Tensile Deformation

BY JOHNH. HOLLOMON,*
JUNIORMEMBERA.I.M.E.
(Ncw York Meeting. February 194si)

INrecent papers, O'Neill,' Vivian,= and where e is the strain and AO and A are,
Zener and Hollomon3 have reviewed some respectively, the original and instantaneous
of the information concerning the relations areas.
between stress and strain during plastic
The results of the tensile tests can be
deformation. Since further information has more effectively presented and interpreted
been obtained since these reviews were if the stress* (load divided by actual
published, this paper attempts to further area). is .lotted as a function of the strain
coordinate and amplify the knowledge as defined above. A schematic curve of this
concerning the plastic deformation of type is presented as Fig. I .
metals in simple tension.
In a previous paper,6 the concept of
Ordinarily the results of tensile tests Ludwik7 concerning the flow and fracture
of metals are presented as graphs in which of metals was successfully employed to
the load divided by the original area is explain some of the puzzling results of
plotted as a function of thc percentage of notched-bar impact tests of steel. I t
elongation measured over some specified appears that the use of this concept ii;
gauge length. The interpretation of graphs very fruitful and should be kept in mind
of this sort is limited, since the stress in any study of the deformation characrequired to deform the metal at any stage tcristics of metals. I,udn.ik considered that
of the deformation is actually the load a flow stress-strain curve of a metal was
divided by the instantaneous rather than essentially a locus of points that described
the original area. Furthermore, each the stress required for plastic flow of an
increment of the deformation is performed infinite numbcr of specimens, each with
on metal that has been previously dc- a different strain history determined by
formed, and, as pointed out by L ~ d r n i k , ~the preceding part of the flow curve
the strain could be more effectively defined: Each of these specimens can also be considered to have a fracture strength.
4' o f
E = Ill Uniortunatcly (or fortunately depending
A
I11
upon the point of view), all the specimens,
The statements or opinions in this article
are those of the author and do not necessarily
except the one deformed to the fracture
express t h e views of the Ordnance Department.
strain, flow and do not fracture. Even
Manuscript received a t the office of the
Institute Dec. 1 9 . 1944. Issued as T.P. 1879 in
though the metals do not fracture, the
METALSTECHNOLOGY,
June 1945.
* Captain. Ordnance Department, U. S. concept of a fracture-strength curve seems

Army. Watertown Arsenal, Watertowrr, Mass.

t Meeting canceled.
$ For large strains, t h e change in dimensions
due t o the change in volume accompanying
elastic deformation will be small compared
with t h e change in dimensions arising from
plastic flow. If the actual area under load has
been measured, the plastic strain is equal to
A
In
- zu(S/E). where A is the area under
load; u, Poisson's ratio; S. the stress, and E ,
Young's modulus.

References are a t the end of the paper.

* After necking commences, the stress in the

necked region is not strictly uniform nor
uniaxial. The correction to the average tensile
stress necessitated by the nonuniformity of
the stress, has been recently developed by
Bridgman.5 In moderately ductile metals. the
correction to the average tensile stress as
calculated above was found to be small.
268

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

to be effective in rationalizing many of the

properties of metals, particularly of steels,
to which the concept has bcen mole frequently applied.
The entire problem of the mechanical
behavior of metals resolves itself into the
separate problems of determining and
relating the effects of temperature, strain
rate, stress combination, deformation, and
metallurgical structure on the stress required for flow and the stress required for
fracture. Since tensile deformation is the
simplest type to which a metal may be
subjected, the usual method of study is to
consider the effects of the other variables
on the tensile stress-strain curves. It
appears, however, that such data can
be more effectively interpreted by the
concepts of Ludwik than by considering
the stress-strain curve as an entity.* This
paper will be concerned primarily with
the effects of strain on the stress required
for flow, as modified, by changes in metallurgical structure. (It is hoped that the
fracture problem may be developed in
more detail in subsequent papers.) Unfortunately, most of the data on this subject
have been obtained for steel, and, as a
consequence, this discussion will have to
be concerned primarily with that metal.
The effects of temperature and rate of
strain have been discussed to some extent
e l s e w h e ~ e For
. ~ ~the
~ ~ most
~
part, the data
of this paper will refer to stress-strain
curves obtained a t or near 20C, and at
strain rates of the order of I O - ~ sec.-I The
effect of stress distribution will not be
discussed in this paper.

For the purpose of discussion, the tensile

stress-strain curves can be divided into
three distinct regions: the elastic, the
initial yielding, and the plastic flow. The
so-called elastic part of the deformation

* Difficulties attendant to interpreting the

results of tensile tests on specimens previously
deformed in torsion are cases in point.

269

will not be treated in this paper.* Suffice

it to say that in polycrystalline metals
during the elastic deformation the stress
is essentially proportional to the strain,

FIG.I.-SCHEMATICSTRESS-STRAIN CURVE.
I. Intercept.
Y. Yield strength.
T. Point at which necking begins.
F. Fracture strength.

the constant of proportionality being

referred to as the elastic modulus.
For some metals, the stress-strain curve
deviates only gradually from this straight
line; in others, the deviation is sharp.
The discontinuous type of yielding is
referred to variously as the Piobert effect,
Liiders' deformation, etc.; it is the phenomenon that manifests itself in upper and
lower yield points, and in discontinuous
or heterogeneous deformati0n.t A schematic stress-strain curve of a metal that
exhibits the heterogeneous yielding is
presented as Fig. 2. This yielding phenomenon has been discussed in detail by Nadailo
and by Carpenter and Robertson.ll Re-

* The little space assigned to elastic deformation should not be taken to imply that its
study or a discussion of the properties of
metals in this region is not important. The
author understands that C . Zener will shortly
publish a paper summarizing the inelastic
effects in the elastic region.
f The entire specimen does not deform
uniformly, but regions of the metal at angles
of nearly 4 5 O to the axis of the specimen
deform. The deformation starts at stress concentrations and then transverses the specimen
(see Nadai'o).

2 70

TENSILE DEFORMATION

cently, Edwards, Phillips and Liu12studied

the effect in metals other than mild steel.
I n the United States, Winlock and Leiter13
have been perhaps the major contributors

tion o f t h ~cart)irles, and the more spheroidal the carbides, the more likely is
the occurrence of the Piobert effect. This
point of view is confirmed by the data of
Gensamer and collaborators,17 who found
that in eutectoid steels the heterogeneous
yielding occurred a t higher yield strengths
when the carbides were spheroidal than
when they were lamellar. In the latter
case, it is difficult to imagine a continuous
path in the ferrite from boundary to
boundary (at the specified angle of nearly
45' to the axis of the specimen), except
when the pearlite is very coarse. With
spheroidal carbides (tempered martensitic
steels), a continuous path in the ferrite
is possible, even for relatively numerous,
dispersed particles. I t is not yet possible
to apply this reasoning quantitatively to
FIG. 2.-SCHEMATICSTRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF A the yielding phenomer~on,since the exact
METAL HAVING DROP I N LOAD A T YIELDlNt:.
mechanism of the phenomenon is not
Y'. Upper yield stress.
known.
Y A . Lower yield strain.
T. Point at which necking begins.
The height of the stress-strain curves
F. Fracture strength.
for polycrystalline single-phase metals
to the knowledge of this phenomenon. I t seems to be governed
by the strength of the
is generally conceded that in steels the single crystals of the metal, as modified
presence of carbides or nitrides prccipitated by the grain-boundary restraint. Sachs18
in the grain boundaries during cooling is and G. I. Taylorlg have discussed in
responsible for this type of yielding. A detail the stress-strain curves of such
possible mechanism has been suggested by metals. Norburyzo pointed out that the
several inve~tigators,Nadai15 in particular, hardening effect of elements in solid
and has been discussed f r e q ~ e n t l y . ~ , ~ ' , ' ~ solution was related to the difference in
i, Gensamer and LowlBhave shown that if
size between the solvent and solute atoms.
the carbon and nitrogen are removed from For irons that showed little or no iniron the metal does not yield initially homogeneous initial yielding, Gensamcr
in this manner. If, on the other hand, as and'lacyz1found that increase in strength
little as 0 . 0 0 2 per cent of either of these due t o the introduction of solute elements
elements is reintroduced into the metal, was related to the atomic percentage of the
the Piobert effect is again manifest. I t alloying elements in the following manner:
appears that in steels there are at least
two conditions that must be fulNled
before this type of initial heterogeneous where A S is the increase in strength
yielding occurs. Not only must there be a characteristic considered (tensile strength,
precipitate on the grain boundary, but etc.), x is the atomic percentage of solute,
also the carbide distribution within the n a number of the order of magnitude of
grains must make possible a free path of
YL and k a constant that depends on the
ferrite from grain boundary to grain added element. The value of k is larger
boundary. The more random the distribu- the greater the lattice distortion of the

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

solvent, engendered by the introduction

of the solute. I n general, the greater the
amount of solute that can be accommodated (the greater the solubility),
the smaller will be the value of k.

*7I

stress-strain curves of polycrystalline metals consisting of two phases seems to be

controlled by the mean straight path
through the continuous phase. Gensamer
and co-workers17 first stated the principle

srnam

FIG. 3.-LO~ARITHMIC
STRESS-STRAIN

S.A.E.
Holl~mon.~')

CURVES OF

Grain size also affects the yield strength

(markedly, when the yielding is discontinuous) and the tensile strength.
The smaller the grain size, the greater
will be the strength a t a given strain.
WoodZzfound that the hardness, which is a
measure of both the yield strength and
the slope of the initial plastic portion of the
stress-strain curve, varied linearly as the
reciprocal of the square of the average
grain diameter. A relation of this type
between the yield or tensile strengths and
grain size was not found for the data for
brass, which are discussed subsequently.
Edwards and PfeilZ3performed experiments
to determine the effect of grain size on the
tensile properties of iron. They found
that the lower yield strength ( Y of Fig. 2)
increases more rapidly as the grain size
decreases than does the rising part of
the stress-strain curve ( A to T of Fig. 2).
On the other hand, the height of the

I020

STEEL

(0.20 PER

CENT C).

(From

in the following form: "The resistance to

deformation of a metallic aggregate consisting of a hard phase dispersed in a
softer one is proportional to the logarithm
of the mean straight path through the
continuous phase." As the average distance
becomes smaller, the yield strength (stress
at any given value of the strain) increases.

FLOWOF DEFORMED
METALS
After the initial yielding, the shapes of
the stress-strain curves of all metals are
similar;* the stress increases with strain
a t a decreasing rate. Little attention has
been given to the relation between stress
and strain in this region, or to the effect
of changes in metallurgical structure on
the shape of this portion of the curve.
I t has been suggested, however., b y Norris2'

' Except for steels in the blue-brittle range

and a few other metals, in which case the
stress-strain curves are serrated.

272

TENSILE DEFORMATION

and by Nadailo that the logarithm of the dium steel containing 0.45 per cent carbon,
stress is very nearly a linear function of which were quenched to martensite and
the "true tensile elongation,"* and Mac- tempered a t five temperatures for one hour.
G r e g ~ r Gensamer
,~~
and collaborators17~2Vhestress-strain curves for this steel are

STR.11

FIG. 4.-LOGARITHMIC
STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

OF

S.A.E. 1045

STEEL

(0.49 PER CENT C ) . (From

Hollo?~~on.~')

and Holl0mon2~found that for steels the

stress is a linear function of the strain
from T (Figs. r and 2 ) to the fracture
strain. Ludwik,' in his early studies, found
that during plastic flow, the following
relation expressed approximateljr the relation between stress and strain:

S=So

- K(e)m

prcsented in Fig. 8. The chemical composition of the steel \?as: C, 0.45 per cent;
Mn, 0.75; Si, 0.34; S, 0.016; P, 0.022;
Cr, 1.02; Mo, 0.38; \I, 0.14. The specimens
were 94 in. round, taken transverse to forging direction, arlstenitized a t 165oOF. for r
hr. and quenched in oil and tempered I hr.
at temperatures indicated in Fig. 8.
I t is to be noted that for all the data
the logarithm of the stress is essentially
a linear function* of the logarithm of the
strain, f ~ o mstrains of about 0.01 to about
0.4. For strains larger than about 0.4.
the data in most cases diverge upward from
thc straight lines. The upward divergence
from strains of about 0.4 to the fracture
strain may possibly be associated with
anisotropy, which, of course, will depend
on the manner in which the strain occurs.
I n order to illustrate that the divergence
of the stress-strain curves from linearity

where SO,and K and m are constants.

I n Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, the data for
variously heat-treated speciments of four
plain carbon steels are plotted on logarithmic paper. The data of Figs. 3 and 4 arc
taken from a previous paper,Z7 the data
of Fig. 6 are taken from the results of
Gensamer and co-workers.26 The data of
Fig. 5 are new, having been obtained with a
series of plain carbon steel specimens
quenched to martensite and tempered a t
each of four temperatures for one hour.
I n Fig.
7,. the data are plotted for s ~ e c i * For steels that exhibit a drop in load at
of a chromium-molybdenum-vana- yielding and a lower yield-point elongation, this
'The ratio of the initial area t o the actual
area minus one.

linearity of the logarithmic stress-strain curve

commences when the stress begins to rise
(after the lower yield elongation).

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

may be due to orientation effects, logarithmic shear stress-strain curves for a

mild steel are plotted in Fig. 9. Curve A
was derived3 from tensile stress-strain

large shear strains, while the torsion data

diverge downward. A fundamental difference in the behavior in tension and torsion
has been discussed in detail3 and has been

FIG.5.-LOGARITHMIC
STRESS-STRAIN CURVES O F S.A.E. 1055 STEEL (0.59PER
A-I. 1600F. water quench; draw I~ooOF.
I hour.
A - 2 . 1600F. water quench; draw rzooF. I hour.
A-3. 1600F. water quench; draw IIOOOF.I hour.
A-4. 1600F. water quench; draw 1ooo0F.I hour.

CENT

C).

STRAIN

h2.

6.-LOGARITHMICSTRESS-STRAIN

CURVES

data, utilizing Von Mises' viewpoint, and

curve B was taken directly from a torsion
test performed on the same material.
The data derived from the tensile test
diverge upward from the strain line for

(0.78 PER

CENT

C). (From Gensamer et al.le)

ascribed to the difference in orientation

effects (of carbides) associated with the
two types of deformation.
For copper and brass, however, the
linearity of the logarithmic stress-strain

FIG. 7.-LOGARITHMICSTRESS-STRAIN

CURVES OF 0.45 PER CENT C ALLOY STEEL AT VARIOUS STRENGTH LEVELS (ALL SPECIMENS
TEMPERED MARTENSITE; SEE FIG.8).

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

curves appears to continue to the fracture

strain. When the stress-strain curves are
plotted logarithmically, an anomalous
behavior of these metals is revealed. An

275

annealing temperatures that would produce

a range of grain sizes, and, on the basis
of these experiments, the annealing temperatures listed in Table I were chosen.

STRAIN

FIG. 8.-STRESS-STRAIN
CURVES FOR 0.45

PER CENT CARBON STEEL CONTAINING

MOLYBDENUM AND VANADIUM.

CHROMIUM,

(Quenched to martensite and tempered to temperatures indicated.)

alpha brass containing 69.4 per cent
OFHC copper, and the remainder
zinc, was obtained in the annealed condition, in the form of )$in.-diameter bar stock,
with an average grain size of 0.015 mm.
Certain preliminary annealing experiments
were performed in order to determine the

The resultant grain sizes determined by

metallographic examination and by comparison with the A.S.T.M. Standards,
are also listed in this table.
After the annealing treatments, standard 0.357-in.-diameter tensile specimens
having a 2-in. uniform gauge length were

FIG.~ . - ~ ~ ~ U ? A R I S OOfN TENSION AND TORSION LOGARITHMIC STRESS-STRAIN CURVES.

A . Shear-stress strain curve derived from tensile test.
B. Shear-stress strain curve derived from torsion test data from Zener and Hollomon.~

278

TENSILE DEFORMATION

rithmic paper in Fig. 10. Because the grain

size of the two specimens annealed at the
highest temperatures were large (Table I),
the deformation of specimens was very

the logarithm of the stress is essentially a

linear functionof thelogarithmof thestrain,
but the slope is very small (0.1). From a
strain of about 0.06 to fracture,* the

STRAIN

FIG.11.-STRESS-STRAINCCRVES

OF

70.30BRASS OF DIPFERENT

irregular and the stress-strain curves were

somewhat erratic. The curves of Fig. 10
TABLEI.-Annealing
Temperatures and
Grain Size of Brass

specimen
xo. Annealing Tern-

peraturo. Deg. C .

Grain Size,
Mm.

As recd.
505
515

4
5

reveal a difference in behavior during the

two regions of plastic flow. F~~~ a strain
of about 0 . 0 0 2 to a strain of about 0.06,

GRAIN SUES

(FOBSHALL STRAINS).

logarithmic stress-strain curves are also

linear, with a slope of approximately 0.5.
Thus, the strain-hardening exponent during
the later stages of plastic flow is about
five times the value during the initial
yielding.
In Fig. 11, the initial portions of the
stress-strain curves obtained from loadelongation measurements are plotted for
the brass specimens of several grain sizes.
The curves of this figure, as well as the
data found in the standard compilations

* ~,,,,t
,,,published
data obtained by
Rridgman indicate that for copper in conipression the linearity oE the logarithmic stressstrain curves extends to strains of about 3 . 5

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

279

of mechanical properties of commercial

single-phase alloys, indicate that the stressstrain curves during the initial yielding
rise only very slowly, even though it is

largest grain size.* The initial, slowly

rising portion of the stress-strain curve
followed by a second more sharply rising
portion suggests that the nature of the

well known that these materials are

extremely work-hardenable. Wilkins and
B ~ n n ,for
~ ~example, in their recently
published compilation of data for the
coppers and brasses, indicate that the yield
strengths of copper and brass in the
annealed condition measured at different
small strains are very nearly the same.
The significance of this behavior during
the initial plastic flow has, however, not
been discussed.
This anomalous behavior can also be
illustrated by the stress-strain curves
over the whole range
deformation
- of plastic
from yield to fracture. In Fig. 12, such a
curve is presented for the brass having the

initial yielding of copper and brass is

similar to that of mild steel. That the
deformation does not occur completely
by inhomogeneous flow is evidenced by
the fact that the initial yielding is not
sharply defined, as in steel. I t is, however,
most significant that there are two regions
of the stress-strain curve that have fundamentally different characteristics. Recent
English work12 has demonstrated that this
inhomogeneous type of yielding occurs
in metals other than steel.
Thus, for steels and for a t least some
nonferrous metals, the relation between
* Similar curves were obtained for all of the
brass specimens tested. Fig. 1 2 is typical.

3 80

TENSILE DEFORMATION

stress (S) and strain ( F ) in the plastic

region after the initial yielding may be
expressed by the following relation:

deformation before necking begins is

equal to thc strain-hardening exponent.
As indicated in the appendix, this relation
permits a rapid approximate method
of obtaining complete stress-strain curves.
where nz is the slope of the logarithmic
In Fig. 13, the strain-hardening exponent
stress-strain curve. This relation is similar is plotted as a function of the stress at a
to that originally proposed by Ludwik strain of 0.01 (yield strength) for the
(Eq. 2 ) . Based on this relation, sevcral carbon steels whose stress-strain curves
interesting and important characteristics are plotted in Figs. 3 to 6. The strainof the stress-strain curves may be devel- hardening exponent appears to depend
oped. I t follows from Eq. 3 that:
o~ilyupon the yield strength, independent
of the structure of the steel. The steels
were of various structures: pearlite, bainite.
and tempered martensite. The commonly
held belief that the ratio of yield strength
to tensile strength depends up011 structure
Necking begins at maximum loa~l and: may be reconciled with these data, if it
is remembered that fully quenched and
dL = d(AS) = o
[51
tempered steels reveal a drop in load
since L = tiS
at yielding more readily than do steels
Carrying out the differentiation indicated having lamellar structures. The lower
in Eq. 5, the follolving is obtained:
yield strength of a metal hating a drop
in load at yielding is greater than would
be the yield strength (at a small strain)
for a steel having a continuously rising
stress-strain curve and the same tensile
strength. Fully quenched steels, therefore,
may often appear to have a larger yieldBut since from Eq. I :
tensile ratio than steels having a lamellar
structure. The specimen of 0.59 per cent
carboil steel tempered at r300F. illustrates
this phenomenon. This specimen reveals
Eq. 6 becomes:
a drop in load at yielding and a pronounced
lower yield-point elongation. As indicated
in Fig. 5, the stress at a strain of 0.01
This relation was developed by Gensamer2"
obtained by extrapolating the smooth
and indicates that necking (inhomogcneous
stress-strain curve is about 14,000 Ib.
or local deformation) will begin at the
per sq. in. smaller than is the lower yield
strain at which the slope of the stressstress.
strain curve becomes equal to the stress.
The equation of the straight lines of
Substituting Eq. 8 in Eq. 4,
Fig. 13 may be written as:
log m = K'
where c, is the strain a t the maximum
load.* Thus, the amount of uniform

* Conversations with M. Gensamer indicate

that J. R. Low, formerly of Lehigh University,
developed this relation independently.

- 0.94 log So.01

[IO]

where m is the slope of the logarithmic

stress-strain curve, s o . ~is~ the stress
at a ,train of o,oI, and K' is a constant
that depends upon the carbon content

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

as indicated in
carbon steels
strengthTand
will determine,

Fig. 14. Thus, for the plain

investigated, the yield
carbon content together
with the use of Fig. 14 and

FIG. 13.-VARIATIONOF

281

at a strain of 0.01. These data have been

collected over the last few years and seem
to indicate that for alloy steels the strainhardening exponent is slightly higher than

SLOPES OF LOGARITHMIC STRESS-STRAIN CURVES WITH STRENGTH

FOR SEVERAL CARBON CONTENTS.

LEVEL,

(From Pigs. 3, 4, 5 and 6.)

Eq. 10, the slope of the logarithmic stressstrain curve (in the range of strain from
0.01 to 0.4). For most practical purposes,
the value of 0.94 may be made equal to
one with the following result:
m=-

K
So.01

['I]

The strain-hardening exponents for a

large number of forged medium alloy
steels consisting of various metallurgical
structures and of various compositions are
plotted in Fig. 15, a function of the stress

for the correspmding plain carbon steels.

No trend in the effects of individual
alloying elements has been observed.
For the brass specimens, the dependence
of the strain-hardening exponent on yield
strength is of the same form as Eq. 10,
except that for brass, the constant (0.94)
is about 0.5. The relation between the
strain-hardening exponent and the yield
strength for the brass specimens whose
strcss-strain curves are plotted as Fig. 10
is plotted as Fig. 16. The slope of the
straight line of this figure is approximately
one half.

282

TENSILE DEFORMATION

are linear from about the strain to the

maximum load (T of Figs. 1 and 2) to
the fracture strain (F of Figs. I and 2).
The data obtained subsequently by Gensamer and ~o-workers2~
and Hollomon2'
confirmed this conclusion. This linearity,
however, may be simply coincidental;
the orientation effects may be sufficient
to modify the power relation (Eq. 3 ) ,
that the stress-strain curve becomes linear."
The slope of this linear part of the stressstrain curve appears to depend upon the
strength of the steel and upon the carbon
content. I n Fig. 17, the slope of the strainhardening curve is plotted as a function
of the so-called "unstrained strength"
(intercept of the extrapolated linear part
of the stress-strain curve with axis of
zero strain, I of Fig. I), for several plain
carbon steels. As these data show, the
slope of the stress-strain curve increases
with increasing strength for each carbon
content. The straight line in this figure
was obtained from the data of Lacy and
Gensamer,*l who changed the strength
of iron by the addition of alloying elements
only. Their data indicate that the slope
c m a o n CONTENT (PERCENT\
FIG. 14.-EFFECT OF CARBON CONTENT ON of the strain-hardening curve depends
only upon the "intercept," independent
VAR1.4TION OF SLOPE W I T H YIELD STKENGTE
(k'O F EQUATION 3).
of the Bmount or identity of the alloying
elements in the iron. In Fig. 18, the maxithe extent to which the drawing may be
mum and minimum slopes of the stress
carried out will be determined by the
curves are plotted as a function of carbon
amount of strain (under the complex
content. These curves are taken from thc
stress pattern) that occurs before '(neckpaper by Zener and H o l l ~ m o nexcept
,~
the
ing." As pointed out by B a r t h o l o m ~ w ~ ~
point for zero carbon, which was taken
and MacGregor,S1 the relative drawability
from the data of Lacy and G e n s a m ~ r
of metals is related to the strain to maxiThe effect of alloying elements on the
mum load. I n this connection. the data of
latter portion of the stress-strain curve
Fig. 13 lead to an interesting conclusion;
is not known; it appears, however, that
for equal yield strengths, the strain to
metallurgical structure plays little role
maximum load (strain-hardening exponent)
in determining the slope.
is greater the higher the carbon content.
MacGregor2"rst
pointed out that, at
least for steels,* the stress-strain curves
The tensile stress-strain curve is terminated by fracture. As pointed out
* MacGregor's data also indicate that the
The strain to the maximum load may in
many practical applications be a most
important criterion of a metal's behavior.
In deep-drawing operations, for example,

stress-strain curves were linear in this region

for cold-worked brass and copper. However,
the data for brass just discussed are not in
agreement with this conclusion.

* This relation between stress and strain

after necking commences may not be of too
great significance because of the nonuniformity
of stress a t the neck.'

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

previously, fracture occurs when the metal

is so deformed that the tensile stress
required for plastic flow becomes equal to
the stress required for fracture. Ludwik17

283

steels appears to be essentially independent of strain. Studies of such curves

are complicated, because indirect means
must be utilized for their determination,

STRESS AT STRAIN Q Olt0,OOO PSI)

FIG. 15.-EFFECTOF

STRENGTH LEVEL ON SLOPE OF L O G A R I T H ~ CSTRESS-STRAIN

CURVE.

Kuntze,32 McAdam and co-workers,s3

Davidenkov and Wittmann,s4 Sachs and
co-workers,3s and Hollomon6 have used
this concept effectively in interpreting
the deformation and fracture characteristics of metals. The author in a previous
paper6 suggested that the slope of the
fracture-strength curve depends primarily
upon the metallurgical structure. Schematic fracture and flow curves for steels
of typical structures are presented as Fig.
19. The fracture curve of pearlitic steel
increases rapidly with tensile deformation,
while the curve for tempered martensitic

since plastic flow rather than fracture

occurs under normal conditions. Furthermore, the change of the stress required
for fracture with deformation is anisotropic,
unlike the stress required for plastic flow.
The entire problem of the behavior of
metals under complex conditions of strain
rate, stress distribution and temperature
can be rationalized, however, by means of
studies of these two. curves. Using these
concepts, an interpretation6 of the paradoxical notched-bar impact results of
steels has been attempted recently. Future
work will include primarily studies of

TENSILE DEFORMATION

ncu sraaern (14000

-VARIATIONOF

PSII

STRAIN-HARDENING EXPONENT WITH YIE1.D STRENGTH FOR ALPHA DKASS.

INTERCEPT IN IWO PSI

FIG. I 7.-SLOPE

VS. INTERCEPT FOR TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES.

After Zener and Hollomon3 except for the straight line, which is after Lacy and Gen~amer.~'

JOHN H, HOLLOMON

the relation between the conditions controlling fracture.

However, a study of the data (Fig. 8),
for the alloy steel containing 0.45 per cent

FIG. 18.-EFFECT

285

of one half is the slope of the line of Fig.

20, and K is a constant.
Data for other steels are presently
being obtained to test the general validity

CbRKm COWTENT FRCnlT

OF CARBON CONTENT ON SLOPE OF STRAIN-HARDENING

CUHVE.
(After Zener

and H o l l o r n ~ n . ~ )

carbon and having a tempered martensitic

structure revealed an interesting relation
between the yield and fracture strengths.
I n Fig. 20, the logarithm of the stress
required for fracture of this steel is plotted
as a function of the logarithm of the yield
strength. These data indicate that, a t
least for this steel and for this structure,
the following relation between yield and
fracture strengths is valid:
S f = K(So)%

where Sfis the tensile stress* required for

fracture, So is the ~ i c l dstrength, the value
The correction suggested by B r i d ~ m a ndue
to the nonuniform stress distribution across
the neck has not been made.

of this relation. Such data for pearlitic

steels is very difficult to interpret, for,
as indicated in Fig. 19,the fracture strength
of such steels depends markedly on strain,
and, as the yield strength is changed, the
strain before fracture also changes.

SUMMARY
The general problem associated with
the study of mechanical properties of
metals can be considered to the first
approximation to consist of the separate
problems of determining the effects of
and the relations between the effects of
strain rate, temperature, stress distribution,
deformation and metalluraical
structure
on the tensile stress required for plastic
flow and on the stress required for fracture.

.
T E N S I L E DEFORMATION

I n this paper, only the effects of tensile

strainandchanges of metallurgicalstructure
on the stress required for plastic flow are
discussed. Over a rather wide range of

PEARLITIC STEEL

/
C
K

tends to fracture. I t is further shown that

even the initial yielding of alpha brass is
anomalous and may be similar to the
inhomogeneous yielding of mild steels.

i_
TWRRED

STRAIN

STRDIN

FIG. 19.-SCHEMATICCURVES OF

FIG. 20.-RELATIONBETWEEN YIELD

CONTAINING

MARlENSITIC STEEL

FRACTURE AND FLOW.

AND FRACTURE STRENGTHS O F A 0.45 PER CENT CARBON STEEL

CHROMIUM, MOLYBDENUM AND VANADIUM.

strains, the stress required for plastic

flow is found to vary with the strain to a
small fractional power. For steels, this
power relation extends from strains at
least as small as 0.01 to strains of 0.4.
Also for steels, the magnitude of the
fractional power appears to be relatively
insensitive to changes in structure or alloy
composition, but appears to be primarily
determined by the yield strength and the
carbon content. For the brass and copper
specimens studied, the power relation ex-

If the power relation between stress

and strain is valid over the range of strain
at which the maximum load occurs, the
strain .to the maximum load is exactly
equal to the strain-hardening exponent
(fractional power). Thus, the dependence
of this power on the metallurgical structure
is of prime importance for it is just this
strain to maximum load that is so important in determining the drawability of the
steels. The relations that have been
developed permit the rapid determina-

287

JOHN H. HOLLOMON

tion of complete .stress-strain curves

(Appendix).
Although the fracturc of metals is not
discussed in detail in this paper, a new

(e,) may then be drawn through this

point. This logarithmic stress-strain curve
may then he replotted as a normal stressstrain curve up to a strain of 0.4, as

LU3ARrTHMIC STRESS- STRAIN CUAYE

L%

LOGARnWIC STRESS

TRUE STRESS- STRAIN CURVE

&m

- STRAIN C U M

A- 3
LEGEND

Sm- STRESS AT L T I M U M WAD

Sf
STRESS AT FRACTURE

Sly -LWIER YIELD STRESS

relation between the yield and fracture

strengths of tempered martensitic steels
is suggested. Later papers will be primarily
concerned with the effects of metallurgical
structure on the fracture of metals.

A p p ~ ~ ~ n c . - S i m pMethod
le
of Determining
Approximate Stress-strain Curves
The relations developed in this paper
permit the approximate determination
of stress-strain curves by a very simple
procedure. I t is only necessary to measure
the initial diameter of the specimen, the
maximum load and the elongation or the
diameter a t which the maximum load is
reached. From these measurements, the
stress and the strain at maximum load
may be determined, and one point may
be plotted on the logarithmic stress-strain
curve. A straight line with a slope exactly
equal to the strain a t the maximum load

S
&

-UPPER

-m*

9 -STRAIN

Y I E U STRESS
AT LTIW WAD
A1 FRACTURE

illustrated in Figs. A-I and A-2 (Fig. 21).

If the metal exhibits a drop in load a t
yielding, and a lower yield-point elongation,
it is necessary to measure the upper and
lower yield stresses as well as the maximum
load and strain to maximum load. The
lower yield stress is laid off on the logarithmic stress-strain curve as illustrated
a t A-3. The true stress-strain curve can
be replotted then as illustrated a t A-4,
placing on this curve the upper yield stress.
The diameter a t which necking begins
may be determined very easily if the diameter over the gauge length of the tensile
bar before testing is uniform. Before the
maximum load is reached, the entire
specimen deforms uniformly over the
gauge length. When the maximum is
reached, the specimen begins to neck
and the metal a t the necked region continues to deform and the material away

2 88

TENSILE DEFORMATION

from the neck region ceases deforming.

After the bar is broken, the diameter of the
uniformly deformed* section of the spccimen may be measurcd and the strain to
the maximum load determined.
If it is desired to obtain the entire
stress-strain curve, the final diameter and
the breaking loadt may be measured and
a straight line drawn (on linear paper)
between the part of the stress-strain curve
that is linear on logarithmic paper (strain
of about 0.4) t o the point a t which fracture
occurs. This procedure is illustrated in
Fig. 21. A - 2 and A-4.

H. O'Neill: Significance of Mechanical

Test Properties of hletals. Engineering
(July 2. 9. 16, 1943) 156, 18-20, 38-40.
56-58.
2 . A. C. Vivian: Mechanical Properties of
Metals. Engineering, (July 23 and Aug.
6. 1943) 154. 78-80, 118-120.
3. C. Zener and J. H. Hollomon: Plastic Plouand Rupture of Metals. Trans. Amer.
Soc. Metals (1944) 33, 163-235.
4. P. Ludwik: Elemente der technologischen Mechanik. Berlin. (1909). Julius
Springer.
5 . P. W. Bridgman: The Stress Distribution
a t t h e Neck of a Tension Specimen.
frans. Amer. Soc. Metals (1944)
32,
. . .
553-574.
6 . J. H. Hollomon: The Notched-bar Impact
Test. Trans. A.1.M.E. (1944) IS&, 298.
7. P. Ludwik: Uber die Bedeutung der
Elastizitatsgrenze. Bruchdehnung und
Kerbiahigkeit fur den Konstruckteur.
Ztsch. Metallkunde (1924) 16, 207.
Streckgrenze. Kalt- und Warmsprodigkcit.
Ztsch. ver. deut. Ing. (1926) 70, 379.
P. Ludwik and R. Scheu: Vergleichende
Zug-. Druck. Dreh-, und Walzversuche.
Sfahl und Eisen (1925) 45, 373.
8. C. Zener and J. H. Hollomon: Effect of
Strain Rate upon the Plastic Flow of
Steel. Jnl. Applied
Physics (Jan. 1944)
-15, 22-32.
9. C. Zener and J. H. Hollomon: Conditions
of Fracture of Steel. Trans. A.1.RI.E.
(1944) 158, 283.
10. A. Nadai: Plasticity. New York, 1931.
McGraw-Hill Book CO.
11. H. Carpenter and J. M. Robertson:
Metals. New York. 1939. Oxford Univ.
Press.
I.

* Specimen having a long gauge length con?pared with the length over which necking
occurs is necessary for this determination.
? I n normal tensile tests, the breaking load
is difficult t o determine accurately, therefore
special care must be taken t o obtain accurate
results.

12. C. A. Edwards. D. L. Phillips and Y. H.

Liu: The Yield Point in Steel. Iron and
Steel Inst. Advance copy (Jan. 1943).
Also. Iron and Steel Eng. (May 2 0 ,
1943) 16, 370-374.
J. Winlock and R. Leiter: Some Factors
Affecting the Plastic Deformation of
Sheet and Strip Steel and Their Relation
t o t h e Deep Drawing Properties. Trans.
Amer. Soc. Metals (1937) a5, 163-205.
Some Observations on t h e Yield Point of
Low-carbon Steel. Trans. Amer. Soc.
Mech. Eng. (1939) 61, 581-587.
C. A. Edwards. H. N. Jones and B.
Walters: A Study of Strain-Age-Hardening of Mild Steel. Jnl. Iron and Steel
Inst' (193?) 139, 341-385.
A. Nadai: Uber die unter einer Belastung
sich bildenden Gleitflachen der festen
Korper. Ztsch. tech. Physik (1924) 5,
369-378.
M. Gensamer and J. R. Low. Jr.: Aging
and the Yield Point in Steel. Trans.
A.I.M.E. (1944) 158, 207.
M. Gensamer, E. B. Pearsall, W. S. Pellini
and J. R. Low. Jr.: The Tensile Properties of Pearlite, Bainite and Spheroidite.
Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals (1042) 30.
- .
983-1020.
G. Sachs: The Derivations of the Conditions of Plasticity. Ztsch. ver. deut. Ina.
(1928) 72, 734.
G. I. Taylor: Plastic Strain in Metals. Jnl.
Inst. Metals (1938) 62, 307;. The
Mec'nanlsm of Plastlc Deformation of
crystals. Proc. Royal Soc. (1934) r45,
362. 388.
A. L. Norbury: The Volumes Occupied
by t h e Solute Atoms in Certain Metallic
Solid Solutions and Their Consequent
Hardening Effects. Trans. Faradav Soc.
(1924) 19; 586-600.
C. E. Lacy and M. Gensamer: The Tensile
Properties of Alloyed Ferrites. Trans.
Amer. Soc. Metals (1944) 32. 88-110.
W. A. Wood: X-Ray Study of Grain Size
in Steels of Different Hardness Values.
Phil. Mag. (1930) 10. 1073-1081.
C. A. Edwards and L. B. Pfeil: The Tensile
Properties of Single Iron Crystals and
the Influence of Crystal Size upon the
Tensile Properties of Iron. Jnl. Iron and
Steel Inst. (1925) Ira. 79-110.
E. B. Norris: The Plastic Flow of Metals.
Bull. Virginia Polytechnic Inst. Engineering Exot. Station Series. Bull. 27
( ~ o v i r n b e ;1936). 30.
C. W. MacGregor: Relation between
Stress and Reduction in Area for Tensile
Tests of Metals. Trans. A.I.M.E. (19371
124, 208-228.
C. W. MacGregor and L. E. Welch: True
Stress-strain Relations a t High Temperatures by the Two-load Method. Tratts.
A. I. M. E. (1943) 154,423-437.
M. Gensamer. E. B. Pearsall. and G. V.
Smith: The Mechanical Properties of the
Isothermal Decomposition Products of
Austenite. Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals
(1940) a8,39*398.
J. H. Hollomon: Effect of Heat-treatment
and Carbon Content on the Workhardening Characteristics of Several
Steels. Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals ( I O L A ~ .

DISCUSSION
R. A. Wilkins and E. S. Bunn: Copper
and Copper-base Alloys. New York. 1943.
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
M. Gensamer: The Yield Point in Metals.
Trans. A.I.M.E. (1938) 128, 104-117.
E. L. Bartholomew: Stress-Strain Measurements in the Drawing of Cylindrical
Cups. Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals (1943)
. . .311 582-598
C. W. MacGregor: The Tension Test. Trans.
Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. (1940) 40,508-534.
W. Kuntze: For survey and bibliography,
see D. J. McAdams: Trans. Amer. Soc.
Mech. Engrs. (1941) 63, A-155 and
Trans. A. I. M. E. (1942). 150, 3JI.
D. J., McAdam. Jr.: The Technical Coheslve Strenath of Metals. Trans. Amer.
Soc. Mech. h g r s . (1941) 63,A155-A165.
Technical Cohesive Strength and Yield
Strength of Metals. Trans. A. I. M. E.
(19427 150s 311-357.
D. J. McAdam. ,Jr., and R. W. Mebs:
An Investigat~on of the Technical
Cohesive Strength uf Metals. This
volume, page 474.
N. Davidenkov and F. Wittmann: Mechanical Analysis of Impact Brittleness.
Tech. Phys.. U. S. S. R. (1937) 4 (4).
3-17.
G. Sachs and J. Lubahn: Effects of Notching on Strained Metals. Iron Age (Oct. 8
and 15, 1942) 150,31-38, 48-52.
Notched Bar Tensile Tests on HeatTreated Low-Alloy Steels. Trans. Amer.
Soc. Metals (1943) 31, 125-160.
Bursting Tests on Notched Alloy Steel
Tubing. Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals
(1943F31, 71-88.
G. Sachs. J. D. Lubahn, and L. J. Ebert:
Notched Bar Tensile Test Characteristics of Heat-Treated Low-Alloy Steels.
Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals (1944)
33,
. - ..
...
340-395.
The Effects of Notches of Varying Depth
on the Strength of Heat-Treated LowAlloy Steels. Amer. Soc. Metals Prepri~tl
I5 (1944).
G. Sachs, J. D. Lubahn. L. J. Ebert, and
E. L. Aul: The Effect of Fiber on
Notched-Bar Tensile Strength Properties of a Heat-Treated Low-Alloy Steel.
Amer. Soc. Metals Preprinl 14 (1944).
M. Gensamer: Strength of Metals undcr
Combined Stresses. Amer. Soc. Metals.
Cleveland. Ohio, 1941.
'

DISCUSSION
C. Z E N E R . * - T ~ ~ author has stated t h a t
the shape of his stress-strain curves for brass
indicates that the nature of the initial yielding
in this metal is similar to that of mild steel.
He may be interested to know that Sachs and
Shoji37 had ptcviously reported that in single
crystals of brass the i n i t ~ aportion
l
of the stressstrain curve is flat up to a strain of 0.1, and

* Principal Physicist, Watertown Arsenal,

Watertown, Mass.
37 G . Sachs and H. Shoji: Ztsch. Physik (1927)

289

that some crystals even manifested a drop i n

load a t yielding.
I t appears that in brass Lhe initial drop in
load is more marked in single crystals than
in l>olycrystals, just the reverse of iron. I n
this connection i t may be pertinent to note
that in brass eight slip planes are active, while
in iron 84 slip planes are active. Propagation
of a slip band from one crystallite to another
should therefore be much more difhcult in
polycrystalline brass than in polycrystalline
iron

J. R. Low, J ~ . * b T h eauthor is t o be congratulated on the analysis of the simple tension

ilow curve presented and the important generalizations stated. W e have felt for some time
t h a t the so-called "mechanical properties"
measured in the tensile test a s i t is usually performed (i.e., tenslle strength, elongation in 2 in.,
etc.) are unsatisfactory measures of the plastic
properties of a material, since they merely
represent ccrtain aspects of t h e mechanical
behavior under a particular type of loading.
T h e two material constants K and m in the
expression S = K(t)* would appear to be much
better measurcs of the plastic flow properties
of a particular metal in a particular condition
of heat-treatment. These two constants,
together with the strain to fracture, completely
define the plastic behavior in simple tension.
Furthermore, i t appears likely these two "properties" will also serve t o define plastic flow
under combined stresses, as the a n a l y s ~ sof this
latter, more complex, problem develops.
T h e relationship between the constant K of
the author's Eq. ro and the carbon content of
steels, which is depicted in Fig. 14, appears to
be valid even a t vcry low carbon contents. T h e
values of K in Table 2 were computed from
true stress-strain data for low-carbon steel
sheet and for steel sheets treated with wet
hydrogen.J8
According to t h e author's Eq. 10 and Fig. 13,
the strain-hardening exponent m for a fixed
carbon content should increase continuously a s
t h e yield stress S o . 0 1 decreases. An exception t o
this relationship has been observed for S.A.E.
2140
s .~ ~ e c i m e noil-quenched
s
a n d tempered
-.

* Development Engineer. Research and

Development Division, Carnegie-Illinois Steel
Corporation. Pittsburgh, Pa.
LOW and Gcnsamer: Trans. A.I.M.E. (1944)
158, 207.

290

T E N S I L E DEFORMATION

for one hour a t 400F. and joo0F. In this

particular case tnTo specimens tempered a t
400K had >it values of 0.09 and o.ro while a
second pair tempered a t joo0l'. had ti2 values of
0.045 and 3.05. The Su.ul
(yield strengthat r per
cent strain) values for the two tempering temperatures were approximately zj0,ooo and
z6o,ooo, respectively.

TABLE2.-Values o j K Computed irom

Stress-slrc~iltDots
K
Material
Obse~ved Predicted,'
--

0 . 0 5 per cent C aluminum-

killed temper rolled sheet.

Wet-hydrogen-treated aluminum-killed steel (C < 0 . 0 0 3
per cent) .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wet-hydrogen-treated rimmed
steel ( C < 0 . 0 0 3 per c e n t ) . .

3.56

3.57

3.53

3.55

3.52

3.55

By extrapolation ,,f straight linc of Fig. 14.

I n discussirlg the deviations from the

straight-line relationship on logarithmic coordinates between true stress ant1 true strain,
particularly those a t strains above 0.4, the
author attributes the upward deviation lor the
tension case t o orientation effects. Since these
deviations are generally observed only alter
the specimen has necked down appreciably, it
seems more probable t h a t they result principally from the complex stress condition existing
in the necked region. In general, one n-ould
expect the circumIerential and radial stresses
cxisting in the necked region to increase the
longitudinal stress required lor HON. over the
stress that ~vouldbe required if simk~letensiun
conditions could be maintained.

J. IT. IIOLLO.\IOS (author's reply).-The

confirmation by Dr. Lon. o l the cffect of carbon
content on strain-hardening is satisfying. l,o\v's

data suggest that with the relations deleloped

in the p a l m it trill be possiblc to dcvclop deepdrawing operations Inore scicntifically. l'he
author is in complete agreemcnt with Dr. I.o\v
in his: approach to the problem oi nlechanical
properties. I t should be possible to interpret d l
mechanical properties, qualitatively a t least, in
terms of the lund;irncntal effects ol strain.
temperature, strain rate, metallurgical structure, and stress complex on the flow and Iracture stresses.
Relations developed between the strainhardening exponent and carbon content seem
to apply only when the change in strength is
brought about by a charlge in the shape, size,
or number of carbide particles. T,o\vJs data lor
S.;\.F:. 2340 steel would seem Lo iudicatc that
some nev phase transformation has occurred.
I t is possible t h a t t h e differences between the
1i1 values in Low's test are due to the differences
in the amount of retained austenite.
l e account ior the
I t does not seem ~ ~ o s s i bto
deviation ol the logarithmic stress-strail1 rurvcs
in terms oi the complex stress a t the neck nT the
tension specimen. .\s Hridgman has indicated
in his analysis, this stress distribution should be
the same for all rnctals that have necked the
same amount. Thus, cop1)er and 1)rass shoulcl
sho\v deviations irom linear logarithn~icstressstrain curves. 1)evialions in these metals do not
appear to exist. l.'urthcrmore, the deviatio~i
does not exist lor copper lor strains much i r ~
excess ol thosc sulTered I>y steel t)elore Ir;~cture
in thc ordinary tension test. 12urthermore,thc
reorientation ellect satisfactorily explains t h r
do\vn\vard deviation iron1 linearity ol>servetl
ior torsion data.
The author ~vouldlike to thank 1)r. Zener
lor bringing to his attention a ~ ~ r e v i o upaper
s
tliscussing peculiarities in initial yielding ior
brass. His comments concerning its source are
nlost interesting.