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Abstract
Personalized ventilation (PV) aims to provide clean air to the breathing zone of occupants. Its performance depends to a large extent on the
supply air terminal device (ATD). Five different ATDs were developed, tested and compared. A typical office workplace consisting of a desk
with mounted ATDs was simulated in a climate chamber. A breathing thermal manikin was used to simulate a human being. Experiments at
room air temperatures of 26 and 20 8C and personalized air temperatures of 20 8C supplied from the ATDs were performed. The flow rate of
personalized air was changed from less than 5 up to 23 l/s. Tracer gas was used to identify the amount of personalized air inhaled by the
manikin as well as the amount of exhaled air re-inhaled. The heat loss from the body segments of the thermal manikin was measured and used
to calculate the equivalent temperature for the whole body as well as segments of the body. An index, personal exposure effectiveness, was
used to assess the performance of ATDs in regard to quality of the air inhaled by the manikin. The personal exposure effectiveness increased
with the increase of the airflow rate from the ATD to a constant maximum value. A further increase of the airflow rate had no impact on the
personal exposure effectiveness. Under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions the highest personal exposure effectiveness of 0.6 was
achieved by a vertical desk grill followed by an ATD designed as a movable panel. The ATDs tested performed differently in regard to the
inhaled air temperature used as another air quality indicator, as well as in regard to the equivalent temperature. The results suggest that PV may
decrease significantly the number of occupants dissatisfied with the air quality. However, an ATD that will ensure more efficient distribution
and less mixing of the personalized air with the polluted room air needs to be developed.
# 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Personalized ventilation; Air distribution; Air quality; Thermal comfort
1. Introduction
Total-volume ventilation and air-conditioning of rooms is
at present the method most used in practice. Mixing and
displacement room air distribution are the main principles
applied. Displacement ventilation has been shown to provide
occupants with better air quality, especially in rooms with
non-passive, heated contaminant sources [1]. However, unlike
mixing ventilation, vertical air temperature difference in
rooms with displacement ventilation exists with low air
temperatures near the floor. High air velocities often exist
near the floor as well. Thus, if not well designed, the risk of
local discomfort due to draught and vertical temperature
difference in rooms with displacement ventilation is high
[2,3]. Studies [4,5] show that the same air is perceived by
people as being of poor quality at a high air temperature but of
better quality at a low air temperature. Therefore, assessment
of quality of the inhaled air by measurements should be based
on its temperature, humidity and gas concentration [6]. In both
Abbreviations: PV, personalized ventilation; ATD, air terminal device
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: melikov@mek.dtu.dk (A.K. Melikov).
*
0378-7788/02/$ see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 0 2 - 0
830
Nomenclature
cE;N2 O
cI
cI,0
cI;SF6
cI;N2 O
cP
cPV
cPV;SF6
cR
cS
cS;SF6
C
Qt
teq
Dteq,h
Dtinh
Greek letters
eP
personal exposure effectiveness
eRI
re-inhaled exposure index
eV
ventilation effectiveness
with a thick boundary layer at the height of the head. The free
convection movement will change the skin temperature due to
convection heat transfer and will thus affect mans thermal
sensation. The free convection flow transports air, which
might be contaminated from the lower part of the space,
upward to the breathing zone. It also carries the bioeffluents
and vapor emitted from the human body. Furthermore, occupants breathing generates an air movement due to exhalation.
The interaction between the airflow from the PV, the free
convection flow around the body and the airflow of exhalation
is of primary importance for occupants thermal comfort and
inhaled air quality [6]. The interaction is influenced by the
strength of the free convection flow and the thickness of its
boundary layer, the characteristics of the invading flow generated by the PV (mean velocity, velocity profile, turbulence
intensity, direction, temperature, etc.), the posture, shape and
area of the occupants body exposed to the invading flow, the
clothing design, etc.
The supply air terminal device (ATD) is an essential part
of any PV system. It plays a major role in the distribution of
air around the human body and thus, determines occupants
thermal comfort and perceived air quality.
A study on performance of five different supply ATDs in
regard to occupants thermal comfort and inhaled air quality
was designed and performed. The results are presented in
this paper.
2. Experimental method
2.1. Experimental facilities and conditions
831
cR cS
cP cS
(1)
832
cI;0 cI
cI;0 cPV
(2)
cI;0 cI
cI;0
(3)
cS;SF6 cI;SF6
cS;SF6 cPV;SF6
(4)
cI;N2 O
cE;N2 O
(5)
(6)
833
834
airflow from CMP-mod dropped on the desk and the personalized air mixed with the room air. The results of the
comparison shown in Fig. 5 demonstrate the importance
of the airflow interaction at the breathing zone; this must be
carefully considered during the design of PV systems in
practice. It was found that the relationships presented in
Figs. 3, 4 and 5 depend on the posture of the manikin.
Experiments on this effect are in progress.
The present standards and guidelines recommend ventilation rates from 4 to 10 l/s occupant in offices without
smoking and up to 30 l/s occupant when some smoking is
allowed [16,17]. ATD with a large outlet, providing laminar
airflow with a low velocity that will not cause draught
discomfort for the occupants, has been previously suggested
by Melikov [18] as one of the design recommendations for
PV systems. Such an ATD will make it possible to provide
the high airflow rate of 30 l/s occupant, as recommended in
the guidelines [17], at relatively low velocity without local
thermal discomfort. In practice, however, most often 10 l/s
per occupant may be required. Under these conditions, better
results will be achieved by a relatively small ATD, such as
VDG, compromising for the inhaled air quality.
The different airflow distribution achieved by the tested
ATDs had a significant impact on the temperature of the
inhaled air as well as on the amount of re-inhaled air. The
ventilation effectiveness (eV), the personal exposure effectiveness (eP), the re-inhaled exposure index (eRI, in %), and
the difference in the temperature of the inhaled air with and
without PV (Dtinh), for the tested ATDs under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions, are listed in Table 1(a
and b). The difference in the equivalent temperature for
the head (Dteq,h), identified with and without PV, is listed in
the table as well. This parameter will be discussed later in
the paper. The parameters are listed in the table for two flow
rates of personalized air. The first flow rate, 10 l/s, represents
the minimum amount of outdoor air typically required by the
ventilation standards and guidelines [16,17] per building
occupant today. The second flow rate corresponds to the
minimum flow rate of personalized air needed to achieve
maximum personal exposure effectiveness with each of the
tested ATDs. For VDG and PEM, these two flow rates are
identical.
Similar to the findings in [6], the results of this study show
that a rather small amount of exhaled air (<1%) was reinhaled with the tested ATDs. Nevertheless, in this regard
two of the tested ATDs, VDG and PEM performed best; less
than 0.3% of the exhaled air was re-inhaled by the manikin
with this ATD. For CMP and MP, the amount of re-inhaled
air increased with the increase of the flow rate. The opposite
tendency was observed for PEM. The amount of re-inhaled
air was higher under non-isothermal conditions in comparison with isothermal conditions for all ATDs.
In a calm environment, people inhale mainly the air from
the free convection flow around the body. Therefore, the
temperature of the inhaled air is higher than the ambient air
temperature. The inhaled air temperature without PV measured during this experiment was 21.6 8C at a room air
temperature of 20 8C and 28.1 8C at a room air temperature
of 26 8C. The results of the present study show that the
temperature of the inhaled air generally decreased with an
increase in the flow rate from the ATDs, under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions. The personalized air
was able to penetrate the free convection flow around the
body. However, under isothermal conditions, the inhaled air
temperature with PV was measured only slightly lower than
the inhaled temperature without PV and nearly the same for
Table 1
Ventilation effectiveness (eV), personal exposure effectiveness (eP), re-inhaled exposure index (eRI), inhaled air temperature difference (Dtinh) and manikinbased equivalent temperature difference for the head (Dteq,h) identified with the tested ATDs under isothermal and non-isothermal conditions
eV
eP
eRI
Dtinh (8C)
Dteq,h (8C)
1.61
1.54
1.92
1.45
1.35
1.82
1.69
2.38
0.38
0.35
0.48
0.31
0.26
0.45
0.41
0.58
0.19
0.21
0.03
0.20
0.46
0.35
0.56
0.66
0.6
0.3
0.6
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.3
0.5
4.5
0.8
3.9
3.1
0.8
3.1
0.7
2.5
1.30
1.32
2.27
1.52
1.39
1.59
1.47
2.00
0.23
0.24
0.56
0.34
0.28
0.37
0.32
0.50
0.49
0.48
0.30
0.25
0.67
0.75
0.61
0.74
2.2
2.1
5.1
3.3
2.9
4.5
3.2
4.6
3.2
0.7
6.0
3.1
2.0
3.6
2.4
4.2
Room air 20 8C, 30% RH; personalized air 20 8C, 30% RH.
Room air 26 8C, 30% RH, personalized air 20 8C, 30% RH.
835
and CMP, and 0.8 8C for VDG and PEM. Thus, occupants
may feel slightly cooler with VDG and PEM. Occupants
may decrease the flow rate through these two ATDs, which
will improve their thermal comfort, but will also decrease
the personal exposure effectiveness, i.e. the quality of the
inhaled air. Under non-isothermal (summer) conditions (26/
20 8C), the cooling effect of all ATDs, except MP, is around
1 8C. Under these conditions, the cooling effect of MP is
almost twice as high, 1.9 8C. This cooling effect, even
though small, may be sufficient for many occupants who
need only minor adjustment of the local thermal environment. Tszuki et al. [11] tested two ATDs and reported
differences in the cooling power as well. A decrease of
the personalized air temperature (if possible) can further
increase the cooling effect of the body caused by the PV
system.
Draught, defined as unwanted local cooling of the body
due to air movement, is one of the most frequent complaints
in practice. Studies show that the neck and the feet are the
body parts most sensitive to draught [19]. The body parts
directly exposed to the personalized air can be cooled more
than is acceptable for the occupants. For example, if occupants arms and hands are exposed to cool air supplied
upward from the edge of the table, the occupant will feel
uncomfortable and his/her performance may decrease even
when the whole body feels thermally comfortable. The
draught sensation increases when mean velocity and turbulence intensity increase and air temperature decreases.
Furthermore, airflow toward the front of the body causes
less discomfort than airflow from the back [20,21]. The
tested ATDs distribute the air with relatively high velocity
mainly at the front of the body, i.e. the head, the chest, the
arms and the hands. For most of the tested ATDs (except
HDG), the equivalent temperature measured for the head at
the minimum airflow needed to achieve maximum personalized exposure effectiveness was lower than the other
body segments of the manikin, i.e. the head was cooled
most. The performance of the tested ATDs in this regard can
be seen in Table 1(a and b). The difference in the equivalent
temperature for the head (Dteq,h), measured with PV and
without PV is listed in the table. The greatest cooling effect
was measured with VDG under both isothermal and nonisothermal conditions. The cooling effect measured with
CMP and MP under non-isothermal conditions was high as
well. In general, it may be expected that occupants, in order
to decrease draught discomfort, will use PVat low flow rates,
and this will cause a decrease in the amount of inhaled
personalized air (the personal exposure effectiveness
decreases when the flow rate decreases) and an increase
in the inhaled air temperature. These changes will have a
negative impact on the quality of the air as perceived by
occupants.
In general, it may be expected that two of the tested ATDs,
namely VDG and MP, will perform well in practice since
they will not affect occupants general thermal sensation
significantly and will provide more personalized air in
836
4. Conclusions
The performance of five ATDs for a PV system was tested
in regard to occupants thermal comfort and quality of
inhaled air. A breathing thermal manikin was used to
simulate a human being. Both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions were examined.
An index, personal exposure effectiveness, expressed as
the percentage of personalized air in inhaled air, was used to
assess the performance of the tested ATDs. The personal
exposure effectiveness increased with the increase of the
airflow rate from the ATDs to a constant maximum value,
which was not affected by a further increase of the airflow.
Under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions and an
airflow rate below 15 l/s, the highest personal exposure
effectiveness, 0.6, was achieved by a VDG providing personalized air upward to the occupants face. A MP allowing
for a change of airflow direction in relation to the occupant,
had a high performance as well.
The amount of exhaled air re-inhaled by the manikin was
rather small with all tested ATDs.
The temperature of the inhaled air decreased with the
increase of the personalized airflow. The lowest temperature
of the inhaled air was achieved by VDG.
The VDG provided greatest cooling of the manikins
head. In practice, this may cause draught discomfort for
the occupants.
Further research on the development of ATDs that generate airflow with minimum mixing of the personalized air
with the polluted room air is recommended.
Acknowledgements
This research was performed with support from the
Danish Technical Research Council (STVF).
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