Autho

Epistemol
ogy

Babbie

Silverm
an

Crotty

Objectivism
Constructionis
m
Subjectivism

Paradigm
s
Positivism
Conflict
SI
EM
Structural
functionalism
Feminisms
Critical race
theory
Functionalism
Behaviourism
EM
SI
Constructionis
m
Naturalism
Positivism (and
post-positivism)
Interpretivism

SI

Pheno

Herm
Critical inquiry
Feminism
Postmodernism
Etc.

Densco
m-be

Methodolo
gies

Methods

Qualitative
Quantitative

Texts
Observation
Transcripts
Interviews
Visual data

Experimental
research
Surveys
Ethnography
Phen research
Grounded
theory
Heuristic inquiry
Action research
Discourse
analysis
Feminist
standpoint
research
Etc.

Sampling
Measurement and
scaling
Questionnaire
Observation
(part or non)
Interview
Focus group
Case study
Life history
Narrative
Visual ethnographic
methods
Statistical analysis
Data reduction
Theme identification
Comparative analysis
Cognitive mapping
Interpretive methods
Document analysis
Content analysis
Conversation analysis
Etc.

Surveys
Sampling
Case studies
Experiments
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded
theory
Action research
Systematic
reviews
Mixed methods

Mackenz
ie &
Knipe

Postivist
Interpretivist/
constructivist
Transformative
Pragmatic

Lather

Predict

Postivist

Mixed
methods
Understand

Naturalistic

Hussein
et al

Subjectivism
(relativist
ontology)

Objectivism
(realist
ontology)

Constructivi
st

Pheno

Ethnograph
ic

SI

Interpretive
mixed
methods
Emancipate

Neomarxist

Feminist

Critical
race theory

Praxisoriented

Action
research

Critical
ethnograph
y
Deconstruct

Poststruct

Postmodern

Queer
theory

Discourse
analysis

Postcolonial

PostFordism
Interpretivism

Positivism

Critical
Subjectivism
(historical
realist
ontology)

Phenomenology
Grounded
theory
Ethnography
Case study
Historical and
documentary
research
Ethnomethodolo
gy
SI
Narrative
research
Experimental
(causation)
Nonexperimenta
l (correlation)
Ideology
critique
Action research

Observation
(part/non)
Questionnaires
Interviews
Document analysis

Tests
Interviews
Questionnaires

Definitions
Epistemology

The theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical

perspective and thereby in the methodology

Paradigm

underlie social theories and inquiry. Whereas theories seek to

explain, paradigms provide ways of looking. In and of
themselves, paradigms dont explain anything, but they provide
logical frameworks within which theories are created. (Babbie,
2008, p. 32)
In the social sciences, unlike the natural sciences, theoretical
paradigms may become more or less popular but are seldom
discarded. (ibid)
As ways of looking, they cant be true or false; only more or less
useful. (p. 35)
Paradigms may be macro or microtheoretical; some work best at
one level; others can be pursued at either macro- or microlevel.
(ibid).
The term paradigm was first introduced by Thomas Kuhn in his
landmark book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. He
defines it as an integrated cluster of substantive concepts,
variables and problems attached with corresponding
methodological approach and tools (Kuhn, 1962, quoted in Flick,
2009: 69). Guba and Lincolns definition seems most apt from the
research point of view. They view a paradigm as a basic system
or worldview that guides the investigator, not only in choices of
method but in ontologically and epistemologically fundamental
ways (1994: 105). (Hussein et al, 2013).
Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the
methodology and this providing a context for the process and
grounding its logic and criteria (Crotty, 1998, p. 3)

Methodology

the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the

choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and
use of methods to desired outcomes. (Crotty, 1998, p. 3)

Methods

the techniques used to gather and analyse data related to some

research question or hypothesis. (Crotty, 1998, p. 3)

Typologies
Silverman has paradigms, concepts, theories, methodologies, and
methods.
Blaikie has strategies, paradigms, and methods.
Strategy: a feature of social research that is usually overlooked, i.e.
the logic used to generate new knowledge.
Paradigm: refers to major traditions in the natural and social
sciences that incorporate particular ontological and epistemological
assumptions and one or more of the research strategies. Some also
incorporate general theoretical ideas.provide theoretical and
methodological contexts within which research is frequently
conducted.

Starting out
Crotty (1998) suggests that we need to answer two initial questions
in developing a research proposal: what methods and
methodologies will we use; and how will we justify their selection?
He says we answer the second by referring to our research question
we need a process that is able to answer it. But justification also
requires us to refer to assumptions about reality that we bring to our
work and these are rooted in our theoretical perspective.

Assumptio
ns about
reality
(from
paradigm)

Research
question

Methods &
methodologi
es

So 2 questions become 4:
1. What methods do we propose to use?
2. What methodology governs our choice and use of methods?
3. What theoretical perspective lies behind the methodology?
4. What epistemology informs this theoretical perspective?

Opening remarks
What is research?
In broad terms, human sources of knowledge include the
knowledge based on perception (senses), conception (intellect),
intuition and research. Unfortunately, all of these are essentially
limited and imperfect in different ways. However, among these the
most reliable one is the knowledge based on research. Hence, the
foremost objective of research is the production and expansion of
knowledge based on evidence. Bassey (1990: 35) defines research
as a systematic, critical and self-critical inquiry which aims to
contribute to advancement of knowledge. Following the same line,
Ernest (1994: 8) considers research as a systematic enquiry with
the aim of producing knowledge. These two definitions emphasize
the same point: systematic production and expansion of knowledge
through research. (Hussain et al., 2013)

What should research do?

Research should link to and build on existing knowledge, use an
organized process of enquiry, and engage in theory development
(Cohen et al., 2007; Ernest, 1994). Some of the essential
characteristics of research are that it should a) have an appropriate
theoretical perspective, b) be purposeful, c) be carefully and keenly
designed in order to produce genuine knowledge, d) use sound and
robust methods for data collection and analyses, e) be able to make
valid claims based on solid evidence and, f) last but not least, have
relevance and worth (Richards, 2003). (Hussain, et al., 2013)

Designing research

Social research has 3 main phases: planning, execution, and

reporting. This paper is primarily about the first phase, the
designing of social research (not so much about the details of
how to do it though we inevitably need to discuss that too).
Planning your research project carefully, rather than muddling
through, is really important.
Social research should address research questions and these
questions are answered by selecting one or more logics of
enquiry (research strategies).
Also, researchers cant avoid adopting certain ontological and
epistemological assumptions, and these should be made explicit
both to aid in creating logical designs and for audiences to
understand the findings.
Only after the problem, research question(s), strategy or
strategies and the assumptions have been stated should the
choice of methods of data collection and analysis be considered.
The process of formulating a research design is probably the
most difficult part of social research. (Blaikie, 2009)

A research design is a private working document prepared by the

researcher before a project is undertaken. It incorporates all the
decisions that need to be made and provides justifications for
them providing consistency, chance for critical evaluation.
We need:
o A research problem, + goals & motivations for selecting it
o Research questions that will address the problem
o Choice of research strategy (logic of enquiry) to investigate
each question
o Elaboration of ontological & epistemological assumptions
on which the research will be founded
o Outline of the research paradigm within which the research
will be conducted
o Elaboration of relevant concepts & theory and how they
relate to the research process
o Discussion of data sources, types and forms
o Discussion of methods for selecting data from these
sources
o Outline of the methods of data collection, reduction, and
analysis to be used
o Discussion of the problems that might be encountered,
limitations of the design in its ability to answer the research
questions.
In contrast, a research proposal is a public document used to
obtain approvals to proceed. Addresses a different audience from
design. Includes many of the same components, but some may
be in a different form. Also includes:
o Statement of aims and significance of the research
o Some background that will justify the need to address
the problem
o Budget
o Timeline
o Statement of expected outcomes & benefits
o Identification of ethical issues/solutions
o Indication of how findings will be communicated to
relevant audiences.

Goal of this course: to facilitate the preparation of a detailed

research design (from which you can produce a research proposal).
Research design structure
Title
Research problem
o Normally a few concise paragraphs
o May include reference to some literature academic and
non-

o May not be precise at the outset

Motives and goals
o Personal reasons
o More public or altruistic reasons
Research questions and purposes
o Question is the most important element
Review of the literature
o Brief
o Major function is to link the proposed research to the
current state of relevant knowledge
o Should indicate clearly what is known from previous
research about each of the research questions, or what
could be anticipated in light of existing social theory
o This will develop into a longer chapter for the thesis
o The research questions determine the boundaries of
what is relevant. Literature unrelated to the question
need not be included.
Research strategies
o Provide a logic, or set of procedures, for answering
research questions
o Blaikies 4 options are inductive, deductive,
retroductive, and abductive
Research paradigms
o A particular set of theoretical ideas and epistemological
and ontological assumptions
Concepts, theories, hypotheses and models
o Discussion of concepts and theory may be its own
conceptual framework section, or may be part of the lit
review
o All social research uses technical concepts, but the way
they enter into the research process differs depending
on the research strategy used may start out with some
key concepts, which will become variables through
specifying procedures for measurement;
o Or may only use sensitizing concepts at the outset, and
concepts emerge from examination of lay concepts
o The four strategies entail different ideas of what
constitutes theory and its role in research
o Not all projects require hypotheses they are relevant to
why questions, but not to what questions.
Data, types, forms, and sources
o Data can be collected from 4 main types of sources, as
well as from or about individuals, small groups, and
larger groups.
o First, natural social settings: people can be studied in
the context in which the activities of interest to the
researcher occur, in their natural social environment
(family in the home, religious rituals in the church, etc.)

o Second, semi-natural settings: interviews about the

activities of interest, or about peoples attitudes, values
etc.
o Third, artificial settings: experiments, focus groups,
simulations.
o Fourth, social artefacts: traces or products that
individuals or groups leave behind them as a result of
activities in their natural settings; Statistics, documents,
records.
o Primary, secondary, and tertiary form.
Selection of data sources
o Selecting the people, events, or items from which or
about which data will be collected.
o Involves the definition of a population of such people,
events, items.
o If using a sample rather than a whole population, need
to consider whether the selection process will impact
ability to generalize from results.
o If some other method of selection is used, such as case
studies, the procedures should be stated and justified.
Data collection and timing
o A wide array of qualitative and quantitative methods is
available, including:
Observation
Interviewing
Questionnaire
Content analysis of secondary sources
[working with texts]
[working with transcripts, visual data]
o Research design needs to clearly specify method(s) to
be used to collect the data
o What method or methods will be used to generate and
record the data? Over what time?
Data reduction and analysis
o Need to specify the methods to be used to reduce and
analyze the data
o Methods of data reduction transform raw data into an
analysable form
o Transcription?
o If all the other design decisions have been made
carefully and consistently, choosing methods for
analysis should be straightforward.
Problems and limitations