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The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider, built by
the European Organization for Nuclear Research from 1998 to 2008. Its aim is to allow physicists to
test the predictions of different theories of particle physics and high-energy physics, and particularly
prove or disprove the existence of the theorized Higgs particle and of the large family of new
particles predicted by supersymmetric theories. The LHC is expected to address some of
the unsolved questions of physics, advancing human understanding of physical laws. It
contains seven detectors, each designed for specific kinds of research.
The LHC was built in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100
countries, as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories. It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometers in
circumference, as deep as 175 meters beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland.
As of 2014, the LHC remains one of the largest and most complex experimental facilities ever built.
Its synchrotron is designed to initially collide two opposing particle beams of either protons at up to
7 teraelectronvolts per nucleon, or lead nuclei at an energy of 574 TeV per nucleus with energies to
be doubled to around 14 TeV collision energy - more than seven times any predecessor collider - by
around 2015. Collision data was also anticipated to be produced at an unprecedented rate of tens
of petabytesper year, to be analysed by a grid-based computer network infrastructure connecting
140 computing centers in 35 countries (by 2012 the LHC Computing Grid was the world's
largest computing grid, comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36
countries).
By November 2012, the LHC had discovered two previously unobserved particles (the
b (3P)) bottomonium state and a massive 125 GeV boson (which subsequent results confirmed to
be the long-sought Higgs boson), created a quarkgluon plasma, and recorded the first
observations of the very rare decay of the Bs meson into two muons (Bs0 +-) (a major test
of supersymmetry).
The LHC operated at 3.5 TeV per beam in 2010 and 2011 and at 4 TeV in 2012. It operated for two
months in 2013 colliding protons with lead nuclei, and went into shutdown for upgrades to increase
beam energy to 6.5 TeV per beam, with reopening planned for early 2015.
Background
The term hadron refers to composite particles composed of quarks held
together by the strong force (as atoms and molecules are held together by the
electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are protons and neutrons;
hadrons also include mesons such as the pion and kaon, which were discovered
during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Purpose
Physicists hope that the LHC will help answer some of the fundamental open
questions in physics, concerning the basic laws governing the interactions and
forces among the elementary objects, the deep structure of space and time,
and in particular the interrelation between quantum mechanics and general
relativity, where current theories and knowledge are unclear or break down
altogether. Data are also needed from high energy particle experiments to
suggest which versions of current scientific models are more likely to be correct
in particular to choose between the Standard Model and Higgsless models
and to validate their predictions and allow further theoretical development.
Are the masses of elementary particles actually generated by the Higgs
mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking. It is expected that the collider
will either demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson,
thereby allowing physicists to consider whether the Standard Model or its
Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be correct
Detectors
See also: List of Large Hadron Collider experiments
Seven detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located underground in
large caverns excavated at the LHC's intersection points. Two of them, the
ATLAS experiment and the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), are large, general
purpose particle detectors.[31] A Large Ion Collider Experiment (ALICE) and
LHCb, have more specific roles and the last three, TOTEM, MoEDAL and LHCf,
are very much smaller and are for very specialized research. The BBC's
summary of the main detectors is:[40]
Inaugural tests[edit]
The first beam was circulated through the collider on the morning of 10
September 2008.[40] CERN successfully fired the protons around the tunnel in
stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were fired in a clockwise
direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around it at 10:28 local
time.[41] The LHC successfully completed its major test: after a series of trial
runs, two white dots flashed on a computer screen showing the protons
travelled the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to guide the
stream of particles around its inaugural circuit.[42] CERN next successfully sent
a beam of protons in a counterclockwise direction, taking slightly longer at one
and a half hours due to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full circuit
being completed at 14:59.
shutdown.[47]
In the original timeline of the LHC commissioning, the first "modest" highenergy collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 900 GeV were expected to take
place before the end of September 2008, and the LHC was expected to be
operating at 10 TeV by the end of 2008. However, due to the delay caused by
the above-mentioned incident, the collider was not operational until November
2009.[49] Despite the delay, LHC was officially inaugurated on 21 October
2008, in the presence of political leaders, science ministers from CERN's 20
Member States, CERN officials, and members of the worldwide scientific
community.[50]
Cost[edit]
With a budget of 7.5 billion euros (approx. $9bn or 6.19bn as of June 2010),
the LHC is one of the most expensive scientific instruments[89] ever built.[90]
The total cost of the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn Swiss francs
(CHF) (approx. $4.4bn, 3.1bn, or 2.8bn as of Jan 2010) for the accelerator
and 1.16bn (CHF) (approx. $1.1bn, 0.8bn, or 0.7bn as of Jan 2010) for the
CERN contribution to the experiments.[91]
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with
another SFr 210M towards the experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated
in a major review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelerator, and SFr 50M
for the experiments, along with a reduction in CERN's budget, pushed the
completion date from 2005 to April 2007.[92] The superconducting magnets
were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase. There were also further
costs and delays due to engineering difficulties encountered while building the
underground cavern for the Compact Muon Solenoid,[93] and also due to faulty
parts provided by Fermilab.[94] Due to lower electricity costs during the
summer, it is expected that the LHC will normally not operate over the winter
months,[95] although an exception was made to make up for the 2008 start-up
delays over the 2009/10 winter.
fondo
El trmino de hadrones se refiere a partculas compuestas compuestas de
quarks se mantienen unidos por la fuerza nuclear fuerte ( como los tomos y
propsito
Los fsicos esperan que el LHC ayudar a responder algunas de las preguntas
abiertas fundamentales de la fsica , en relacin con las leyes bsicas que rigen
las interacciones y las fuerzas entre los objetos elementales , la estructura
profunda del espacio y el tiempo , y , en particular, la interrelacin entre la
mecnica cuntica y la relatividad general , donde las teoras y conocimientos
actuales son poco claros o se descomponen por completo. Tambin se
necesitan datos de los experimentos de partculas de alta energa que sugieren
que es ms probable que sea correcto versiones de los modelos cientficos
actuales - en particular, a elegir entre los modelos Modelo Estndar y Higgsless
y para validar sus predicciones y permitir un mayor desarrollo terico.
Son las masas de las partculas elementales reales generados por el
mecanismo de Higgs a travs de rompimiento de la simetra electrodbil . Se
espera que el colisionador o bien demostrar o descartar la existencia del
esquivo bosn de Higgs , lo que permite a los fsicos a considerar si el modelo
estndar o sus alternativas Higgsless tienen ms probabilidades de ser correcta
Detectores
Ver tambin: Lista de los experimentos del Gran Colisionador de Hadrones
Siete detectores se han construido en el LHC , que se encuentra bajo tierra en
grandes cavernas excavadas en los puntos de interseccin del LHC . Dos de
ellos , el experimento ATLAS y Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS ), son grandes
detectores de partculas de propsito general . [ 31 ] Un Gran Experimento
Colisionador de Iones ( ALICE ) y LHCb , tienen funciones ms especficas y los
tres ltimos, ttem, MoEDAL y LHCf , son mucho ms pequeos y son para la
investigacin muy especializado. Resumen de la BBC de los principales
detectores es: [ 40 ]
Costo [ editar]
Con un presupuesto de 7,5 millones de euros ( aprox. $ 9 mil millones o
6.19bn en junio de 2010 ) , el LHC es uno de los instrumentos cientficos ms
caras [89] jams construido. [ 90 ] El costo total del proyecto se espera que ser
del orden de 4.6bn de francos suizos (CHF ) ( aprox. $ 4.4bn , 3,1 MM o 2,8
mil millones EUR a partir de enero de 2010) para el acelerador y 1.16bn (CHF )
( aprox. $ 1.1bn , 0.8bn , o 0.7bn desde enero de 2010) por la contribucin
de los experimentos del CERN . [ 91 ]
La construccin del LHC fue aprobada en 1995 con un presupuesto de 2.6
millardos de francos suizos , con otro SFr 210M hacia los experimentos. Sin
embargo , los excesos de costes , que se estima en una importante revisin en
2001 en torno SFr 480 millones para el acelerador , y SFr 50M para los
experimentos , junto con una reduccin en el presupuesto del CERN ,
empujaron la fecha de finalizacin de 2005 a abril de 2007. [ 92 ] El
superconductor imanes fueron responsables de SFr 180M del aumento de
costos . Tambin hubo costos adicionales y retrasos debido a las dificultades de
ingeniera encontrados durante la construccin de la caverna subterrnea para
el Pacto Muon Solenoid , [ 93 ] y tambin debido a piezas defectuosas
proporcionadas por Fermilab. [ 94 ] Debido a los costes de electricidad durante
el verano, es espera que el LHC no funcionar normalmente durante los meses
de invierno, [ 95 ] aunque se hizo una excepcin para compensar los retrasos
de puesta en marcha ms de 2.008 el 2009/10 invierno.