Essentials:
-
it should not be possible to turn a signal off unless all points for the line on
which the train is to be received are correctly set
the line is fully isolated before the signal is turned off
after the signals turned off, it should not be possible to do any adjustments
it should not be possible to turn off any two signals at the same time
wherever possible, the points should be so interlocked as to avoid any

conflicting movement
Methods
Key Interlocking
It is the simplest method of interlocking and still exists on branch lines of small stations on
Indian Railways. There are two systems under this;
(i)
Single lock and Key system
(ii)
Double lock and Key system
Single lock and Key system: This system is based on the principle of providing two locks with
a single key. Let A be the lock of the signal and B be the lock of the point. The normal
setting of the point is for the main line with signal in ON position.
To lower the signal for the main line, insert the key in lock A and turn it, the signal is now
released. After lowering the signal, it is not possible to withdraw the key from the lock A. Thus
the points are correctly set for the main line.
For setting points for the siding, first place the signal to normal position and remove the key
from lock A. Insert the key in lock B and turn it to release the points for the siding. While
setting the points for siding, the signal for the main line remains locked and hence cannot be
lowered.
Double lock and key system: There will be two locks in this system.
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Route Relay Interlocking (RRI) is the system used in large and busy stations that have to
handle high volumes of train movements. In this, an entire route through the station can be
selected and all the associated points and signals along the route can be set at once by a switch
for receiving, holding, blocking, or dispatching trains. Regardless of whether the mechanisms
are controlled manually or by electronic circuits, and whether they are operated mechanically
or electrically, all interlocking schemes usually enforce several or all of the following rules:
No signal can be pulled off unless corresponding points are set correctly.
Facing points are locked to the corresponding route when a signal is pulled off.
Signals for conflicting movements cannot be pulled off simultaneously.
Points for conflicting routes cannot be set simultaneously.
Trailing points are locked to the rear when a signal is pulled off.
Distants, warners, repeaters, etc. cannot be pulled off unless the corresponding stop
signals are pulled off.
Gate stop signals cannot be pulled off unless level-crossing gates are blocked to road
traffic.
Tappets and lock system

Tappet Locking is a system used to prevent signals being pulled off for conflicting routes. Each
signal lever (or point lever, slot lever, etc, in the frame) moves a plunger (also known as driving
iron) either directly attached to it or through a connecting mechanism. The plungers move
lengthwise. Attached perpendicularly to them are tappet bridles (also known as locking bars).
Tappets are small flat bars or wedges that are attached to the bridles with cams, so that they can
move slightly sideways (along the bridle). A tappet on the locking bar of one plunger presses
against a different plunger. Each plunger has notches that correspond to the wedge shape of the
tappets. The notches are placed in such a way that at specified configurations of the signal
levers, tappets can fit into the notches. When a signal lever is moved, tappets attached to it can
slide in or out of notches on other signal levers' plungers because of their cams. However, a
plunger that has a tappet from another signal lever wedged in its notch cannot move - or vice
versa.
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Mechanical devices for Interlocking

Detector: A Detector is a very basic mechanical interlocking device that ensures that a signal
can be pulled off for a route only after the points have been set correctly for it. It also ensures
that the tongue rails for the points are positioned correctly. The detector consists of a set of
signal slides that operate perpendicular to the a blade connected to the points which determine
the route. The blade connected to the points has a number of notches, matching the number of
signals. Each signal slide has just one notch. The notch on the signal slide fits into the notch of
the point blade only when the points are correctly set for the route of the corresponding signal.
When the signal slide is positioned in this way, it frees the signal to be pulled off. Then when
the signal is pulled off, it moves the signal slide such that the points cannot be changed because
the notch of the point blade fouls the signal slide.
Stretchers and Lock Stretcher Bars: A pair of tongue rails for a switch is often provided with
two stretchers, which connect the two tongue rails together. The front stretcher extends under
the stock rail to prevent the phenomenon of 'jumping' or 'dancing' switches. If one or the other
tongue rail gets bent out of shape, one or both stretchers will break.
A Lock Stretcher Bar consists of an additional stretcher connected separately to the tongue rails
such that if either the tongue rails bend or the front or rear stretchers break, the notches on the
front or rear stretchers will foul the blade for the detector mechanism and prevent the signal
from being taken off for the route.
Plunger Lock: Additionally, the lock stretcher has two notches, and a Plunger Lock, which is a
bar perpendicular to the lock stretcher (and therefore parallel to the rails) fits in one or another
of them, when the points are set for the corresponding route. When the lock plunger is set in
one or the other notch, it prevents the points from moving. This is an additional locking
mechanism beyond that provided by the detector. Often the locking is accomplished by a
separate locking lever after the main lever to set the points is operated. Sometimes the locking
is done in the same action as setting the points, but this is less reliable and harder to work.
Lock Bar: A Lock Bar is a long bar, corresponding to the longest wheel base of vehicles
operating on the line (14m - 42' as a minimum for BG, or 13m - 40' for MG), provided parallel
to and close by the inside of one of the stock rails, and connected to the mechanism locking the
points. It is set up in such a way that when the points are set and locked, the lock bar moves
vertically up until it reaches the level of the wheels riding on the rails. As long as the train is
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moving over the points, one or another wheel presses down on the lock bar, forcing it to be
locked in position so that the points cannot be changed.
Slotting of signals: Inter cabin control of signals for the purpose of bringing them to OFF
position is called slotting of signals. By these arrangements, the cabin man of a recovering
signal cabin can not operate the signals unless the cabin man of the dispatching signal cabin
releases the control lever of the signal. On the other hand, by slotting of signals, it is possible to
put back the signal to danger position.
Construction of New railway lines:

New railway line is required for any one of the following reasons:
-
Strategic and political considerations
Development of backward area
Connecting new trade centers
Shortening existing rail lines
The main tasks involved in new construction of new lines are as follows:
Land acquisition, earth work formation, plate laying and packing of track.
Earth work for formation:
Depending upon the rail level and general contour of the area, the formation may be laid in an
embankment or cutting. Formation laid in an embankment is generally preferred because it
affords good drainage. Some of the points to be kept in mind with regard to earth work:
-
Earth work is normally done 30 cm layers so that the soil is well compacted
Mechanical compaction is generally done to obtain 90%MDD at OMC
Blanket of thickness 30 cm is provided when soil is not of good quality
Cost of cutting vs cost of filling to be counter balanced
Entire section may be divide to convenient zones for early execution of work
Plate laying:
The assemblage of railway track components on a prepared formation is called plate laying or
track linking.
Method of plate laying:
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1.
Side method or tramline method
2.
Telescopic method
3.
American method
1. Side Method or Tramline method:

The materials will be dumped adjacent to the proposed line and will be made use of. This
method is very much suitable where double track is required. Existing track can be used for the
additional track construction. If there is no track is available for transporting materials, road is
to be constructed and then track can be constructed and this method is suitable for flat terrain.
2. Telescopic method:
In this method, the material is transported through wagons from the material depot to the work
site by using newly laid track. The laying of new track is advanced telescopically till
destination is reached. All the required materials are stored in a material depot before
construction. Materials can be shifted to some other point when distance of construction
becomes more from the rail head.
3. American method:
Special track laying machines are employed for plate laying work. The procedure in this
method is:
-
Required number of sleepers as per sleeper density and two rails are first
prepared in the workshop and assembled.
The assembled panels and track laying machines are delivered at the end of
rail head by the material train.
With the help of special machine, the assembled panel is downloaded and is
linked with rail head
The material rail is moved ahead of rail head by one rail length
These steps are followed till the entire length of the track is laid.
Methods of packing of track:

1. Beater packing
2. Measured Shovel Packing
3. Packing by track tamping machines
1. Beater packing:
A beater is basically a pickaxe with one of its end blunted into T-shape. The pick end is used
for loosening the ballast core and the blunt end is used for forcing the ballast under the sleeper.
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2. Measured Shovel Packing:

This method of maintenance of track without use of any sophisticated mechanical aid is an
improved form of manual method. It is generally employed only when ballast has already been
consolidated by passage of trains and only minor depressions in cross and longitudinal levels
need to be made up.
3. Packing by track tamping machines
Off-Track tampers:
They are portable and can be quickly taken off of the track just two people. These tampers
work during the interval between passage of trains and do not require any traffic blockage.
They consist of tools driven by compressed air, electricity or petrol. There are basically two
types of off track tampers namely, self contained tampers and those that are worked from a
common unit. They may be vibratory (by means of vibration) or of the percussion type (by
means of blows) or a combination of both.
On-track tampers:
They are self propelled vehicle which facilitate automatic tamping of sleepers through the
controls provided in the operators cabin. The weight of these tampers varies from 20 to 30 t
and cannot be easily removed from the track. Hence traffic is to be blocked during its
operation. These tampers can simultaneously do tasks like lifting, aligning, leveling and
tamping.
Maintenance of track alignment:

Tracks can be conveniently maintained either manually or with modern methods.
Essentials of track maintenance:
-
gauge should be correct
no difference in cross levels in straight reach
longitudinal level should be uniform
alignment should be straight and kink free
ballast should be adequate and sleepers to be well packed
no excessive wear and tear of track
track drainage should be good and the formation should be well maintained
Through packing:
Opening of road
90
Examining of rails, sleepers and fastenings

Squaring of sleepers
Aligning the track
Gauging
Packing of sleepers
Repacking of joint sleepers
Boxing ballast section and dressing
Systematic Overhauling:
Shallow screening and making up of ballast section
Replacement of damaged or broken fittings
All items included in through packing
Lubrication of rail joints
Picking up slacks:
Slacks are those points in the track where the trains are running faulty or sub standard. It may
be due to
-
Stretches of yielding formation
Poorly maintained sections
Improperly aligned curves
Approaches to level crossings, girder bridges particularly in sag
Portions of track with poor drainage
Maintenance of Rail Surface

The surface of rail susceptible to certain defects in the absence of proper care and maintenance.
Each defect should be dealt with carefully at the proper time.
Hogged joints
High joints
Blowing and pumping joints
Track Renewal
The process of replacement of existing rails and sleepers either separately or together by new or
old serviceable material is called track renewal. They can be broadly classified as under:
Complete track renewal: This implies the renewal of all the components. Necessary
recoupment of ballast and the provision of ballast cushion will also be done.
91
Through rail renewal: It involves the renewal of the rails between one point and the next.
Through sleeper renewals: This entails the renewal of the entire lot of sleepers from one
point to another.
Casual renewal: This entails the replacement of some of the unserviceable rails or sleepers or
both with serviceable, released rails and sleepers of a similar type and age.
Primary renewal: This refers to renewals that are done using new permanent way materials.
Secondary renewal: This refers to renewals that are done using released, serviceable
permanent way materials.
Factors responsible for track renewal:
Criteria for rail renewal:
Incidence of rail fractures failures
Wear on rail (loss of section, corrosion in web and foot, vertical wear, lateral wear)
Difficulty in track maintenance
Criteria for sleeper renewal:
When the sleeper does not fulfill the requirements of maintaining gauge, seating and tight grip,
then renewal of sleepers required.
Track Drainage:
Need for proper drainage:
Settlement of embankment
Reduction in bearing capacity
Failure of embankment
Formation of ballast pockets
Shrinkage and cracking of banks
Adverse effects of black cotton soil
Formation of slush
Requirements of good drainage system:
Surface water should not percolate to track
Effective side drains
Longitudinal drains to be saucer shaped
Provision for clearing and inspection
Drain top to be below cess level
92
No erosion of banks
Formation to be of good soil
Proper sub-surface drainage
Proper outfall
Special arrangements for waterlogged areas and other difficult situations
Practical tips for good drainage
Maintain proper cess level, No vegetation, area below rail foot to be clear, cleaning and repair
of drains.
Track drainage systems

Surface drainage:
Drainage of mid sections:
Side drain
Lining of drains
Adequate opening under level crossing
Catch water drain
No surplus ballast
Drainage in station yards:
Open surface drains
Saucer shaped drains
Drain top to be below cess level
Outflow and slope
Position of ballast sections
Network of cross and longitudinal drains
Drainage of station platforms:
Slope away from track
Discharge on non-track side
Discharge not towards run through lines
Sub-surface drainage
Provision of inverted filter
Paving of catch water drains
Provision of sand piling
93
Drainage of water pockets by perforated pipe

Cement grouting
Drainage of water pockets by puncturing holes
Modern methods of track maintenance:

1. Mechanized maintenance of track with the help of track machines (refer page 90)
2. Measured Shovel Packing
3. Directed Track maintenance
Measured Shovel Packing (MSP):

This method of maintenance of track without use of any sophisticated mechanical aid is an
improved form of manual method. It is generally employed only when ballast has already been
consolidated by passage of trains and only minor depressions in cross and longitudinal levels
need to be made up.
Scope of MSP:
The process of MSP is suitable for the following types of work:
-
Through packing of the flat bottomed sleepers
Packing of joint wooden sleepers in metal sleepers track
Through packing of points and crossings with wooden and steel sleepers
Dehogging of rail ends
Advantages of MSP:
-
Work carried out is precise and finer adjustments that are permissible in
MSP
Retentivity of packing especially in joint sleepers is more compared to other

types
MSP gives an increased output per gangman and is therefore economical
Minimum clean ballast cushion is not need when work is done through MSP
Disadvantages of MSP:
-
MSP is suitable only for flat bottomed sleeper and hence its scope is limited
This procedure requires special size stone chips, which may not be easily
available
94
MSP is not effective for newly screened tracks
Skilled labourers required
Through MSP of flat bottomed sleeper tracks:

-
Measurement of voids
Fixation of high points
Converting high points to good points
Longitudinal leveling
Total lift
Opening out of ballast
Lifting and packing of tracks
Provision of ramps
Alignment
Boxing and dressing of ballast
Majoration of Joints
Checking of work done
Directed track Maintenance (DTM):

As the name suggests, the maintenance is to be done as per the directions given every day and
not as routine one. In other words, it is a need based maintenance and not a routine
maintenance. In this s\system, track will be maintained at predetermined standards.
Objectives: Maintaining a track at predetermined standards and reduction in the cost of
maintenance by avoiding unnecessary work.
Work done under DTM:
Systematic overhauling: It will be done depending on the local factors such as condition of
track and formation, traffic density, permissible speed and rainfall.
Periodic maintenance work: Lubrication of joints, cleaning of side drains, catch water drains
and repairs of the formation.
Occasional maintenance work: Scattered renewal of rails, sleepers and other track
components, adjusting creep, restoring correct spacing between sleepers, over hauling at level
crossings, points and crossings.
Need based maintenance: Locating defects with some devices, by systematic inspection, by
recording observations and rectifying the above based on the need.
95

Highway 3rd Sem Lecture Note

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Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Geometric Design of Railway Track

To bypass the neutral and artificial obstacles

To provide easier gradients by diverting the straight track alignment

To connect the area of potentialities

Locations where curves to be avoided:

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Rails get bent due to rigid wheel base

To reach the stations at different elevations

To reduce the cost of earth work

To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

UNIT IV Railway Operation, Control, Construction and Maintenance

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Important terms used in Points and Crossing:

Classification based on the shape of crossing

Acute angle crossing or V crossing or Frog

Obtuse angle crossing or diamond crossing

Classification based on the assembly of crossing

Spring or movable wing crossing

Classification based on manufacturing purposes

Cast steel crossing

Combined rail and cast crossing

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Curve lead = Switch Lead + Crossing Lead = SL + Cl

Track Junctions and Simple track layouts:

Turnout of similar flexure

Turnout of contrary flexure

Three throw switch

Scissors cross over

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

STATIONS AND YARDS:

Public requirements: Waiting rooms, retiring rooms, sanitary arrangements,

Traffic requirements: Station masters office, telecommunication office, staff rooms,

Requirements of locomotives: Sufficient water for locomotives, arrangement for

General requirements: Approach roads, installation of clocks, boards indicating

Classification of railway stations:

Based on operational characteristics

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

Based o functional characteristics

Prepared by Dr.G.Dhinakaran/Professor/SoCE/SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Lecture Notes for BCECCE 601R01 Highway and Railway Engineering

that the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked.

that the driver has permission to proceed.

which way points are set.

the speed the train may travel.

the state of the next signal.

that the train orders are to be picked up by the crew.

Signals can be placed:

at the start of a section of track.