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13.1
Types of waves
13.2
13.3
Waves on a string
13.4
Sound waves
13.5
13.6
Sound intensity
13.7
13.8
13.9
Speed (m/s)
Aluminum
6420
Steel
5960
Copper
5010
Plastic
2680
1480
343
Waves carry energy and propagate it when the waves travel. There are two typical
waves, namely, the transverse waves and the longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves:
The displacement of individual particles is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave, e.g. holding one end of a string with another end fixed on
the wall. When you swing your hands vertically, the waves propagate horizontally
along the string and the particles of string moves up and down.
Longitudinal waves:
The displacement of individual particles is in the same direction as the direction of
propagation of the waves, e.g. sound waves. The particles of air move back and forth
such that a series of compression and rarefaction are observed. Note that the particle
does not travel with the wave, but vibrating about its equilibrium position.
. The SI unit
Angular frequency: It is the measure of how many radians the waves change in one
second. It is labeled as .
1 2
=
.
Velocity: The distance that the wave travels per unit time is referred to as the velocity.
y ( x, t ) = y m sin(kx t + ) ,
where is the phase angle.
A useful relation in waves: v = f =
density of the string (mass per length) . The definition of is m/L. The unit is kg/m.
We can obtain the velocity v by dimensional analysis. Let the velocity relates the
tension of string F and the mass per unit length by
v=
The proof is simple. Let v = F a b and consider the dimensions of the following
quantities.
[v] = [L][T]1
(Unit: ms1)
[F] = [M][L][T]2
(Unit: kg ms2)
[] = [M][L]1
(Unit: kg m1)
1=ab
[T]:
1 = 2a
[M]:
0=a+b
1
. Hence, we have v =
2
Example
A 12-m rope is pulled under tension of 92 N. When one end of the string is swung, it
takes 0.45 s for the disturbance to travel to the other end. What is the mass of rope?
Answer:
as =
F
which gives the mass density of string as
v2
m
, we obtain the mass of string,
L
Example
Answer:
Since the tension increases with the height, the speed of the wave
increases when it climbs up the rope. Note also that the tension of the
rope increases from almost zero at the bottom to Mg at the top of rope.
string causes a faster wave. The speed of sound in steel is greater than that in plastic.
And both speeds are much higher than that in air.
Example
You drop a stone into a well that is 7.35 m deep. How long does
it take before you hear the splash?
Answer:
The time until the splash is heard is the sum of two time
intervals.
t1: the time for the stone to drop a distance d and
t2: the time for the sound to travel a distance d.
Since d =
1 2
gt1 , we obtain t1 =
2
2d
=
g
2(7.35)
= 1.22 s .
9.81
d 7.35
=
= 0.0214 s .
v 343
Hence, the sum of the two time intervals is (1.22 +0.0214) s = 1.24 s.
E
, where E/t is the power.
At
P
.
A
The SI unit is W/m2. An example of intensity of light on the Earths upper atmosphere
coming from the Sun is about 1380 W/m2. A rock concert has an intensity of 0.1
W/m2, while the intensity of a classroom is 0.0000001 W/m2. The threshold of
hearing is 1012 W/m2.
When we listen to a source of sound, such as a person speaking or a radio playing a
song, the loudness of the sound decreases as we move away from the source. The
surface area of a sphere from a distance r is 4r 2 . The intensity of such sound is
I=
P
.
4r 2
I
) . The
I0
intensity level is dimensionless and the unit is given as decibel (dB), where I0 is the
intensity of the faintest sounds that can be heard. Experiments show that the lowest
detectable intensity is I 0 = 10 12 W / m 2 . The smallest increase in intensity level that
can be detected by the human ear is about 1 dB. And, the loudness of a sound doubles
with each increase in intensity level of 10 dB.
Example
If a sound has an intensity I = I0, the corresponding intensity level is
= 10 log(
I0
) = 10 log 1 = 0 dB .
I0
Increasing the intensity by a factor of 10 makes the sound seem twice as loud. In
terms of decibels, we have
= 10 log(
10 I 0
) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB .
I0
= 10 log(
Thus, the loudness of a sound doubles with each increase in intensity level of 10 dB.
The smallest increase in intensity level that can be detected by the human ear is about
1 dB.
Sound
Decibels
160
140
120
Heavy traffic
90
Classroom
50
Whisper
20
Threshold of hearing
Example
Since = 10 log(
I
I
) , we have 60.0 = 10 log( 12 ) according to the information
I0
10
provided.
Now, 6.0 = log(
I
I
) gives 10 6 = 12 and I = 10 6 W / m 2 .
12
10
10
Example
(b)
the intensity level for this child and its twin, both crying with identical
intensities.
Answer:
(a)
I
) , we substitute
I0
When
the
8.0 10 6
) = 10 log(8.0 10 6 ) log(10 12 ) = 69 dB .
10 12
twins
cry,
the
intensity
will
be
doubled,
I = 2 (8.0 10 6 W / m 2 ) = 1.6 10 5 W / m 2 .
The intensity level is = 10 log(
1.6 10 5
) = 72 dB .
10 12
= 10 log(
2 8.0 10 6
) = 10 log (2) + log(8.0 10 6 ) log (10 12 ) = 72 dB
12
10
N.B. We should note that double the intensity increases the intensity level by 3 dB,
since 10 log 2 3 . Halved the intensity leads to a decrease of intensity level by 3 dB.
Obviously, ten times the intensity of sound gives an increase of 10 dB.
10
Example
Many animal species use sound waves that are too high or too low for human ears to
detect, e.g. bats and blue whales.
Example
For light, we observe a change in color, e.g. red-shifted in the color of their light when
the galaxies are moving away from the Earth. However, some galaxies are moving
toward us, and their light shows a blue shift.
A sound wave is emitted from a stationary source. The wave travels in the air with
velocity v, having frequency f and wavelength , where v = f. For an observer
moving toward the source with a speed u, the sound seems to have a higher speed, e.g.
v + u. As a result, more wavefronts move past the observer in a given time than if the
observer had been at rest. To the observer, the sound has a frequency, f, that is higher
than the frequency of the source.
11
f '=
v'
v+u
u
u
1+
v =
v = (1 + u ) f > f
=
1
v
v
f
1+
If the observer moves away from the source, the sound seems to have a lower speed,
e.g. v u. As a result, less wavefronts move past the observer in a given time than if
the observer had been at rest. To the observer, the sound has a frequency, f, that is
lower than the frequency of the source.
u
u
1
v' v u
v =
v = (1 u ) f < f
f '= =
=
1
v
v
f
1
where plus sign is used when the observer moves toward the source and minus sign is
used when the observer moves away from the source.
Example
A musician sounds the A string of his violin, producing a tone of 440 Hz. What
frequency does a bicyclist hear as he (a) approaches and (b) recedes from the
musician with a speed of 11.0 m/s?
12
Answer:
(a)
When the bicyclist moves toward the musician, we use the formula,
11.0 m / s
(440 Hz ) = 454 Hz .
f ' = (1 + u / v) f = 1 +
343 m / s
(b)
When the bicyclist moves away from the musician, we use the formula,
11.0 m / s
(440 Hz ) = 426 Hz .
f ' = (1 u / v) f = 1
343 m / s
When the source moves, the Doppler effect is not due to the sound wave appearing to
have a higher or lower speed, but a variation in the magnitude of wavelength.
Consider, then, a source moving toward the observer with speed u, the sound waves
have one compression and then another compression in time T, where T = 1/f. The
wave travels a distance vT, and the source travels a distance uT. As a result, the new
wavelength of the sound waves is vT uT = (v u )T , which is shorter than that when
the source is at rest. The new frequency of the sound waves is obtained by v = f,
that is
13
f '=
v
=
(v u )T
1
1
=
f > f .
u
1 u / v
(1 )T
v
When the source reverses its direction, the new wavelength of the sound waves,
vT + uT = (v + u )T , is longer than that when the source is at rest.
f '=
v
=
(v + u )T
1
1
=
f < f .
u
1+ u / v
(1 + )T
v
where minus sign is used when the source moves toward the observer, and the plus
sign when the source moves away from the observer.
Example
Calculate the frequency of the beats heard by a stationary observer when a source of
sound of frequency 100 Hz moves directly away from him with a speed of 10.0 m/s
towards a vertical wall. (Speed of sound in air = 340 m/s.)
14
Answer:
As the source moves away from the observer, we use the formula
1
1
f '=
f =
(100) = 97.1 Hz .
1+ u / v
1 + 10.0 / 340.0
For the reflected waves, as the source moves toward the vertical wall, the waves
incident on the wall have a shorter wavelength than they would if the source were at
rest. The reflected waves appear to come from a source moving towards him.
1
1
f '=
f =
(100) = 103 Hz
1
u
/
v
1
10
.
0
/
340
.
0
Doppler effect for both moving source and observer is concluded in a simple formula:
1 uo / v
f .
f ' =
1 m us / v
Example
A car moving at 18 m/s sounds its 550 Hz horn. A bicyclist on the sidewalk, moving
with a speed of 7.2 m/s, approaches the car. What frequency is heard by the bicyclist?
Answer:
As the car (source) and the bicyclist (observer) approach each other, we apply the
1 + uo / v
1 + 7.2 / 343
f =
formula f ' =
(550 Hz ) = 592.7 Hz .
1 18 / 343
1 us / v
Example
The following figure shows the Doppler shifted frequency versus speed for a 400-Hz
sound source. The upper curve corresponds to a moving source, the lower curve to a
moving observer. Notice that while the two cases give similar results for low speed,
the high-speed behavior is quite different. In fact, the Doppler frequency for the
moving source grows without limit for speeds near the speed of sound, while the
Doppler frequency for the moving observer is relatively small.
15
What happen when the speed of the source exceeds the speed of sound? The equations
derived above are no longer valid. For supersonic speeds, a V-shaped envelope is
observed, all wavefronts bunch are along this envelop, which is in three dimensions.
This cone is called the Mach cone. A shock wave is said to exist along the surface of
this cone, because the bunching of wavefronts causes an abrupt rose and fall of air
pressure as the surface passes through any point. The Mach cone angle is given by
sin =
vt
v
= .
vs t vs
The ratio vs/v is the Mach number. The shock wave generated by a supersonic aircraft
or projectile produces a burst of sound, called a sonic boom.
16
Example
Since two waves add, does the resultant wave y always have a greater amplitude than
the individual waves y1 and y2?
Answer:
The wave y is the sum of y1 and y2, but remember that y1 and y2 are sometimes
positive and sometimes negative. Thus, if y1 is positive at a given time, for example,
and y2 is negative, the sum y1 + y2 can be zero or even negative.
As simple as the principle of superposition is, it still leads to interesting consequences.
For example, consider the wave pulse on a string shown in the above figure (a). When
they combine, the resulting pulse has an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes
of the individual pulses. This is referred to as constructive interference. When two
pulses like those in figure (b) may combine and gives a net displacement of zero. That
is the pulses momentarily cancel one another. This is destructive interference.
It should also be noted that interference is not limited to waves on a string; all waves
exhibit interference effects. In fact, interference is one of the key characteristics that
define waves.
17
Remarks:
The system that when one source emits a crest, the other emits a crest as well
is referred to as synchronized system. The sources are said to be in phase.
ii)
18
Example
Answer:
The wavelength of sound: = v / f = 343 m / s / 221 Hz = 1.55 m .
To determine the path difference, d = d2 d1, we need to find d2 first, and
2.33 m
= 1.50 . Since the path difference is 3/2 we expect destructive
1.55 m
interference. In the ideal case, the person would hear no sound. As a practical matter,
some sound will be reflected from objects in the vicinity, resulting in a finite sound
intensity.
Example
The speakers shown below have opposite phase. They are separated by a distance of
5.20 m and emit sound with a frequency of 104 Hz. A person stands 3.00 m in front of
the speakers and 1.30 m to one side of the centerline between them. What type of
interference occurs at the persons location?
19
Answer:
(3.00 m) 2 + (
5.20 m
+ 1.30 m) 2 = 4.92 m .
2
(3.00 m) 2 + (
5.20 m
1.30 m) 2 = 3.27 m .
2
1.65 m
= 0.50 .
3.30 m
Since the path difference is half a wavelength, and the speakers have opposite phase,
therefore the result is constructive interference.
Destructive interference can be used to reduce the intensity of noise in a variety of
situations, such as a factory, a busy office, or even the cabin of an airplane.
20
13.10.1
Waves on a string
v = f1 = (2 L) f1 . Therefore,
21
f1 =
v
.
2L
Note that the fundamental frequency increases with the speed of the waves, and
decreases as the string is lengthened. Other than the fundamental frequency, there are
an infinite number of standing wave modes or harmonics for any given string.
Remarks:
v
= 2 f1 .
L
f3 =
v
= 3 f1 .
2
L
3
Remark:
In general, we have f1 =
v
, f n = nf1 , and n = 2 L / n where n = 1, 2, 3, . That is,
2L
22
If you blow across the open end of a pop bottle, you hear a
tone of a certain frequency. If you pour some water into the
bottle and repeat the experiment, the sound you hear has a
higher frequency. The standing wave will have an antinode, A,
at the top (where the air is moving) and a node, N, at the
bottom (where the air cannot move.) The lowest frequency
standing wave has one-quarter of a wavelength fits into the
column of air in the bottom. Thus, we have the wave form NA in the pipe
1
=L
4
= 4L
The fundamental frequency, f1, is given by v = f 1 = (4 L) f1 . Or we can write
f1 =
v
.
4L
is
4
L . The frequency
3
v
v
= 3( ) = 3 f1 .
4
4L
L
3
Similarly,
the
next-higher
harmonic
is
v
v
= 5( ) = 5 f1 .
4
4L
L
5
Remark:
In general, we have f 1 =
v
, f n = nf1 and n = 4 L / n , where n = 1, 3, 5, . That is
4L
Standing waves in a pipe that is open at both ends have the following modes:
23
Remark:
In general, we have f1 =
v
, f n = nf1 and n = 2 L / n , where n = 1, 2, 3, . That is
2L
Example
Answer:
Since f1 = v / 4 L , we have
L = v / 4 f1 =
343 m / s
= 0.195 m .
4(440.0 Hz )
Example
If you fill your lungs with helium and speak you sound something like Donald Duck.
From this observation, we can conclude that the speed of sound in helium must be (a)
less than (b) the same as, or (c) greater than the speed of sound in air.
Answer:
24
When we speak with helium our words are higher pitched. Looking at the relation, e.g.
f1 =
v
, the velocity of sound is increased if the length of vocal chords is fixed
2L
13.11 Beats
2
y1 = A cos
t = A cos(2f1t )
T
1
2
y 2 = A cos
t = A cos(2f 2 t )
T2
If A = 1,we have the following plots, where y total = y1 + y 2 . Mathematically, we have
25
y total = y1 + y 2
= A cos(2f1t ) + A cos(2f 2 t )
f f2
f + f2
= 2 A cos 2 1
t cos 2 1
t
2
2
f f2
The first part of the ytotal is 2 A cos 2 1
t which gives the slowly-varying
2
amplitude of the beats. Since a loud sound is heard whenever this term is 2A or 2A,
the beat frequency is f beat = f1 f 2 . The rapid oscillations within each beat are due
f + f2
to the second part of ytotal, cos 2 1
t . Now, beats can be understood as
2
oscillations at the average frequency, modulated by a slowly varying amplitude.
Example
Suppose two guitar strings have frequencies 438 Hz and 442 Hz. If you sound them
simultaneously you will hear the average frequency, 440 Hz, increasing and
decreasing in loudness with a beat frequency of 4 Hz. Beats can be used to tune a
musical instrument to a desired frequency. To tune a guitar string to 440 Hz, for
example, the string can be played simultaneously with a 440 Hz fork. Listening to
the beats, the tension in the string can be increased or decreased until the beat
frequency becomes vanishingly small.
26
Example
An experimental way to tune the pop bottle is to compare its frequency with that of a
440-Hz tuning fork. Initially, a beat frequency of 4 Hz is heard. As a small amount of
water is added to that already present, the beat frequency increases steadily to 5 Hz.
What were the initial and final frequencies of the bottle?
Answer:
Before extra water is added, possible frequency of the bottle is either 336 Hz or 444
Hz. After water is added, possible frequency of the bottle is either 335 Hz or 445 Hz.
But the frequency of the bottle should be increased as water is added. Hence, the
frequency of the bottle before adding extra water should be 444 Hz.
Example
A sonometer wire of length 0.50 m and mass per unit length 1.0 103 kg m1 is
stretched by a load of 4.0 kg. If it is plucked at its mid-point, what will be (a) the
wavelength and (b) the frequency, of the note emitted? Take g = 10 N kg1.
Answer:
(a)
27
(b)
1 T
T
as f = v / =
2l
(2l ) .
40 N
1
= 200 Hz .
2 0.50 m 1.0 10 3 kg / m
28