LidarPrimer - Collins

A LiDAR Primer
Richard L Collins
Geophysical Institute and Department
of Atmospheric Sciences
University of Alaska Fairbanks
February 15, 2011
Kenai GIS User Group
Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop
1/35
LiDAR Light Detection And Ranging

Lidar studies in 1930s using
search lights. Use of lasers
since the 1960s.
Used in a wide variety of both
civilian and military
applications;
Biohazards
Fisheries
Forestry
Fire
Glaciology
Mapping
Meteorology
Pollution
Space Surveillance
Traffic
CALIPSO 2007
Lidar Firsts From Airborne and

Spaceborne Lidar M. P. McCormick,
2005.
2/35
LITE LiDAR In-space Technology Experiment
3/35
Contemporary LiDAR System Concept

GPS satellites
Optech ALTM
Airborne LiDAR
Differential
GPS
navigation
IMU
GPS
ground
station
15 cm
vertical
accuracy
30 cm wide
laser
footprint
1200 m
flight
altitude
30
scan
angle
1.5 m
650 m wide
scan swath
1.5 m
Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning:

Principles and Processing Shan, J, and C.
K. Toth, CRC Press, 2009.
4/35
Optechs Gemini Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper System

Range
Wavelength
Elevation accuracy
PRF
Position
Scan Width
San Rate
Range Capture
Divergence
150-4000 m
1064 nm
5-35 cm
33 - 167 kHz
GPS and GLONASS
0-50
0 - 70 Hz
< 4 returns
0.25/0.8 mrad
5/35
Hand-held Laser Scanners - Helimap
Heigel laser scanning engine with

Hasselblad digital frame camera.
Rigid carbon fiber frame with
handles.
System IMU in box below the
camera.
Helimap system being operated from side of

Alouette III helicopter. System allows
accurate and high resolution mapping of
steep and narrow terrain.
6/35
LiDAR Comes of Age

Lidar systems were developed as research systems since the 1960s.
Terrestrial lidar systems come of age in the 1990s as several enabling
technologies mature;
1. Fully solid-state lasers where solid-state lasers (e.g., Nd:YAG,
Nd:YLF) pumped by laser diodes
2. High-speed electronics and computers
3. A mature Global Positioning System
The following elements are found in contemporary lidar systems
1.
Laser Ranging Unit
2.
Optical Scanning Mechanism
3.
Electronic and Computer Unit
4.
Position and Orientation Unit
5.
Software
6.
Imaging System
7/35
Basic LiDAR System

Optics Collimation,
FOV and
Photodiode Bandwidth
Electronics Counting/
Timing and
Threshold
Telescope
Laser(s)
BS
Computer
Lens
Beam Expander
Photodiode
Basic system composed of;

Laser-based transmitter
Telescope-based receiver
High-speed electronics
Optics
Computer
Lasers provide
high-intensity
small-footprint
narrow-band
frequency-stable
beams for probing the environment.
8/35
Echo Detection and Ranging
The echo timing is

defined by the
leading edge of the
laser pulse and the
echo pulse.
Timing is everything,
R = (tv + tv)/2
as v/v is very small.
The threshold
detection can depend
on signal amplitude.
Range
R=vxt
R2
R1
v x t1 = 2 x R1
t1
Received Transmitted
Signal
Signal
Knowing the speed of

light, the range from
the LiDAR to a target
is determined by the
round trip time.
Tp
Time
v x t2 = 2 x R2
t2
Threshold
t0
Threshold
!t = t1 - t0
Tp
t1
Time
9/35
Beam Divergence and Reflection

Laser beams diverge with distance. Any
finite beam inherently expands as it
propagates.
The Field-Of-View (FOV) of the receiver
must match (or exceed) the divergence of
the transmitter.
The FOV determines the amount of
background signal.
The FOV places mechanical stability
requirements on the lidar system.
d1
d2 = d1 + R x !
Surfaces found in nature are rarely a smooth

transition between two homogenous media.
Specular
Lambertian
Diffuse
Complex
10/35
Energy Link Budget - 1

Aircraft
Consider a single laser

pulse transmitted from
an aircraft.
ET ER
dR
Follow the round trip.
T T
Rg
1.
ET
2.
Eig = ET T
3.
Erg = Eig
4.
ER = Erg T P
where,
P = "#
$ # (dR /2)2
2 # $ # R2g
Ground
11/35
Eig Erg
Energy Link Budget-2

The analysis yields a form of the Lidar Equation
%
(
2
$
#
(d
/2)
R
ER = '" #
# T 2 * # ET
'
*
2
2
#
$
#
R
g
&
)
Consider an airborne lidar,
Rg = 1000 m (3281 ft, 0.6214 mile)

dR = 11.3 cm (4.44 in)
= 0.5
T = 0.8
ER = 5.1 x 10-10 ET
ET = 20 J
PRF = 100 KHz
Tp = 10 ns
= 1064 nm,
1550 nm
= 0.2 1 mrad
Consider a satellite lidar (CALIPSO)

Rg = 705 km
dR = 1 m
= 0.5
T = 0.8
ER = 1.6 x 10-13 ET
ET = 110 mJ
PRF = 20Hz
Tp = 10 ns
= 532 nm &
1064 nm
= 130 rad
12/35
Energy Link Budget-3
~50%
~60%
~30%
~25%
~10%
~15%
1.
A low-reflectivity object may yield signals that fall below the threshold for
detection. A heterogeneous landscape will have different return signal levels
from different elements of the landscape.
13/35
Asphalt
Concrete
Limestone, Clay
Lake
Coniferous Trees
Deciduous Trees
Grass, Light soil
However, different surfaces

have very different
reflectivity and hence yield
different signals.
Reflectivities
at 900 nm
<75%
80-90%
Fresh Snow
Solid-state detectors have

limits to the signals they can
detect due to inherent dark
current fluctuations (~10s of
nA). If the expected signal
level is less than the rms dark
current it will be difficult to
detect.
Profiling
Cessna 337 at 1000 m
and 67 m/s (130 knots).
Aircraft
0
0 dg
xf
va x TPRF
= 0.2 mrad
Footprint
Range
Divergence
Horizontal Distance
PRF < 150 kHz.
dg = 0.2 m
xf > 0.5 mm
Given divergence nonoverlap occurs at
xf > dg
PRF = 335 Hz
Rg
Ground
Time
Profiling (not scanning)
2xf
va x 2 xTPRF
3xf
va x 3 xTPRF
dg
14/35
Scanning
The scanner extends the scope
of the profiling system to yield
swaths in the transverse
direction. A variety of scanning
methods have been implemented
using oscillating and rotating
mirrors.
A Palmer scanner uses a nutating
motion to yield a scan that
yields an elliptical scan. Most of
the measurement points are
scanned twice, once in the
forward and once in the
backward view. This redundancy
can be used to calibrate the
scanner and the position and
orientation system.
15/35
Range Resolution and Range Discrimination-1

Received
Signal
tR
Threshold
TP
0
Ideally tR should be as small

as possible.
Time
Received
Signal
R1 R2
Range
The finite rise time of the

laser pulse, tR, determines the
precision with which the
threshold detector operates.
R2 - R1
< Tp
2xv
!R > 2 x v x Tp
t2 - t1 =
The finite width of the

laser pulse, TP,
determines the
precision with which
the LiDAR can
distinguish between
closely spaced objects.
Threshold
t1 t2
Time
Ideally TP should be as
small as possible.
The need to minimize tR and TP pushes designers to employ highspeed (i.e., large bandwidth) analog circuits.
16/35
Range Resolution and Range Discrimination2
The approach supports more

information at GREAT cost
in both (analog and digital)
circuitry and data handling.
Threshold2
Threshold1
!t2
!t1
Time
tR
Received
Signal
Full-waveform sampling
captures the shape of the
entire signal, not just the
leading edge.
Received
Signal
The slope of the leading

edge may vary due to
signal noise,
pulse amplitude
variations
pulse spreading due to
elevation variations in
the footprint.
tS
Time
17/35
Multiple Returns-1

18/35
Multiple Returns-2
The lidar echo can contain much more information than is revealed by the multiple
returns detected using a single threshold level.
Full-waveform sampling captures the complete echo but increases the hardware
data handling costs of the system.
19/35
Terrain Mapping-1
The first returns yield the Digital Surface Model (DSM). In vegetated areas the DSM is
the Canopy Top.
The Digital terrain Map (DTM, or bare Earth Surface) is inferred from a spatial filtering
that identifies the lowest returns that define a continuous surface.
20/35
Terrain Mapping-2
Commercial survey in Puget Sound. Lidar

footprint sub-meter diameter, with two
footprints per square meter, and four returns
per pulse.

21/35
Increasing PRF
Multiple Pulses in Air "MPiA"

t0
Time , t0
Announced in 2006 and commercially fielded in 2007,
MPiA is now a mainstream LiDAR technology.
The maximum range

(i.e., the range of the
last return) and the
PRF of the LiDAR
system are related
as,
2 " R max
1
TPRF =
=
PRF
v
Thus as an aircraft
flies at higher
altitude for large
area surveys, the PRF
(and hence the
sampling density)
must decrease.
22/35
Interleaving Pulses-1
Aircraft
The air between the ground

and the region of interest
yields no significant echoes.
Range
For an aircraft high above the

ground at an altitude of ~1000
m may only be interested in
the ~100 m above the ground
the region of interest.
Region of ?
Rc
Region of
Interest
Is it possible to transmit
multiple pulses spaced such
that their echoes do not
interfere with each other.
Rg
23/35
Interleaving Pulses-2
Pulse #1
Recieved
Signal
0
tc
Pulse #1
The time from 0 to tc is

dead time, while the
signal of interest is found
between tc and tg.
tg
Pulse #2
Pulse #3
Recieved
Signal
tg + 2 x TPRF
tc + 2 x TPRF
2 x TPRF
tg + T PRF
tg
tc + TPRF
Pulse #1
tc
TPRF
Pulse #2 Pulse #3 Pulse #4 Pulse #5
Recieved
Signal
tg + 4 x TPRF
tc + 4 x TPRF
tg + 3 x TPRF
tc + 3 x TPRF
4 x TPRF
tg + 2 x TPRF
tc + 2 x TPRF
2 x TPRF
3 x TPRF
tg
tg + T PRF
tc
tc + TPRF
TPRF
In a single pulse system the

second pulse must await the
return of the first pulse.
In an interleaved system
the second pulse is
transmitted early so that
it can return just after the
first pulse without waiting
for tc.
Thus the PRF can be
doubled and possibly be
tripled or more.
24/35
MPiA Performance
The relationship between PRF and flight

height for the Leica ALS60 system.
Very high PRFs can exceed the
capabilities of current lasers. Thus
multiple laser systems are used to
achieve very high PRFs (e.g., ~400 kHz).
The point density at a PRF of 400 KHz is

shown as a function of ground speed and
flight height for the Reigl LMS-Q680i
At 400 kHz the maximum single pulse
range is 375 m. Thus there are 3 pulses
in the air when flying at 800 m.
25/35
Current Airborne LiDAR Systems
Toth, C. K., LARS, 2010.
26/35
Kenai LiDAR Mapping

in 2008-1
27/35
Kenai LiDAR Mapping in 2008-2

LiDAR mapping of the 4550 square miles (11,780 km2) of the Kenai Peninsula.
Kenai LiDAR Mapping
Location
Area
Western Lowlands
Eastern Kenai Watershed
3295 sq miles (8530 km2)
1255 sq miles (3250 km2)
1.4 m
3.0 m
1m
2.0
18.5 cm
50 cm
Post Spacing
Horizontal Accuracy
BareEarth RMSE
Contract to Aero-Metric for LiDAR data collection and processing.

Kenai Watershed Forum contract to Alaska Satellite Facility (ASF) at the Geophysical
Institute-University of Alaska Fairbanks (GI-UAF) to provide Quality Assurance.
ASF Quality Assurance included;
1. Review of formatting and completeness of data deliverables
2. Review of the completeness, clarity, and compliance of the metadata
3. Review of the contractor-provided quality assurance reports
4. Evaluation of the planimetric accuracy of the LiDAR data
5. Evaluation of the height accuracy of the LiDAR data
6. Identification and characterization of any systematic errors observed in the data
28/35
Planimetric Assessment of Building from GI-UAF

Geodetic Control
Courtesy Rick Guritz, ASF, GI-UAF.
29/35
Planimetric Assessment of Road Intersection from GIUAF Geodetic Control

30/35
Planimetric Assessment of Lake Point from GI-UAF

Geodetic Control
31/35
Alaskan LiDAR Mapping

Early-April
Late-April
Early-May
Range
Leaves
Rg
Snow
Ground
Ground
Ground
Region of
Interest
In wooded terrain the trees may shadow the ground. A better ground map will be obtained
if the survey is conducted AFTER snow has melted and BEFORE trees have leafed out.
32/35
LiDAR Researchers at
University of Alaska Fairbanks
Researcher
Anthony Arendt
Richard Collins
Keith Cunningham
Javier Fochesatto
Rick Guritz
Ken Sassen
Primary Focus
Glacier Mapping
Atmospheric Sciences
Terrestrial Mapping
Terrestrial Mapping
Contact
arendta@gi.alaska.edu
rlcollins@alaska.edu
kwcunningham@alaska.edu
foch@gi.alaska.edu
rguritz@asf.alaska.edu
ken.sassen@gi.alaska.edu
33/35
Eruption of Mount Augustine in 2006
PUFF Model Forecast
Lidar Data
34/35
Acknowledgements
LiDAR research at the University of Alaska Fairbanks has been conducted with
support from the following;
State of Alaska
US Department of Agriculture
US Department of Defense
US Geological Survey
US National Aeronautics and Space Administration
US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
US National Science Foundation
Government of Japan
Fulbright Commission of Germany
LiDAR research at the University of Alaska Fairbanks depends on the active
participation of undergraduate and graduate students.
Thanks to Rick Guritz and Keith Cunningham for helpful discussions.
35/35

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A LiDAR Primer

Kenai GIS User Group

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

LiDAR Light Detection And Ranging

Lidar Firsts From Airborne and

LITE LiDAR In-space Technology Experiment

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Contemporary LiDAR System Concept

Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning:

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Optechs Gemini Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper System

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Hand-held Laser Scanners - Helimap

Heigel laser scanning engine with

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Helimap system being operated from side of

LiDAR Comes of Age

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Basic LiDAR System

Basic system composed of;

Echo Detection and Ranging

The echo timing is

Knowing the speed of

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Beam Divergence and Reflection

Surfaces found in nature are rarely a smooth

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Energy Link Budget - 1

Consider a single laser

Follow the round trip.

Energy Link Budget-2

Rg = 1000 m (3281 ft, 0.6214 mile)

Consider a satellite lidar (CALIPSO)

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Energy Link Budget-3

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Grass, Light soil

However, different surfaces

Solid-state detectors have

PRF < 150 kHz.

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Profiling (not scanning)

Range Resolution and Range Discrimination-1

Ideally tR should be as small

The finite rise time of the

The finite width of the

Range Resolution and Range Discrimination2

The approach supports more

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

The slope of the leading

Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning:

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

Commercial survey in Puget Sound. Lidar

Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning:

Multiple Pulses in Air "MPiA"

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

The maximum range

The air between the ground

For an aircraft high above the

Kenai GIS User Group LiDAR Workshop

The time from 0 to tc is