Just changing the connecting wires the circuit performance will change.

The impedance at any point of line is a transformed version of the load impedance.
Infact there is nothing special about the load impedance. The impedance transformation can
be between any two locations on the line. It should be remembered however, that the sign
convention for the distance on the line must be correctly taken.
If the length is measured towards the generator it is taken positive.
If the length is measured away from the generator, it is taken negative.

Spatial Variation of Current & Voltage

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

The maximum and minimum peak voltages measured on the line are

Measurement of Unknown Impedance

The unknown impedance which is to be measured is connected at the end of the transmission line as shown in
Figure below. The transmission line is excited with a source of desired frequency
three quantities, namely the maximum voltage
minimum from the load is measured. The ratio of

, minimum voltage
and

. From the standing wave pattern,

, and the distance of the voltage

gives the VSWR on the line

Transmision Lines as Resonant Circuits

If the length of a short or open circuited line is exact multiple of

, the imput impedance of the line is zero

or . Let us plot the input impedance as a function of frequency ` ', for a given length of transmission
given termination (short circuit or open circuit)

and a

Frequency response of Resonant Circuit

The impedance characteristics of a series and a parallel resonant circuit are shown in the figure below

Since we have a parallel connection of transmission lines, it is more convenient to solve the problem using admittances rather
than impedances. To convert the impedance into admittance also we make use of the Smith chart and avoid any analytical
calculation.
Now onwards treat the Smith chart as the admittance char

For the divergence,

Whereas

is differentiated with respect to

is differentiated with respect to

and so on.

for the curl,

is differentiated with respect to other two variables and but not . Same is true for
and
.
This implies that for divergence to exist a function must vary along its direction wheareas, for curl to exist the function
should vary perpendicular to its direction. It should be however noted that these are sufficient and not the essential
conditions.

Since
the reflection coefficient is +1 in this case one should not conclude that for Parallel polarization the
conducting boundaries behaves like the open circuit impedance. The reflection coefficient becomes +1
because the electric field directions have already been taken such that the tangential components for the
incident and reflected waves cancel each other at the interface. Hence irrespective of the polarization
conducting boundary is always equivalent to the Short Circuit Impedance

NOTE :
The

mode which is also the TEM mode has no cut-off frequency. This is the mode which can propagate

at any frequencies starting from

Substituting

from 6.51 into 6.35, we get what is called the dispersion relation for the mode as
-------(6.
56)
The dispersion relation suggest that the phase constant for the mode
different for different modes (for different values of
proportional to
.

and

is

) and is no more

Implication of this would be discussed later along with the characteristics of

the TE mode
The analysis of TE mode in a rectangular waveguide can be carried out on the
line similar to that of the the TM mode.
For TE mode we have
--------(6.
57
)

The wave equation is solved for

in this case.

In the case of TM mode the wave equation was solved for

which was
tangential to all the four walls of the waveguides. We therefore had boundary
conditions on

In the TE case however the independent component

is tangential two the

walls of the waveguide which do not impose any boundary conditions on

.
The tangential component of magnetic field is balanced by the appropriate
surface currents on the walls of the waveguides.
The analysis procedure for TE mode therefore is slightly different than that of
the TM mode. We have seen in the case of parallel plane waveguide that the
tangential component of the magnetic field is maximum at the waveguide
walls. Also in Cartesian co-ordinate system the solution to the wave equation
are sinosoidal in nature.

One can note that for = ,

(vertical walls) and for
,
(horizontal walls) the tangential component of magnetic field is maximum.

Substituting for

from
--------(6.
58)

and
= 0 in 6.31, 6.32, 6.33 and 6.34, we get the transverse field
components as

--------(6.
59)
--------(6.
60)
--------(6.
61)
--------(6.
62)

In this case also we get

--------(6.
63)
Following observations can be made regarding the TE mode :
(1)

The fields for the TE modes have similar behaviour to the fields of the TM
modes i.e they exist in the form of discrete pattern, they have sinosoidal
variations in

and

directions, indices

cycles of the field amplitudes in

and

and

represent number of half

direction respectively and so on.

(2)

Unlike TM mode both indices

and need not be non-zero for the
existence of the TE mode. However, of both the indices zero makes the
magnetic field independent of space and therefore cannot exist. In other
words,

mode cannot exist but

and

modes can exist.

(3)

The lowest order mode for the TE case therefore would be

and

Cutt-off Frequecy of TE and TM mode

For both

and

modes the phase constant is given by

--------- (6.64 )

For the mode to be travelling

has to be a real quantity. If
more remain travelling but become exponentially decaying
The frequency at which
cut-off frequency therefore

becomes imaginary then the fields no

changes from real to imaginary is called the cut-off frequency of the mode. At
giving
--------- (6.65 )
--------- (6.66 )

The cut-off frequencies for lowest TM and TE modes i.e

eqn. 6.70 as

--------- (6.67 )

can be obtained from

--------- (6.68 )
--------- (6.69)

Since by definition we have

we get the frequencies as

--------- (6.70)

We can make an important observation that if at all the electro magnetic energy travels on a rectangular
waveguide its
frequency has to be more than the lowest cut-off frequency i.e

As the order of the mode increases the cut-off frequency also increases i.e with increasing frequency
there is possibilty
of existence of higher order mode.

The very first mode that propagates on the rectangular waveguide is

mode and therefore this
mode is called the
dominant mode of the rectangular waveguide. The cut-off frequency for the dominant mode is
--------- (6.71)
The equation suggest that for propagation of an electro magnetic wave inside a rectangular waveguide
the width of a
waveguide should be greater than half the wave length of the wave

The total magnetic vector potential due to the current distribution is then given as

Note that the integral is a convolution of the spatial impulse response (the Green's
function) and the driving source function

So the antenna analysis problem reduces to finding the vector potential from the current
distribution on an antenna. Once the vector potential is known, the electric and magnetic
fields, and subsequently the power radiated by the antenna can be obtained in a rather
straight forward manner.

Obtaining current distribution on an antenna structure is a rather complex task an is

beyond the scope of this course. Here therefore we will assume a current distribution and
then proceed to find the fields radiated by it.

The fields are not uniform in all

directions. The field strength is maximum along
does not have any radiation along its axis.

, and zero along

.The Hertz dipole hence

A typical radiation pattern for a general antenna is shown in Fig

Dipole Antenna
The Hertz dipole has a limitation that its radiation resistance is too small and consequently is not a very
efficient radiator.

In practice dipole antennas of lengths comparable to the wavelength are used.

A dipole antenna of length 2H oriented in the z-direction with its center at the origin of the coordinate system is
shown in Fig.

Radiation Pattern of a Dipole Antenna

The current distribution and the radiation pattern of dipoles of different lengths are shown in Fig.

Since the electric field is independent of

Hertz dipole.

, the H-plane radiation pattern is a circle which is same as that of the

The three dimensional radiation patterns for the dipole antennas of length

are shown in Figs.

n general a dipole antenna has multiple beams and multiple nulls. Generally, finding the directions of the nulls is
easier compared to finding the directions of the maximum radiation. We therefore obtain the directions of the nulls
and place one maximum approximately half way between two adjacent nulls.

The directions of the nulls can be obtained by equating

nulls are

Where

to zero. The directions of the

Monopole Antenna
The monopole antennas are commonly used for the medium wave radio broadcasting. They also find
application in walkie-talkies, other hand sets and cars.

A monopole antenna is vertically mounted above the ground and is excited at the base as shown in Fig.

The range of the angle

is from 0 to

, and the 3-D radiation pattern is the figure of revolution of the Array Factor

around the axis of the array

For a large array

and the side lobe amplitude is approximately

The first, second, third side lobe amplitudes are

respectively.

The important thing to note: The side lobe amplitudes are independent of
the array size and the direction of the main beam.