Chapter 2

VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND LAGRANGES EQUATIONS

I.

HAMILTONS PRINCIPLE FOR A SYSTEM OF N PARTICLES WITHOUT CONSTRAINTS

A. Lagranges equations
Let us rst discuss the Hamiltons principle for a system of N particles, assuming that there are no constraints that limit the motion of the system.
The Newtons second law, which describes the motion of the kth particle of the system, has the following form:
mk

d2 rk
= Fext
k +
dt2

Fjk

k = 1, 2, ..., N

(1)

j=1;j=k

where Fjk and Fext

denote the internal force applied on the kth particle because of the interaction with the jth
k
particle of the system, and the net external force, applied on the kth particle, respectively. rk (t) = (xk (t), yk (t), zk (t))
is the 3Dposition vector of the kth particle, and mk denotes its mass.
In what follows we assume that:
(i) The internal forces depend only on the positions vectors of jth and kth particle. Thus, we can write the following
general form of the internal forces:
Fjk = Fjk (rk rj )
(ii) The internal forces are conservative forces, and therefore, one can write the potential energy of the internal
forces between particles in the form:
V (r1 , r2 , ..., rN ) =

1
2

Vjk (rk rj )

The net internal force applied on the particle of mass mk is:

[
]
N
N

Vjk (rk rj )
Vjk (rk rj )
Vjk (rk rj )
Fjk (rk rj ) =
i+
j+
k = k V (r1 , r2 , ..., rN )
xk
yk
zk
j=1;j=k

(2)

k=1,k=j j=1,j=k

(3)

j=1;j=k

where the k operator is dened as:

(
k =

,
,
xk yk zk

If the external forces Fext

k (rk , t) are conservative forces, then we can introduced the corresponding potential energy
function Vkext (rk , t):
(

Fext
k

)
x

Vkext (rk , t)
xk

( ext )
V ext (rk , t)
Fk y = k
yk

( ext )
V ext (rk , t)
Fk z = k
zk

(4)

The corresponding total potential energy of the external forces V ext (t) at time t is given by:
V ext (r1 , r2 , ..., rN , t) =

Vkext (rk , t)

(5)

k=1

More generally, in what follows we assume that the external forces are derivable from a velocity-dependent potential
Ukext (rk , r k , t):
(

Ukext (rk , r k , t)
d Ukext (rk , r k , t)
+
xk
dt
x k
( ext )
Ukext (rk , r k , t)
d Ukext (rk , r k , t)
Fk y =
+
yk
dt
y k
( ext )
d Ukext (rk , r k , t)
Ukext (rk , r k , t)
+
Fk z =
zk
dt
zk
Fext
k

(6)

2
By introducing the velocity-dependent potential energy U ext of the external forces:
U

ext

(r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N , t) =

Ukext (rk , r k , t)

(7)

k=1

one can write the Lagrangian of this system in the following general form:
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N ) =
]
N [

mk x 2k
mk y k2
mk zk2
+
+
V (r1 , r2 , ..., rN ) U ext (r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N , t)
2
2
2

(8)

k=1

According to the Hamiltons principle, the motion of the system between time t1 and t2 is such that the action
t2
S=
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N ) dt
(9)
t1

takes the least possible value, which means that the variation of the action for xed t1 and t2 is zero, i.e.
S = 0
The action takes its least possible value when the trajectories of the particles r1 (t), r2 (t), ..., rN (t) are solutions of the
Lagranges equations:
[
]
d L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

= 0 ; k = 1, 2, ..., N
(10)
dt
x k
xk
[
]
d L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

=0
dt
y k
yk

k = 1, 2, ..., N

(11)

[
]
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
d L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

=0
dt
zk
zk

k = 1, 2, ..., N

(12)

B. Generalized coordinates
In many cases the Cartesian coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , y2 , z2 , ..., xN , yN , zN ) are not the most convenient coordinates to solve the Lagranges equations. After setting up the Lagrangian function in terms of a Cartesian
coordinates, we may change the old coordinates X (x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , y2 , z2 , ..., xN , yN , zN ) to the new coordinates
Q (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ). In principle, the generalized coordinates for a system of N particles is any set of coordinates
by means of which the positions of the particles in the system may be specied. Always we shall assume that the
old coordinates X could be transformed to the new coordinates Q, or viceversa, by means of the transformation
equations:
Qj = fj (X, t),

Xj = Fj (Q, t) j = 1, 2, ..., 3N

In what follows, we shall prove that the Lagranges equations

(
)
(
)

L t, X, X
d L t, X, X

=0
Xk
dt
X k

k = 1, 2, ..., 3N

(13)

(14)

do not change their forms under the transformations

(13). Another
words, after setting up the Lagrangian in terms
(
)

of the new coordinates, L (t, Q, Q) = L t, X(Q, t), X(Q, Q, t) the new coordinates can nd q1 (t), q2 (t), ..., q3N (t) by
solving the same Lagranges equations, but written in terms of the new coordinates:
(
)
(
)

L t, Q, Q
d L t, Q, Q

= 0 ; j = 1, 2, ..., 3N
(15)
Qj
dt
Q j

3
To prove this statement, we rst calculate:
(
)
(
)
(
)

3N L t, Q, Q
3N L t, Q, Q
L t, X, X

Qj
Q j
=
+
Xk
Qj
Xk j=1
Xk
Q j
j=1
(
)
L t, X, X
X k

(
)
(
)

3N L t, Q, Q
3N L t, Q, Q

Qj
Qj
=
=
Xk
Q j
X k
Q j
j=1

(16)

(17)

j=1

In eq. (17) we have used the following relationships:

Qj Qj
Q j
Qj
Q j =
+
Xn
=
t
Xn
Xk
X k
n=1
3N

Next, by taking into account the relationship

3N

2 Qj

2 Qj
d Qj
=
=
Xn +
dt Xk
X
X
X
t
X
k
n
k
k
n=1

we nd

( 3N
)
Qj
Q j
Q
j
=
X n +
Xn
t
Xk
n=1

(
)
(
)
(
)

3N
3N L t, Q, Q
L
t,
X,
X
L
t,
Q,
Q

d
Q j
d
=
Qj +
dt
dt
Xk j=1
Xk
X k
Q j
Q j
j=1

Inserting (16) and (18) into (14), we nd:

(
)
(
)

3N
L t, Q, Q
L
t,
Q,
Q

Qj = 0

Q
dt
Xk
Qj
j
j=1

k = 1, 2, ..., 3N

(18)

(19)

Since Xkj are not linearly dependent functions, the expressions inside he brackets equal zero, and therefore, the
Lagranges equations (15) take place.

II.

CONSERVATION LAWS

The motion of a mechanical system of N particles can be determined by integrating the above Lagrange equations (19), but in most of the cases, this is neither useful nor even possible. For this reason, it is useful to obtain
information about our system without full integration of the Lagrange equations. This is possible in the following cases:
A. Existence of Cyclic Coordinates
(
)
Suppose that the Lagrangian L t, X, X
does not depend on the coordinate Xk ,
(
)
L t, X1 , X2 , ..., Xk1 , Xk+1 , ...XN , , X . In this case, the coordinate Xk is called a cyclic coordinate.
obvious, that the quantity, known as the general momentum associated with the cyclic coordinates Xk
(
)
L t, X1 , X2 , ..., Xk1 , Xk+1 , ...XN , , X
Pk =
X k

i.e.
It is

ia a constant of motion. Thus, the rst case is a conservation of the general momentum associated with a cyclic
coordinate.

4
B. Energy
So far, we have assumed that the Lagrangian in some cases may be a function on the time variable t. Now
we are going to discuss the case when the Lagrangian does not explicitly depend on time. In what follows we shall
construct a function of the coordinates and the velocities of the system that does not change with time for any
solution to the Lagranges equations. Often, we can identify this quantity with the energy.
For simplicity, we rst consider a motion with a single degree of freedom, i.e. L (t, x, x),
and then extend the result
to systems with more degrees of freedom. We start with the following function:
E(t) = x

L (t, x, x)

L (t, x, x)

(20)

Note that the Lagrangian depends on time variable: (i) explicitly on t; (ii) through x(t) and x(t),

and therefore, we
calculate:
[
]
dE
L (t, x, x)

d L (t, x, x)

d
=x

+ x

(21)
L (t, x, x)
dt
x
dt
x
dt
By means of the Lagranges equations in the case of a single-degree of freedom, we obtain:
[
]
d L (t, x(t), x(t))

L (t, x(t), x(t))

=
dt
x
x

(22)

Thus, we can rewrite eq. (21) in the following form:

dE
L (t, x, x)

L (t, x(t), x(t))

d
=x

+ x
L (t, x, x)

dt
x
x
dt

(23)

Now, the time derivative of the Lagrangian equals:

d
L (t, x(t), x(t))

L (t, x(t), x(t))

L (t, x(t), x(t))

L (t, x, x)
=
+
x +
x

dt
t
x
x

(24)

Inserting eq. (24) into eq.(23) we nd:

L (t, x(t), x(t))

dE
=
dt
t

(25)

If the Lagrangian does not depend on time explicitly, but only through the time dependence of x(t) and x(t),

the
function E(t) is constant for the trajectory. Usually, this function E(t) is the energy of the particle. For example, if
we have the Lagrangian, given by
L (x(t), x(t))

= T (x(t))

V (x(t)) =

1
mx 2 (t) V (x(t))
2

(26)

the function E(t) equals:

[
]
L (x, x,
)
1
1
2
2
E(t) = x
L (x, x)
= mx mx (t) V (x(t)) = mx 2 (t) + V (x(t))
x
2
2

(27)

which is the total mechanical energy of the particle.

The construction of the energy function E(t) makes it clear how to deal with more degrees of freedom.
For the system of N particles, which has the Lagrangian, given by eq. (8), the energy is dened as:
E(t) =
]
N [

L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
+ y k
+ zk
x k
x k
y k
zk
k=1

L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

(28)

5
Applying exactly the same calculations as in the case of a single degree of freedom, one can prove the following
equation:
dE
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
=
dt
t
For any Lagrangian that does not depend explicitly on t,
conserved.

L
t

(29)

= 0, and therefore, eq. (28) denes a quantity which is

C. Noethers theorem
In what follows we discuss the question of the connections between the fact that the Lagrangian function is
invariant under a certain change of variables and the existence of conserved quantities. The invariance of the
Lagrangian function represents a special type of symmetry. Symmetry is a mathematical statement, and it is said
that a system has a symmetry if there is some transformation you can make that leaves the system
looking exactly as it did before.
Let rst discuss Noethers theorem assuming that the motion of a single particle is described by the following
Lagrangian function:
L(x, y, x,
y)
=

1
m(x 2 + y 2 ) V (r)
2

(30)

where r = x2 + y 2 is magnitude of the particles position vector. For a given potential function V (r), the problem
could be solved by using polar coordinates (r, ):
x = r cos

y = r sin

z=z

(31)

Consider the special type of innitesimal transformation that shifts just the angle by a variable amount , i.e.
r = r and = + . This transformation represents a rotation about z axis through an angle . By means of
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin and sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin we obtain that this transformation leads to
the new coordinates:
x = x cos y sin ;

y = x sin + y cos

or x = x cos + y sin ;

In short notation we have

( )
( )
(
)
x
x
cos sin
=
R
,
R
=
,

y
y
sin cos

x
y

(
= S

x
y

y = x sin + y cos

, S = R1 =

cos sin
sin cos

(32)

The case when = 0 represents the so-called identical transformation. For the identical transformation x = x
and y = y.
In general such a transformation will yield a new form for the Lagrangian in the sense that the new Lagrangian
L is a dierent function of the new coordinates (x , y ) than the old Lagrangian L was of the old coordinates
(x, y). In our example, however, one can see that the Lagrangian itself is invariant, i.e., the functional dependence
on the coordinates and velocities is the same before and after the transformations:
1
2
2
L(x, y, x,
y)
= L(x(x , y , ), y(x , y , ), x(
x , y , ), y(
x , y , )) = L(x , y , x , y , ) = m(x + y ) + V (r )
2

(33)

Note that the same function L appears on each side of the above equation. In other words, this transformation
leaves the system looking exactly as it did before. In what follows we consider symmetries in which the symmetry
transformation can be made arbitrarily small. Such a symmetry is called a continuous symmetry.
In 1918, Emmy Neother proposed a theorem which states that any innitesimal transformation, involving
an innitesimal parameter , which leaves the Lagrangian unchanged, leads to a certain conservation
law. To obtain the conservation law, which corresponds to the above transformation, we use that for innitesimal
we have
x = x y,
to obtain:

y = x + y,

x = x y,

y = x
+ y

y)

L (t, x , y , x , y ) = L(t, x y, x + y, x y,
x
+ y)
= L(t, x, y, x,
Next, we apply a Taylor expansion:
y)

L(t, x, y, x,
L (t, x , y , x , y ) = L(t, x, y, x,
y,
t) +
|=0 + ...

Because of (33), we calculate that the partial derivatives of L (x , y , x , y , t) with respect to should be zero:
0=

L
L x
L y
L x
L y
|=0 =
|=0 +
|=0 +
|=0 +
|=0

x
y
x
y

The last equation could be rewritten in the form:

[
[
(
)]
(
)]
[
]
L
d L
L
d L
d L x L y
x
y
0=

+
+
x
dt x

y
dt y

dt x
y

(34)

(35)

Since the Lagranges equations take place, the expressions inside the rst two brackets equal zero. Thus, we obtain:
[
]
d L x L y
+
0=
|=0
(36)
dt x
y
According to the last equation the quantity
L x
L y
|=0 +
|=0 = const
x
y

(37)

does not depend on the time variable.

We calculate ( 0):
L
= mx ;
x

L
= my
y

x
|=0 = y

y
|=0 = x

The quantity which conserves is the z-components of the angular momentum vector:
L y
L x
|=0 +
|=0 = mxy
+ myx
= Lz = const
x
y

(38)

It is not dicult to generalize the above expression for the case of a system of N particles. We assume that the
written in terms of the generalized coordinates Q (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ), is known, and
Lagrangian function L(t, Q, Q),
the following Lagranges equations take place:
(
)
(
)

L t, Q, Q
L
t,
Q,
Q
d

j = 1, 2, ..., 3N
(39)
qj
dt
qj
For any innitesimal transformation, involving an innitesimal parameter , each qj changes for each value of to
some other value qj , and therefore we can write for an innitesimal parameter
qj = qj + j (Q)
The case we are interested in is when the Lagrangian function is invariant under this transformation, i.e.

L(t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) = L(t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N

, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N
) = invariant

Note that the same function L appears on each side of the above equation.
By applying Taylor expansion,
+
L(t, Q , Q ) = L(t, Q, Q)

L(t, Q , Q )
|=0 + ...

(40)

7
we conclude that the quantity
3N

L(t, Q, Q)
j=1

qj

j (Q) = constant

(41)

is a constant in time.
Another example of conservation law, which follows from Noethers theorem, is related to the closed (isolated)
system of N particles. Since the potential energy, which correspond to the internal force Fjk between jth and kth
particle of the system depends only on the dierence between their position vectors, i.e. rk rj , we can say that if
every particle of the system is moved by the same amount R, the potential energy stays the same. The kinetic energy
is not aected by this transformation, so an invariance of the Lagrangian occurs when every particle of the system is
moved by the same amount R = (, 0, 0). Another words, the space translation invariance requires that after applying
the transformations xk = xk + , yk = yk , zk = zk (in x direction k (Q) = 1 for k = 1, 2, ..., N , and therefore, the
velocities r k remain the same) the Lagrangian must remain the same:
L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N ) = L (t, r1 + R, r2 + R, ..., rN + R, r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )
In Cartesian coordinates, Noethers theorem (41) assumes the form:
N

L(t, X, X)
k=1

x k

= constant

(42)

Since the linear momentum of the particle of mass mk is

(
)
(
)
(
)

L t, X, X
L t, X, X
L t, X, X

= pk = (mk x k , mk y k , mk zk ) ,
,
,
x k
y k
zk

(43)

the Noethers theorem requires that the x-component of the total linear momentum P is conserved:
Px =

N (

L (t, r1 , r2 , ..., rN , r 1 , r 2 , ..., r N )

k=1

x k

)
N
, 0, 0 =
(pk )x

(44)

k=1

Similarly, if R = (0, , 0) (or R = (0, 0, )) , then the y-component (or z-component) of the total linear momentum
P is a constant in time. Since all three components of P are constant in time, the linear momentum of the isolated
system is conserved, i.e. this vector remains constant during the motion. Also, eq. (44) proves the additivity of
the linear momentum of the system.
The invariance of the Lagrangian function under a certain transformation, which is all we need to prove Neothers
theorem, does not require the full invariance of the Lagrangian. If a coordinate transformation described by
an innitesimal parameter leaves the Lagrangian invariant except for a total time derivative, i.e.
+ dG(Q, t)
L(t, Q Q ) = L(t, Q, Q)
dt

(45)

the Lagrangian functions L and L are called equivalent, and L is said to be invariant up to a gauge function
F . Lagrangians diering only by a total time derivative of a function of the coordinates lead to the
same Lagranges equations. If the eq. (45) takes place, then Noethers theorem assumes the form:
[
]
3N

L(t, Q, Q)
j (Q) G(Q, t) = constant
(46)
qj
j=1
Example: Mass m falling down under the gravitational force.
Assume that the x axis is directed down, and the x = 0 is the zero-potential level, and therefore, the Lagrangian is
L(x, x)
=

mx 2
+ mgx
2

The transformation
x = x +

8
leads to the Lagrangian
L (x , x ) =

mx 2
d
+ mgx + mg = L(x , x ) + (mgt)
2
dt

According Eq. (45), the function G(x, t) = mgt, and the corresponding quantity that conserved is:
L
mgt = mx mgt = C1 ,
x
where C1 is a constant. The last expression is a rst-order dierential equation, and we can integrate it to nd x(t):
x(t) =

1 2 C1
gt +
t + x0 ,
2
m

where x0 is the initial position, and the constant C1 can be connected to the initial speed x(t
= 0) = V0 = C1 /m.
Thus, without using the Newtons second low, by applying the Neothers theorem, we obtain the well-known solution
x(t) = x0 + V0 t + 21 gt2 .
In the more general case, one can consider innitesimal c00rdinates and time transformations:
qj = qj + j (Q, t),

t = t + (Q, t)

If this coordinate-time transformation leaves the Lagrangian invariant except for a total time derivative, i.e.
+ dG(Q, t) ,
L(t , Q Q ) = L(t, Q, Q)
dt

(47)

the quantity
3N

L(t, Q, Q)
j=1

qj

j (Q) (Q, t)

3N

L(t, Q, Q)
j=1

qj

G(Q, t) = constant
qj L(t, Q, Q)

(48)

is a constant in time.
If the Lagrangian is invariant under pure time transformation, i.e.
= 1,

j = 0,

G = 1,

the quantity
H=

3N

L(t, Q, Q)
j=1

qj

qj L(t, Q, Q),

called the Hamiltonian of the system is conserved.

III.

HAMILTONS PRINCIPLE FOR A SYSTEM OF N PARTICLES WHEN CONSTRAINTS ARE

IMPOSED

A. Holomonic constraints
The Lagrangian function for a system of N particles, written in terms of a generalized coordinates, has the

form L(t, Q, Q).

Here Q = {Qj }, Q = {Q j }, j = 1, 2, ..., 3N are composite variables, dened according to the
following rules: Q {q1 , q2 , ..., q3N } and Q {q1 , q2 , ..., q3N }. In the case of holomonic constraints, imposed on the
system, the following m equations must be satised:
fn (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t) fn (Q, t) = 0

n = 1, ..., m (m < 3N )

(49)

Generally speaking, by means of the constraints it is possible to eliminate m of the qj in terms of the other 3N m
variables, and thus reducing the problem to 3N m Lagranges equations. In many cases the elimination may be

9
rather cumbersome. Instead of eliminating coordinates, one can apply the method of Lagrangian multipliers, which
states that the extremals of the action
t2
S [q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ] =
L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) dt
(50)
t1

under independent constraints (49) coincide with extremals of the following functional

S [q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ] =

t2

L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) dt

(51)

t1

where

L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) = L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) +

j (t)fj (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t)

(52)

j=1

is an eective Langrangian and j (t) are undetermined Lagranges multipliers.

The above theorem provides a method to nd the equations of motion in the case of constraints. To nd them, we:
(i) construct the functional L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N );
(ii) by solving the system of equations, which includes the corresponding Lagranges equations and the equations of
the constraints (49), we can obtained q1 (t), q2 (t), ..., q3N (t) and j (t).
The Lagrangian multiplier method has a direct physical interpretation. In fact, the additional terms j fj modify the
potential energy of the system. The j fj terms take into account the potential energy of the unknown forces of
constraints which are responsible for the restrictions on the freedom of the motion of the system of particles which
must be satised by their coordinates. For example, let us assume that we have a single particle and only one
constraint f (x, y, z) = 0. The additional potential energy is V1 = f (x, y, z). The corresponding force of constraint
equals:
N = ((t)f (x, y, z)) = (t)f (x, y, z)
and this force is always perpendicular to the surface in 3D space, dened by f (x, y, z) = 0.
Atwoods machine is an example of a simple mechanical system with constraints.
connected by a rope of length l over a xed pulley (FIG. 1).
Assuming y = 0 as a zero-potential energy, the potential energy is

Weights m1 and m2 are

V (y1 , y2 ) = m1 gy1 + m2 gy2

Thus, we can write the Lagrangian in the following form:
L(y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 ) =

1
1
m1 y 12 + m2 y 22 m1 gy1 m2 gy2
2
2

(53)

The constraint in our problem is given by the equation:

y1 y2 + R l = 0

(54)

L (t, y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 ) = L(y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 ) + (t) (y1 y2 + R l)

(55)

The eective Langrangian is:

The Lagranges equations are:

d L (t, y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 )
L (t, y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 )

=0
y1
dt
y 1

m1 g (t) m1 y1 = 0

(56)

L (t, y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 )
d L (t, y1 , y2 , y 1 , y 2 )

=0
y2
dt
y 2

m2 g (t) m2 y2 = 0

(57)

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FIG. 1: The Atwoods machine.

We have three equations, (54), (56) and (57), which can be used to obtain y1 (t), y2 (t) and (t).
(t) =

2m1 m2
g
m1 + m2

y1 =

m2 m1
g
m1 + m2

y1 =

1
2

y2 =

m1 m2
g
m1 + m2

y2 =

1
2

m2 m1
m1 + m2
m1 m2
m1 + m2

(58)
)
gt2 + A1 t + A2

(59)

gt2 + B1 t + B2

(60)

The constants A1 , A2 , B1 and B2 should be obtained by using the initial conditions (initial positions y1,2 (t = 0) and
initial velocities y 1,2 (t = 0) for both masses).
B. Nonholomonic constraints
In this case the constraints are of the form:
fj (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t) = 0

j = 1, ..., m (m < 3N )

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The Lagranges multiplier method is analogous to the case of holomonic constraints, but with eective Lagrangian:
L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) = L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) +

j (t)fj (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t)

j=1

(61)
C. Additional condition when a denite integral have a prescribed value
Sometimes, the constraints do not appear as an algebraic relationship between the generalized coordinates,
but in the form of a denite integral which must have a given value:
t2
fj (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t)dt = Cj
t1

The Lagranges multiplier method works exactly in the same manner as in the case of holomonic constraints, and the
the only dierence is that j factors are constants and not functions of t, i.e.:
L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) = L (t, q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ; q1 , q2 , ..., q3N ) +

j fj (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N , t)

(62)

j=1

Homework problems:
1. Problem 5 on p. 64 from the textbook.
2. Problem 10 on p. 65 from the textbook.
3. Problem 16 on p. 66 from the textbook.
4. Problem 20 on p. 68 from the textbook.
5. Consider a particle of mass m moving in 3D space. The Lagrangian function is given by:
L(x, y, x,
y)
=

1
m(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) V (r, + z)
2

where (r, , z) are the corresponding cylindric coordinates. Find the symmetry associated to this Lagrangian, and use
Noethers theorem to obtain the corresponding quantity which is conserved.
6. A particle of mass m slides without friction in a uniform gravitational eld on a vertical circular hoop of radius R.
The hoop rotates about its vertical diameter at a constant angular speed .
(a) Write down an expression for the Lagrangian of the system.
(b) Find the corresponding Lagranges equation.
(c) Use the fact that the Lagrangian does not explicitly depend on time to calculate an expression which is conserved.
7. Suppose a system is described by the Lagrangian
L(q1 , q2 , q1 , q2 ) = q1 q2 2 q1 q2
Find the symmetry associated to this Lagrangian, and use Noethers theorem to obtain the corresponding quantity
which is conserved.