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I.
INTRODUCTION
THEORY
U U2
P + jQ = S = U 1 I * = U 1 1
U U e
= U1 1 2j
Ze
(1)
U12 j U1U 2 j ( + )
e
e
Z
Z
Thus, active and reactive power flowing into the line are
described as:
U2
UU
P = 1 cos 1 2 cos ( + )
(2)
Z
Z
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U12
UU
sin 1 2 sin ( + )
Z
Z
j
With Ze =R+jX, (2) and (3) are rewritten as:
U
P = 2 1 2 R (U1 U 2 cos ) + XU 2 sin
R +X
Q=
Q=
U1
(3)
(4)
(5)
or
U 2 sin =
XP RQ
U1
(6)
RP + XQ
(7)
U1
For overhead lines X >> R, meaning that R may be
neglected. If also the power angle is small, then sin =
and cos = 1. Equations (6) and (7) then become:
XP
(8)
U1U 2
U1 U 2 cos =
U1 U 2
XQ
U1
(9)
ZQ '
U1
(14)
(11)
Fig. 3 Influence of active and reactive power on voltage and frequency for
different line impedance ratios: (a) R/X=0, (b) R/X=1, (c) R/X=.
(16)
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Ir =
(18)
P ' U 2 sin
=
U1
Z
(20)
Q ' U1 U 2 cos
=
(21)
U1
Z
As a variant to the previously described droop method,
not the (modified) active and reactive powers, but the
(modified) active and reactive currents Ia and Ir are
controlled. The frequency and voltage droop control
characteristics then become:
f f 0 = ka I a ' I a ,0 '
(22)
frequency:
= k ( f f 0 )
(24)
Ir ' =
(
)
U1 U 0 = kr ( I r ' I r ,0 ')
(23)
2) Voltage droop
The amplitude U0 of the voltage source is assumed
constant and equal to the nominal grid voltage amplitude
Unom. Voltage droop between U0 and the local grid voltage
U1 occurs because of the series impedance Zd.
3) Choice of Zd and k
The virtual impedance Zd is equivalent to the series
impedance of a synchronous generator. However, whereas
the series impedance of a synchronous generator is mainly
reactive, the virtual impedance may be chosen arbitrarily. In
contrast to a real impedance, this virtual impedance
represents no power losses, and thus it is possible to imitate
the behaviour of a resistance, without compromising
efficiency.
By analysing the equivalence of the new approach with
the droop control method through active and reactive
current, cfr. (22) and (23), an appropriate choice of Zd and
k could be made as a function of ka and kr. Hereto,
modified active and reactive currents Ia and Ir through Zd
are calculated. The analysis is done, based on the
assumption that there are no harmonics and only the
fundamental frequency component is considered. This
assumption enables to write the relationship between
voltage and current of the virtual impedance using phasors:
U U 1 U 0 e j U1
(25)
I a jI r = I = 0
=
Zd
Z d e j
Knowing that Zd ej=Rd+jXd, this means:
R (U cos U1 ) + X d U 0 sin
Ia = d 0
Zd 2
Ir =
Rd U 0 sin + X d (U 0 cos U1 )
Zd 2
(26)
(27)
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Ir ' =
U 0 cos U1
Zd
(29)
(30)
(31)
Fig. 8 Overall scheme for the proposed voltage and frequency droop control
method.
Fig. 6: Finite-output impedance voltage source with current source in
parallel.
III.
IMPLEMENTATION
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Fig. 10: Fundamental voltage and amplitude tracking: ucap (blue), u and u
(green and red), ud and uq (cyan and magenta).
Z I
min , d max
(35)
U0
2
Applying the inverse Park transformation on [Usrc 0] with
the rotation angle + returns the sinusoidal voltage usrc.
B. Finite-output impedance emulation
The emulation of the finite-output impedance is obtained
by the use of a hybrid voltage-current controller. Instead of
having a current control loop for igrid inside a voltage control
loop for ucap (or the other way round), both current and
voltage are simultaneously controlled to emulate the finiteoutput impedance. This approach is necessary as the grid
impedance is not known, and could vary from 0 to infinity.
Stability problems would arise in a primary current control
loop for very large grid impedances, while the same is true
in a primary voltage control loop for very small grid
impedances (see e.g. [2]). Different control methods can be
used hereto, such as classical (e.g. root locus), modern (e.g.
Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG)), robust (e.g. H) or nonlinear (e.g. adaptive) control methods. Here, the LQG
optimal control approach is followed, using a Kalman
estimator and a linear quadratic regulator.
The control scheme is shown in Fig. 11 and incorporates
as well disturbance estimation and reference following [11].
The real-system plant model R is described in state-space
domain by:
1
R1
0
1
L L
1
i 1
i L
inv
inv 1
1
1
s ucap =
ucap + 0 uinv + w
0
C
C
0
R2 igrid
1
igrid
(36)
0
L2
L2
i
ucap 0 1 0 inv 0
=
ucap + 0 uinv + w
igrid 0 0 1
igrid
The virtual-system model is incorporated through the
transfer function V:
Z d ucap usrc
Zd
e=
igrid isrc
+
(37)
Z d + 1 Ld s + Rd
Zd + 1
The disturbance w in (36) represents the input-equivalent
disturbance, caused by the combination of the grid voltage
ugrid and the reference signal usrc and isrc. In fact, w is a
virtual signal applied at the control input which would
produce the same steady state error e as the combination of
the actual disturbance ugrid and the reference signals usrc and
isrc. Both disturbances are persistent, as they are both
composed of sinusoidal components, which means that they
can be modeled and cancelled for. W represents the inputequivalent disturbance model, with d an arbitrary impulsive
input. Besides the fundamental component, also the 3rd, 5th,
7th and 9th harmonic components are modelled.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig. 13: Voltage and current waveforms feeding a highly distorted load
with Zd = 1 .
V.
Fig. 12 Experimental setup of one of the two identical parallel inverters.
CONCLUSION
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400
200
200
200
200
400
0.1
0.15
0.2
REFERENCES
400
1.8
1.85
200
0
200
0.5
1
Time [s]
1.5
0.5
1
Time [s]
1.5
10
5
0
5
10
5
0.1
5
0.15
0.2
1.8
[1]
400
400
1.85
Fig. 14 Experimental grid currents and voltages before, during and after the
connection during operation of two non-synchronized stand-alone grids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the Belgian Fonds voor
Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen (FWO) for its
financial support, the Belgian Instituut voor de
aanmoediging van Innovatie door Wetenschap en
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