Culture-based market segmentation

Nature of culture
Culture, central to social life and in human actions is a complex concept with
multifaceted feeling. One of the most an ingenious and relevant definition that has been
proposed is that of Edouard Herriot: "Culture is what remains when one has forgotten
everything." This seemingly paradoxical definition expresses one of the most important
features of culture, before being content; it is a way of thinking and being. In addition,
the individual is relatively aware of this reality and its effects.
Culture can more accurately be defined as a set of meanings, collective nature
of values and beliefs and have a certain sustainability that characterize a group of
individuals on a national, ethnic or other and guide their behavior "(Faure and Rubin,
1993). These beliefs are transmitted from generation to generation and concern
individuals,

their

interactions,

relationships

with

their

environment

and

their

understanding of the world. Triandis (1994) distinguishes culture subjective " which
consists of categories , norms, values and role of culture "Objective" which includes all
the products of human activity , be it a work of art, a chair or a plane. Individuals are
both conditioned by the reality and by the perception that they have. They act based on
beliefs and values from their culture. It provides a general framework and understanding
its role is to Answer questions before they are asked (Akun, 1989).
Culture is not a static size or in human societies, nor in the negotiations,
particularly if they are deployed in the long term. It is dynamic and changes over time by
incorporating new values by rejecting others and changing hierarchy and priorities.
In the market, as in all human actions, thinking precedes movement. Again crops
generate very different cognitive approaches. For example, the Japanese leave the
context while the Americans immediately under- take in what they consider most
important is to say, the interaction itself. The Chinese intellectual approach is holistic in
nature and is based on empirical evidence (Chen, 1999) , while the Western way of
thinking is analytic and based on abstract logic . Thus the linear reflection based on the
identification of causal relationships is not a universal mode of reasoning .
In a business school, a teacher submits the same problem in three different
groups of students, French, German and English. This is a conflict between two

departments of the same company and the persons concerned must propose a
resolution mode. The French suggest making up the decision at the highest hierarchical
level, the Germans propose to establish clear rules defining the powers and
prerogatives of each of the departments, while the English segment to improve
communication between the leaders of two departments ( Hofstede , 1987). Cultural
difference here is the explanatory variable . Each of the three cultures involved induces
a different way of framing the problem, identify the cause of the malfunction and
consider a solution. Reference models such as the pyramid organizational ,
development of regulatory machine or a better operation of the communication system
and in- formation are present here implicitly.
Hall ( 1976) is two major categories of crops , those with high and low- context as
the role that context plays in the collection of information , the interpretation of signals
and the conduct of the action . Chinese and Japanese fall into the first category , while
Westerners are part of the second.
The four dimensions of culture identified by Hofstede (1980) and can be quite
useful to capture the behavior of the customer.
Salacuse (1991) identifies ten factors charactertrisant a trading style , each located on
a bipolar axis : goals ( contract or relation) , the general attitude ( win-win or win-lose ) ,
staff style ( formal or informal) , the communication mode (direct or indirect) , the
importance given to the time ( high or low ), the role of emotions (high or low ), the form
of the agreement ( specific or general) the process of reaching the agreement
( inductive or deductive ) , the organization of the marketing team ( a real leader or
permanent consensus ) , the ability to take risks (high or low).
National or ethnic culture contributes to the formation of a " national style of
marketing " with the legacy of history and the influence of the political system. Crops
such as family culture , religious or that of the organization can also play an important
role in providing standards of conduct, symbols and meanings. They can convey
opposition to those values of national culture , placing the individual a real cultural
dilemma. The professional activity of the customer , his initial training as general rent
specific crops . Man- agers , engineers, lawyers , business have their way of thinking
about negotiation and deal with difficulties. Lang ( 1993) and Sjstedt (2003 ) offer

significant observations in this area. For example , engineers see themselves as

builders and resolvers problems; lawyers as defenders of justice and equity ;
economists as planners and policy advisors ; elected as representatives of the public
interest.
In the same person , norms and values combine to enter relational forms
governed by " dialectical tensions " ( Janosik , 1987). Organizes a genuine internal
management of these tensions in order to reach an equilibrium state ever likely to
evolve over time. For example, Blaker (1977 ) highlights two contradictory modes of
conflict resolution within the Japanese culture , cooperation based on harmony and the
warrior ethic . These are the circumstances that determine which of these two
approaches can be used legitimately . Similarly , French culture is based on relatively
incompatible values such as freedom and equality. Depending on the time, one or the
other becomes dominant and variations observed can be considered as indicators of
cultural dynamics.
Culture and market: creating a convergence
In recent years, due to the economic crisis of the early 90s, the arts and culture
around the world has undergone significant budget cuts that forced the field of players
to turn to new sources of financing, reduce their expenses and to adopt a more rational
attitude while seeking to increase their visibility (Bissonnette and Cheron, 1994). In this
context, we can consider that the precise knowledge of market preferences is essential
to developing effective marketing strategies to attract the interest of a visitor or a
spectator increasingly solicited by numerous competitive activities.
Along with this, the metropolitan centers across the globe have become cultural
mosaics that include the same territory of individuals from different cultural
backgrounds. Cities such as Montreal, Toronto, New York, Miami, Paris, London, Dakar
or Hong Kong today offer a worthy cultural diversity of the global village qualifier.
Companies operating in these markets cosmopolitan express an urgent need to better
understand the ethnic communities consumption behaviors that live there to properly
adjust their business actions. In this article we start from the basic idea that artistic and
cultural product manager certainly find more difficulties in managing its business in a
cosmopolitan market in a culturally homogeneous market. Residing Consumer groups

often share value systems and cultural learning different from that of the host society. To
remedy this situation, a comprehensive understanding of cosmopolitan markets is
required and the segmentation of this market appears to us as the best opportunities
(Aurier, 1989; Wind, 1978). It is then to find the best basis for segmentation will allow an
artistic and cultural organization working in this market for more effective management
of its marketing products including its policies and service, price, distribution and
communication.
It is in this perspective that we proposed in this paper to analyze the ethnic
communities consumer behavior with respect to products. From a theoretical framework
derived from the marketing literature as well as in the field of artistic and cultural
products than the ethnic consumer, we propose a segmentation model of the arts and
culture market that marketers companies Culture can use to better understand the
dynamics of emerging ethnic markets, identify new opportunities for artistic and cultural
products, boost demand for this type of products and try to fully satisfy. This
segmentation model, which we will test with some ethnic groups in one of the most
cosmopolitan cities in the world (Montreal, Canada), may serve as a conceptual and
methodological basis for other applications in other cities in America north, Europe, Asia
or Africa.
The origin of market research probably goes back to the time when human
communities began to exchange goods. Before the money becomes a unit of exchange,
the men were asked to identify a product or service to offer to get what they wanted. If a
farmer found that cultivated cereals were assessed unfavorably compared to those of
his neighbor, he could decide to produce something else. He could consider
abandoning the culture and to offer services such as medicine, bookkeeping or
something that can be exchanged at attractive conditions. The procedure followed to
determine a person she could offer the business community was a form of market
research. It was made here by personal observation of sales of products or services.
Cultural factors
Cultural factors are those from the various components related to culture and the
cultural environment to which belongs the consumer. Culture is critical when it comes to
understanding the needs and behaviors of an individual. Throughout its existence, an

individual will be influenced by his family, his friends, his cultural environment or society
that go to "teach values , preferences and behaviors specific to their common culture.
For a brand, it is important to understand and take into account cultural factors inherent
in each market or each situation in order to adapt its product and its marketing strategy.
As these will play a role in perception, habits, and behavior or consumer expectations.
For example, in France, it is common to invite colleagues and friends at home for
a drink or dinner. In Japan, however, inviting someone home does not usually fit into
local customs. It is preferable that this kind of outing with friends or colleagues is done
at the restaurant. Quite specific to consider for market participants and savory biscuits
for the aperitif or sodas or alcoholic beverages. Uses and consumption times will not be
the same in all regions of the world. Similarly, if Japanese offers you a gift, it is
convenience offering an equivalent gift in return.
McDonald's is a shining example for adaptation to the specificities of each culture
and each market. Well aware of the importance of presenting an offer containing
suitable products to specifically meet the needs and tastes of consumers from different
cultures, the fast- food giant offers for example: McBaguette in France (with wand and
mustard), the Chicken Maharaja Mac and Chicken Masala Grill in India (with Indian
spices) or Mega Teriyaki Burger (with teriyaki sauce) or Gurakoro (with macaroni and
shrimp) in Japan. While all the ingredients used by McDonald's in Arab and Muslim
countries are certified halal. The fast-food brand will also offer, of course, no product
with bacon or pork.
Culture, central to social life and in human actions is a concept that can be
defined as a set of meanings, collective nature of values and beliefs and have a certain
sustainability that characterize a group of people on a national, ethnic or other and
direct their conduct (Faure and Rubin, 1993).
Negotiation expresses something essential in social activity with cooperative and
conflictual dimensions intermingled by staging issues such as uncertainty, complexity,
power and equity (Radchenko - Draillard, 2003). It is regarded as a dynamic process of
problem solving, among customers with often conflicting goals and objectives during the
process of interdependence (Radchenko - Draillard, 2011).

Intercultural negotiation is any negotiation that takes place in the context of

encounter between people whose different respective cultures and, therefore, may
influence the process and outcomes subject to this negotiation.
Culture can significantly affect the process, communication, motivation and
actions of the protagonists (Radchenko - Draillard, 2012). It thus influences how the
actors of the negotiation seek to understand, integrate the culture of others (notably,
how to reason, analyze the situation and seek solution).
Research on the impact of culture on the process and the results of negotiations
generally compare dyads of a culture A with respect to culture B (Gregory, 1995; Wilson
et al., 1995). Thus, in terms of the influence of culture on the conduct of the
negotiations, the researchers use simulated negotiations involving two partners
(buyers/sellers) and the number of issues to be negotiated is reduced. This research
has helped to bring little support for the effect of culture on the process and the results
of negotiations despite the diversity of analyze: Qualitative content analysis of the
negotiations and / or analysis of assessments after negotiations (Lytle,1993). The
knowledge of the culture and values of the opponent seems to have a positive effect on
the perception of the group and the mutual perception of customers (Faure, 2004).
In the work on conflict and negotiation, crops are generally compared for the
dimension individualism / collectivism (Triandis et al, 1988; Schwartz, 1994; Gudykunst
et al., 1992; Alder at al. 1987; Graham et al., 1994; Brett, 2001). Alder and Graham
(1989) conclude that negotiations involving different cultures partners require more time
that negotiations between partners from the same culture. Compared to the emotional
dimension of the negotiations, a single search refers to variation in the attraction and
satisfaction (Alder et al., 1987) while other studies have failed to establish such
relationships (Graham, 1985; Graham et al.1992).
Subcultures:
A company is composed of several sub- cultures in which people can relate to.
Subcultures are groups of individuals who share values based on a common experience
or similar lifestyle in the aggregate. Subcultures are nationalities, religions, ethnic
groups, age groups, gender of the individual, etc. Subcultures are often taken into
account by the marks in the segmentation of a market to adapt a product or a way to

communicate the values and the specific needs of this segment. For example in recent
years, the segment of cosmetics called "ethnic" has greatly expanded. These products
more suitable for non-Caucasian populations and types of skin pigmentation of African
populations, Arab or Indian example.
It is then a real position with a well-defined target on a sector that until now only
offered makeup to a Caucasian target (with the exception of specialized brands) and
harvested then critical consumers of different origin. Brands often communicate
differently, see create several specific products (sometimes without intrinsic noticeable
difference ) for the same type of product to specifically address an age group , a genre
or a particular subculture. Consumers are generally more sensitive to products and
marketing strategies specifically relating to.
Cultural trends:
Cultural trends or fads " are defined as trends largely followed by individuals that
are amplified by their mere popularity or compliance effect. More individuals trending
and others will follow. They affect the behavior and buying habits of consumers and may
be related to the release of new products or become a source of innovation for brands.
By social pressure, want of conformity or group membership, want to follow fashion " or
simply due to the high visibility given that they generate, consumers will be influenced,
consciously or unconsciously, by these trends. For example, Facebook has become a
cultural trend. The social network has been widely developed to the point of becoming a
must, especially among young people. It's the same with the emergence of tablets.
They have become a global cultural trend pushing many consumers to be interested in
it and acquire one. For a brand, to create from scratch a new cultural trend is not easy.
Apple did with the tablets, but this is an exception. By cons, brands must keep listening
trends and fads. Whether to accompany (be on Facebook) or integrate the newly
created market (developing a tablet model)
The study examined using the content analysis method a sample of francophone
Quebec television commercials (165) and Canadian Anglophones (152) to assess
whether the contents reflect the cultural values of their respective subcultures more
specifically, the values of collectivism and individualism, and the nature of differences in
creative strategies and execution. The results show that some of the cultural differences

between French Canada and English Canada will reflect the level of advertising. In
addition, the French advertisements were more likely to be emotional than Anglophones
advertisements, while the latter are mostly rational and informational elements. The
most used in francophone advertising creative strategies are branding, emotional
strategy and positioning strategy; and those commonly used in English-speaking
commercials are the unique selling proposition, the former model strategy and branding.
Cultural dimensions and society
There are many attempts to define and classifications dimensions of culture , but
the one that had the most impact in the field of cross cultural advertising is that of Geert
Hofstede (1980); de Mooij (2005). Based on data collected over 90,000 subjects in 66
countries, it was able to extract four dimensions values (possibly five); the most
important has proved to be the dimension of individualism versus collectivism.
According to Lee (2000), it is essential in the study of differences in intercultural
communication and consumer behavior. For Hofstede (1980), a collectivist society is
based on the consciousness of "we" obedience to the ideology of the group, group
identity, collective identity, emotional dependency, solidarity with the group. While a socalled individualistic society is based on inverse criteria as collectivism, such as
consciousness of "me, the search for pleasure, independence, self-realization.
According to the results of research on the cultural values that influence the behavior of
people (Lortie-Lussier, Fellers and Kleinplatz 1986; Punnet, 1991; Major, McCarrey,
Mercier and Gasse, 1994; Kelsey and Aubert, 1997; Moogk 2000), it appears that
English Canadians are more individualistic than French-speaking Canadians. We can
therefore postulate that there is a cultural difference between French Canadians and
English Canadians especially in terms of individualism versus collectivism dimension.
Number of comparative studies by authors such as Mueller (1987), Alden, Hoyer
& Lee ( 1993) , Firth & Sengupta (1991) , Han & Shavitt (1994) , Cheng & Schweitzer
(1996) and Cutler, Erdem & Javalgi (1997) - have shown that cultural differences
between countries and particularly those concerning individualism versus collectivism is
reflected in advertising. This dimension could be a strong explanatory reason of
intercultural difference between commercials. Therefore, we can think that francophone

Canadian

ads

convey

more

collectivist

values

than

Anglophone

Canadian

advertisements.
According , Belk (1985) and Mueller (1987), American commercials, called
individualistic culture , showed less advertisements focused on references to social
status as Japan, collectivist culture. We are talking about the concept of hierarchical
distance. Also , Alden , Hoyer & Lee (1993) have shown that collectivist culture of
countries like Korea and Thailand showed more ads showing unequal statuses while
countries such as the US or Germany, individualistic , had more advertisements
illustrating equal status . If we apply this to the context of our study, we can think that
advertisements of French Canada (rather collectivist) have more reference to social
status than those in English Canada (individualistic).
Ramaprasad & Hasegawa (1992), and Zandpour & Harich (1996) showed that
countries with collectivist culture tend to offer more emotional commercials while
countries with individualistic culture them offer more rational advertisements. Thus,
French Canada, collectivist culture, should present more emotional ads that English
Canada, individualistic culture.
The idiocentrism versus allocentrism
Cultural dimensions are visible at the societal level and at the level of the
individual. We find in the individual dimensions of culture under the terms of
allocentrism and idiocentrisme (HC Triandis, Leung, Villareal, & Clark, 1985). The
allocentrism is close collectivism defined by (Hofstede, 1980). The allocentrism is the
fact that individuals are oriented values such as compliance, security, harmony in the
group and personal relationships. Allocentrics people attach great importance to
collective behavior and group -related interdependence standards (H. C Triandis, 1995).
Also, they tend to emphasize the similarity of their closed circle, group, and often show
little or no distinction between the goals of the group and their personal goals.
Conversely, idiocentrisme is close to individualism Hofstede (1980), individuals act as
individuals rather than members of a group. Marino and Triandis (1985) define
idiocentriques individuals as persons whose social behavior is mainly focused on the
goals, attitudes and personal values that are very low in relation to the characteristics of

the group of belonging. The idiocentristes tend to differentiate themselves from their
closed circle, group, and prioritize their personal goals (H. C Triandis, 1995).
The effect of culture on ads
Since culture is different in each country, we can think that this is also reflected in
the ads, since we do not have the same ways of seeing things. It seems important that
responsible marketing communications account for these differences between cultures
when making advertisements. Uesltschy and Ryans Jr. (1997) sought to know how far
we could standardize advertising a product for US and Mexican consumers, where
cultural and language differences exist. All of the respondents prefer specialization
rather than standardization of advertising. Culture is a factor to be considered during the
creation of an advertising campaign. Cateora, Graham and Bruning (2005) in this
direction in their work on the international marketing, the key to success in this area is to
adapt to the differences in the environment in which we want to break through.
Internationalization is necessary, however, keep in mind that we are all different, and it
seems more appropriate to adapt advertisements to these differences. Perceptions
differ by country. De Mooij (2004) joined this. According to her, consumer behavior is
governed by various factors: mental, attributes, values, etc., but mainly by culture.
Consumers are different because they have different cultures.
Research on culture and negotiation
Culture is one of the most difficult concepts to define. Kroeber and Kluckholn
(1972) identified more than 164 definitions in this concept. Values are an important
indicator of a culture (Triandis, 1998; Gibson, 1999). A group shares a culture so (1)
individuals in this group have the same values and (2) the values of this group are
different from the values of other groups. Regardless of the specifics of each of these
definitions , there are four points that are common ( Schiffman and Kanuk , 1987) : (1)
culture is total because it encompasses all tangible and intangible elements of a
companys life component; ( 2) it is collective because it is socially shared. Indeed ,
culture is supposed to give an answer to the problems posed by environmental group
members . It thus gives meaning to life ( the values , beliefs , social norms , etc. ) for
those who identify with it. ( 3) It is transmitted as it is not born with a culture . It is

through the process of socialization that individuals of a culture learn the values and
behaviors specific to it. Finally, culture (4 ) it is scalable.
Since culture is meant to solve the problems of individuals who compose it , then
it is obvious that it adapts to the evolution of these problems in order to allow these
individuals to live harmoniously in community. following a review of the literature on
trading in an international context, Janosik (1987 ) identified three main conceptions of
culture: (1) culture as a learned behavior, (2) culture as a set of shared values and (3)
culture as a dialect. Nicotera (1995 ) mentions that the first design characterized the
"popular" work on international negotiations. This work attempts to classify the typical
behavior of a particular group. Thus, the Japanese never say no directly , the Saudis
use the first negotiation meetings to build some confidence rather than the terms of the
contract ( Acuff , 1993; Harris and Moran, 1991). In this type of contributions , few such
behavior explanation attempts are made . In contrast, more academic nature of work
assumes that culture is a set of values shared by members of this culture. The
differences in behavior are then explained by their culture of origin. Therefore, members
of a culture will have the same negotiation style that is driven by shared values.
Hofstede (1987) proposed four cultural dimensions to characterize a culture in
relation to others. This is individualism / collectivism , power distance , avoidance of
uncertainty and finally , masculinity / femininity. His work considering culture as a set of
shared values generally describe one of these values and make assumptions on the
basis of the latter with respect to the behavior and motivations of customers in a given
culture. Several attempts have been well conducted to detect the effect of
individualism / collectivism on the process and the results of negotiations involving
different cultures partners (Graham, 1985; Lee and Rogan, 1991; Ting- Toomey et al.,
1991). In this type of research , manipulation of the level of individualism/collectivism
was made by choosing individuals from highly individualistic cultures ( the United States
) and highly collectivist cultures ( Japan , Korea , etc.). This suggests that the
researchers believe that this shared value ( individualism / collectivism ) will generate
the same behavior in all US customers (or Japanese). It is clear that this vision gives a
prominent role to culture assuming it predetermines the behavior of customers. If this is
the case, work addressing intra- cultural negotiation ( customers formed dyads

belonging to the same culture) show significant effects of culture on the process and the
actual trading results (comparing them in both crops). Second, studies on negotiations
involving different cultures partners find more difficulties in shared values. Research
have adopted this view of culture compare countries on several dimensions that
universalism and particularism; the allocation and fulfillment; masculinity and femininity,
etc. (Gudykunst, 1987).
However, it seems clear that the features common to the various definitions of
culture mentioned above coincide with the vision of culture as a set of values. Various
researches adopt this vision and this for two reasons. First, according to Janosik (1987),
this vision is the most used in research related to the study of the impact of culture in
the process and the actual trading results . This is particularly true for research on
negotiations in the field of marketing (Graham, 1985, 1987 ; Graham et al ., 1994 ) .
Second, there is a fairly large body of literature of cultural values. These include cultural
dimensions developed by Hofstede (1987). Thus, the cultural differences between the
marketing partners are primarily evaluated on the basis of cultural values. However,
different cultural dimensions (individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance ,
masculinity/femininity, power distance) have been suggested by Bollinger and Hofstede
(1987 ) to measure the culture, are retained .
Influence of culture on the conduct of the negotiations
The influence of culture on the action of a customer is often barely perceptible
(Zartman, 1993). This subtle quality does not diminish its importance but included
among the invisible factors (Faure and Rubin , 2003). Belonging to a dominant culture
often tends to reinforce the cultural insensitivity and denier important. In fact , it is by its
external manifestations that the effects of culture on the different dimensions of
negotiation can be entered. The goal assigns each party are to some extent affected by
cultures. In this case, culture is mainly expressed in the strategies and in the light of
results of the negotiations .
The fact that culture influences the behavior of actors seems well accepted.
However, the specific mechanisms that generate these differences are not identified.
For example , Erez (1993) suggests that cultural values shape the cognitive schemas
( set of common sense shared by individuals of that culture). Based on this assumption ,

several authors have developed a model that integrates the cultural, practical and
managerial motivation and the self in order to explain the behavior of customers in
many cultures . The results of this research show that the values of a culture affect the
customer having a leadership style. Salacuse (1991) identifies ten factors characterizing
a trading style, each located on a bipolar axis: goals (contract or relation) the general
attitude (win-win or win-lose), personal style (formal or informal) the communication
mode (direct or indirect) , the emphasis on time (high or low) , the role of emotions (high
or low), the form of the agreement (specific or general), the process reached of the
Agreement (inductive or deductive), the organization of the marketing team (a real
leader or permanent consensus) and the ability to take risks (high or low).
However, the four dimensions of culture identified by Hofstede (1987) can be
quite useful to enter the integrative and distributive marketing behavior. Power distance
determines the relations to the marketing table; like the report to uncertainty related to
the ability to withstand stress, to resort to written documents; individualism that defines
the relationship with the community; and finally masculinity to express ambition, the
desire to realization.

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