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Abstract
The paper reviews the past and present results in the area of decentralized control of large-scale complex systems. An emphasis is laid on
decentralization, decomposition, and robustness. These methodologies serve as effective tools to overcome specific difficulties arising in largescale complex systems such as high dimensionality, information structure constraints, uncertainty, and delays. Several prospective topics for future
research are introduced in this contents. The overview is focused on recent decomposition approaches in interconnected dynamic systems due to
their potential in providing the extension of decentralized control into networked control systems.
# 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Decentralized control; Large-scale systems; Decomposition; Delay; Uncertainty; Robustness
1. Introduction
The notion of large-scale systems has been introduced when it
became clear that there are real world control problems that
cannot be solved by using one-shot approaches. Such typical
motivating problems arise in the control of interconnected power
systems with strong interactions, water systems which are widely
distributed in space, traffic systems with many external signal, or
large-space flexible structures. The reason is that the systems to
be controlled are too large and the problems to be solved are too
complex. That is, these tasks cannot be solved simply by using
faster computers with larger memory. They necessitate new ideas
for dividing the analysis and synthesis of the overall system into
independent or almost independent subproblems, for dealing
with the incomplete information about the system, for treating
with the uncertainties, and for dealing with delays. The
complexity is an essential and dominating problem in systems
theory and practise. It leads to severe difficulties that are
encountered in the tasks of analyzing, designing, and implementing appropriate control strategies and algorithms. These
difficulties arise mainly from the following well-known reasons:
Dimensionality;
Information structure constraints;
1367-5788/$ see front matter # 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.arcontrol.2008.03.004
Uncertainty;
Delays.
The theory of large-scale systems is devoted to the problems
that arise from above difficulties. The theory answers the fundamental questions of how to break down a given control problem
into manageable subproblems which are only weakly related to
each other and can be solved independently. These general facts
lead to the opinion that no formal definition of the term large-scale
system is necessary. Instead, a more pragmatic view has been
adopted: A system is considered large-scale if it is necessary to
partition the given analysis or synthesis into manageable subproblems. As a result, the overall plant is no longer controlled by a
single controller but by several independent controllers which all
together represent a decentralized controller. This is the fundamental difference between feedback control of small and large
systems usually described by the idea of information structure.
The basic problem is to find control inputs ut on the basis
of the a priori knowledge of the plant S described by its model
M for a supposed class of disturbances wt and the control goal
given in the form of the design requirements DM, and the a
posteriori information about the outputs yt and the command
signals rt. The design problem is completely described by
the information given by these four quantities. The problem
consists of two phases:
Design phase: Determine control laws on the basis of the a
priori information about the plant and the design requirements.
88
Fig. 2. System structures: (a) centralized system; (b) N-channel system; (c)
interconnected system.
Fig. 3. Decentralization of the design task for subsystem 1: (a) weak interactions; (b) strong interactions.
Disjoint subsystems;
Overlapping subsystems;
Symmetric composite systems;
Multi-time scale systems;
Hierarchically structured systems.
89
90
1990), which offer a more wider and deeper view to the readers
interested in decentralized control theory and practice.
Note only that the majority of references consider zero
reference signals corresponding with a standard requirement on
the closed-loop system stability under uncertainties and delays.
The decentralized servomechanism problem for nominally
linear interconnected systems with structured parameter
perturbations solved Vaz and Davison (1989) for non-zero
reference signals. Global decentralized output regulation for a
class of uncertain interconnected systems with nonlinear
exosystem derived for the first time Xi and Ding (2007).
Cantoni et al. (2007) use local non-zero reference signals
related to individual locally controlled pools of an open-water
channel.
DA t D F tE
(3)
2. Disjoint subsystems
(4)
i 1; . . . ; N
(5)
0
0
(6)
xi to Fi to ;
d to 0;
i 1; . . . ; N
(1)
where xi t; ui t; si t; yi t are ni -, mi -, pi -, r i -dimensional
vectors of the subsystem states, control inputs, interconnection
inputs and measured outputs, respectively. Fi to is a given
initial function.
Interconnections are described in the form:
si t
N
X
Ai j DAi j tx j t Adi j DAdi j tx j t d
j1
(2)
where d denotes a point time delay. Ai ; Adi ; Bi ; C i ; Ai j , and Adi j
are constant nominal matrices. DAi t, DAdi t, DAi j t, and
Ws
6
6
6
6
4
Pa
Ls
Ps
0
Ls
X s Qs
0
0
Qs
3
Ad
0 7
7
0 7
7 < 0;
0 5
Ss
Wc
6
6
6
6
4
Pc
Lc
ZcT
0
e3 I
K o Y c Xc1 CT CC T
1
(9)
X s Qs
0
0
Qs
3
Ad
0 7
7
0 7
7 < 0;
0 5
Ss
Wd
6
6
4
91
2DA
2e1 I
2DAd
0
2e4 I
3
2Ad
0 7
7<0
0 5
Sd
(8)
robust control problem are solved in Chen (1989, 1992) and Chen
and Han (1993). Decentralized adaptive control provide Shi and
Singh (1992) for systems with strong nonlinear interconnections
and Wu (2003) for uncertain interconnections. Decentralized
adaptive stabilization for interconnected stochastic systems
proposed Liu, Zhang and Jiang (2007) using the concept of inputto-state stability. An another interesting and practically important
result is decentralized adaptive stabilization of unknown
interconnected systems with hysteresis solve using the backstepping technique by Wen and Zhou (2007). Decentralized
stabilization is applied to flexible structures in Li, Kosmatopoulos, Ioannou, Ryaciotaki-Boussalis (2000) and Kobayashi,
Ikeda, and Fujisaki (2007) and to power systems Befekadu and
Erlich (2006). Robust decentralized control independent design
developed Kozakova and Vesely (2006), while Rosinova and
Vesely (2006) proposed the PID design by using LMIs.
Extensions to descriptor systems are presented in Wang and
Bao (2000) and Chen, Gui, and Zhai (2008). New results have
been obtained in decentralized output feedback control by
Orqueda, Zhang and Fierro (2007), Lee (2007), Xi and Ding
(2007), and Polendo and Qian (2007). Another interesting results
consider Borrelli et al. (2005) for hybrid systems, while Richards
and Chow (2007) present predictive control approach for systems
with coupled constraints.
Delayed systems with state delays consider Mukaidani,
Tanaka and Xu (2003) by using LMIs to solve a guaranteed cost
control problem, while Kown and Park (2006) solve the same
problem by using LMIs when considering delay in the feedback
loop. Decentralized control for dynamic routing in communication network proposed PIftar and Davison (2002). Kown
and Park (2006) introduce delays within the framework of
distributed control.
3. Overlapping subsystems
The decomposition of the overall system into disjoint
subsystems is not effective if the subsystems are strongly
coupled. It means that a given system has no epsilon
decomposition. Then, overlapping decomposition can be used
as an alternative way in which the subsystems share some
common parts. The overlapping subsystems may be weakly
coupled although disjoint subsystems are not, i.e. they may
have an overlapping epsilon decomposition (Siljak, 1996).
A systematic way of overlapping decomposition means
to expand the original system with strongly coupled subsystems
into a larger dimensional systems with weakly coupled
subsystems. There is a requirement of the relation between
both systems. The solution of a large-dimensional system must
include the solution of a lower dimensional original system. A
circle of ideas, methods and algorithms devoted to overlapping
92
zt Gxt Hut;
xto Ft;
d to 0
where xt 2 Rn is the state, ut 2 Rm is the control input, d > 0
is the delay time, wt 2 R p is the disturbance input and belongs
to L2 0; 1, zt 2 Rq is the controlled output and Ft is a
given continuous initial function. The matrices A, B, Ad , B1 , C,
G, D are constant matrices. D D FtE are real-valued
norm bounded uncertainties, where D and E are given
constant matrices and Ft is an unknown time-varying matrix
satisfying F T tFt I.
Suppose a prototype case with two overlapped subsystems in
states. It means that the matrices A, DAt, Ad , DAd t are
partitioned into 3 3 blocks with the overlapping in the block
22 as indicate the dash lines
(11
I
60
V 6
40
0
xt U x t
3
0 0
I 07
7;
I 05
0 I
I 0
U 4 0 :5I
0 0
(16)
3
0
05
I
0
:5I
0
(17)
A DAt
A d DA d txt d B 1 wt;
xt;
y t C
xt Hut;
z t G
(18)
o ;
x to ft
d to 0
(12
A VAU M;
(13)
(14)
VDAtU;
DAt
VDBt;
DBt
(15
The uncertainty matrix DK DK F K tEK has the same
structure as K. The matrices DK ; EK are given.
A d VAd U M d ;
DA d t VDAd tU;
B 1 VB1 M 1 ;
GU L;
G
C CU Lc
(19)
where M, N, M d , M 1 and L are complementary matrices. We
associate the inequality with the system S
kztk2 gkwtk
2
B VB N;
(20)
M d V 0;
N 0;
M 1 0;
LV 0
(22)
K KV;
DKt DKtV
(23)
Ikeda & Siljak, 1986; Ikeda, Siljak, & White, 1981, 1984;
Siljak, 1978, 1996). The structure of expansioncontraction
relations including contractibility of controllers is analyzed
in Bakule, Rodellar, and Rossell (2000), Siljak and
Stipanovic (2000), Stankovic and Siljak (2001), Stankovic
et al. (2007), and Chu and Siljak (2005) for LTI systems,
while Bakule, Rodellar and Rossell (2002) and Stankovic
93
yi t C DCi xi t; xi to Fi to ;
d to 0; i 1; . . . ; N
(24)
94
The systems (24) and (25) can be rewritten into the form:
x t A DAtxt
A d DA d txt d
N
X
Aq DAi j tx j t Adq DAdi j tx j t d
B DBtut;
j1
(25)
where the meaning of vectors and matrices in (24) and (25)
remains the same as in (1) and (2) including the norm
bounded character of uncertainties. Notice that the nominal
matrices A; B; C; Aq ; Adq are identical for all subsystems.
Constant matrices D ; E correspond with the uncertainty
matrix D analogously as in (3). They are identical for all
subsystems in (1) and (2). Uncertainties are lumped in
F t.
With the systems (24) and (25) we associate a quadratic cost:
J
N
X
Ji
i1
N Z 1
X
i1
(26)
(27)
i 1; . . . ; N
yt C DCtxt;
xto Fo to ;
d to 0
(30)
(31)
where
As A A q ;
Ac As NAq
(32)
B DBtu
r t;
(33)
yr t C DCtx
r t
where
(28)
Ar A
N
1 Aq ;
2
(34)
with
N 1I
I
6
I
N
1I
16
6
..
..
T 6
.
.
N6
4 I
I
I
I
2
I
0
... 0
6 0
I
... 0
6 .
..
..
1
6
.
T 6 .
.
}
.
4 0
0
...
I
I I . . . I
...
...
}
...
...
I
I
..
.
N 1I
I
3
I
I 7
7
.. 7;
. 7
7
I 5
I
(36)
ur t Cc DCc txr t
3
I
I7
.. 7
.7
7
I5
I
(29)
95
96
heterogenous interconnected subsystems with failing communication channels. Stubbs, Vladimerou, Fulford, Strick, and
Dullerud (2006) describe the hovercraft flexible testbed for
decentralized control of multiple autonomous vehicles that are
wirelessly networked and can be commanded from the Internet.
Cantoni et al. (2007) present preliminary field trials of
decentralized and distributed control design for the irrigation
open-water channel.
Future research effort should consider the analysis and
synthesis of complex strongly interconnected systems controlled over realistic decentralized communication channels.
Performance of networked control systems and its limits are
key issues determined primarily by delays and dropped packets.
Reliability, sensor failures, actuator constraints as well as the
performance degradation under communication failures, reconfigurable control, and the emphasis on increased autonomy
belong to other important current research challenges (Baillieul
& Antsaklis, 2007).
6. Conclusion
The paper presents past and present trends, and looks into
the future prospects in the area of decentralized control of
interconnected large scale and complex systems. The presentation has been focused on three important classes of
decentralized control structures for strongly coupled complex
systems. An extension of decentralized control to networked
control systems is included. Due to our limitless desire to
control larger and more complex systems, decentralized control
remains a focal point of research in systems theory.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Academy of Sciences
of the Czech Republic under Grant IAA200750802 and in part
by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports under
Grant LA 282.
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98
Lubomr Bakule received the PhD degree in Control Engineering from the
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1974. Since
1974 he has been with the Institute of Information Theory and Automation,
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, where he is a Director of
Research. He has held numerous visiting appointments abroad. He has published over 150 research papers and has led many research projects. His research
interests are in the theory and applications of robust decentralized control of
large-scale systems, networked control systems, delayed and switching control
systems, and structural control. He is Vice-Chair of the IFAC TC on Large Scale
Complex Systems.