Speed: the rate at which an object moves, distance divided by time Velocity: speed and direction Acceleration: the rate at which an objects velocity changes (m/s2) o Can be a change in either speed or direction o Acceleration of Gravity (g): 9.8m/s2 Momentum and Force Momentum: product of an objects mass and velocity Force: anything that causes a change in momentum Net force: the combined effect of all the individual forces acting on an object o Can be 0 when forces cancel each other out, change in momentum occurs if net force is not 0 Moving in Circles Angular momentum: momentum attributable to rotation or revolution, (m x v x r) Torque: twisting force that can cause a change in angular momentum Mass Mass: amount of matter in an object Weight: net force that an object applies to its surroundings (depends on forces including gravity) Free-fall: falling without any resistance to slow you down In space, astronauts are in a constant state of free-fall when orbiting the Earth SECTION 4.2 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION Aristotle said the heavens were separate from Earth, so the laws of physics didnt apply to heavenly motion Galileo showed that Aristotle was wrong 1: An object moves at constant velocity if there is no net force acting upon it 2: Force = mass x acceleration 3: For any force, there is always an equal and opposite reaction force o You would fall down on the ground if this law were not true o Objects always attract each other through gravity A person and the Earth exert identical force, but Earth has more mass, so person has much greater acceleration, meaning they fall towards Earth, not other way around o Also explains how rocket is propelled into space SECTION 4.3 CONSERVATION LAWS IN ASTRONOMY Conservation of momentum: the total momentum of interacting objects cannot change as long as no external force is acting on them Conservation of Angular Momentum: as long as there is no external torque, the total angular momentum of a set of interacting objects cannot change
o Angular momentum can only change by transferring some angular momentum to
or from another object
o Orbital Angular Momentum:
Earth doesnt need fuel to stay in orbit Because r is smaller when Earth is closer to Sun, velocity is greater o Rotational Angular Momentum: Earth continues to rotate on its axis because it doesnt transfer any angular momentum to other objects Conservation of Energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only change from one form to another Basic Types of Energy o Kinetic: energy of motion, 1/2 mv2 o Radiative: energy carried by light o Potential: stored energy, can be later converted into kinetic or radiative o Standard unit is a joule Thermal Energy o Subcategory of kinetic energy o Collective kinetic energy, as measured by temperature, of many individual particles moving within a substance o Temperature: average kinetic energy of the particles Potential Energy in Astronomy o Gravitational Potential Energy: energy an object has due to its position in a gravitational field, is greater when there is a greater distance to potentially fall o Mass-energy: potential energy of mass, E=mc2
SECTION 4.4 THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
Every mass attracts every other mass through the force of gravity The strength of the gravitational force attracting and 2 objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses Strength of gravity b/w 2 objects decreases with the square of the distance b/w their centers (an inverse square law) Fg = G(M1M2/d2) o Fg is force of gravitational attraction, M are masses, d is distance b/w the 2 centers o G is gravitational constant, 6.67 x 10-11 m3/(kg x s2) Newton showed Keplers laws are consequences of the laws of motion Newton also expanded Keplers laws o Orbits of a satellite around Earth, moon around a planet, or asteroid around the Sun all on elliptical orbits o Ellipse is only possible shape for a bound orbit (circling continuously), but other shapes possible for unbound orbits (paths that bring an object close just once) o The 2 objects actually orbit each other around their common center of mass Newton refined Keplers 3rd law to work for any units
o P2 = 42______ a3 G(M1 + M2)
SECTION 4.5 ORBITS, TIDES, AND THE ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
Orbits dont always stay the same o Ex. Planet going around Sun Has kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, which depend on orbital speed and distance from Sun, which both vary at different points o Orbital energy: sum of kinetic and gravitational potential energy, always stays the same o Two objects can exchange orbital energy through a gravitational encounter, which is when they pass near enough to feel the effects of the others gravity Such as a planets gravity altering orbit of a comet o Friction from a planets outer atmosphere can also cause an object to lose orbital energy o To leave Earths orbit, a satellite must have enough orbital energy to achieve escape velocity (11km/s) Newtons second law shows that because of gravity, objects will fall at the same rate, regardless of mass