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AN INTRODUCTION
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Course Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Define corrosion.
Describe the economic, environmental, and safety significance
of corrosion.
Explain why metals corrode.
Describe the differences between inspection and monitoring.
Introduction
Which of these show corrosion?
Definition of Corrosion
The deterioration of a material, usually a metal, or its
properties because of a reaction with its environment.
Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (1 of 3)
Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (2 of 3)
Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (3 of 3)
Losses include corrosion of:
Residential property:
Water heaters
Home plumbing
Exposed metal surfaces like gutters and downspouts
Industry:
Deterioration of public infrastructure such as:
Bridges
Public buildings
Water-supply and waste-water disposal systems
Importance of Corrosion
Excessive Maintenance, Repair, and Replacement
Direct Costs of Corrosion (1 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Lost Production and Downtime
Direct Costs of Corrosion (2 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Product Contamination
Direct Costs of Corrosion (3 of 8)
May result in
Unsightly water (red/brown)
Illnesses and deaths
Importance of Corrosion
Loss of Product
Direct Costs of Corrosion (4 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Loss of Efficiency
Direct Costs of Corrosion (5 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Direct Costs of Corrosion (6 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Increased Capital Costs
Direct Costs of Corrosion (7 of 8)
Importance of Corrosion
Fines
Direct Costs of Corrosion (8 of 8)
Photographer unknown
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_containment_boom.jpg
Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (1 of 4)
Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (2 of 4)
Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (3 of 4)
Importance of Corrosion
Appearance
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (3 of 4)
Importance of Corrosion
Environmental Cost
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (4 of 4)
Importance of Corrosion
Changes in Engineering Practice
pH and Corrosion
pH Scale with Common Items
Diluted Hydrochloric Acid
pH=2.0
Sodium Bicarbonate
pH=8.5
Beer
pH=4.5
Sound Concrete
pH=12.8
Neutral
Acid
Base
0
Vinegar
pH=3.0
Pure Water
pH=7
14
Concentrated Sodium
Hydroxide Solution
pH=14.0
Household Ammonia
pH=11.0
pH and Corrosion
Polarization
Describes changes in potential due to passage of
electrical current
Limits amount of current associated with corrosion
Slows corrosion
pH and Corrosion
Passivation
Passive films are chemicals that form on metal surfaces
due to reactions with their environment
May be protective, but typically are not on carbon steel
Provide increased corrosion protection on corrosion-resistant
alloys (CRAs)
Many cannot be seen
pH and Corrosion
Passivation: Scale
Atmospheric Corrosion
Industrial
Marine
Rural
Indoor
Atmospheric Corrosion
Above-ground Storage Tank
Combined Effects
Atmospheric Corrosion
Industrial
Atmospheric Corrosion
Marine
High concentrations of windborne salt may be carried many
kilometers (miles) inland
Hygroscopic materials absorb
water and release water only
during conditions of very low
relative humidity
Atmospheric Corrosion
Rural
Few strong chemicals
Atmospheric Corrosion
Indoor
Can be controlled when air is kept above dew point
Water
Overview
Condensed water necessary for metallic corrosion at low
temperatures
Hydrocarbon-wetted metal surfaces prevent or limit
corrosion
Water
Effects of Mineral Deposits (1 of 3)
Water
Effects of Mineral Deposits (2 of 3)
Water
Leaks on bottom of 3%
AFFF mixture lines
Water
Effects of Temperature
Water
Microbially-influenced Corrosion
Microbially-influenced corrosion
(MIC) and bacteria that can
produce MIC can be classified
as:
Soils
Air-soil interface is most corrosive location for buried
soils
Underground corrosion varies with soil types
Soil moisture and access to air determine the amount of
corrosion
Metallurgy Fundamentals
Overview
Materials are chosen for a number of reasons, and
corrosion-resistance is often less important than
strength, formability, cost, etc.
Almost all metals used in engineering applications are
alloys
Stronger than pure metals
Properties
What are some of the mechanical properties to
consider when selecting a metal?
Properties
Metallurgy Fundamentals
Materials Specifications
Order materials based on standardized materials
specifications
Forms of Corrosion
Most Structures and Equipment Experience Multiple Forms of Corrosion
Fatigue
General
Erosion
Crevice
SCC
Pitting
http://corrosion-doctors.org/Localized/Introduction.htm
General Attack
Introduction
Claiborne Avenue Bridge from Lower 9th Side Photo by
Infrogmation CC-BY-2.5
General Attack
Definition
Proceeds more or less uniformly over exposed surface
without significant attack in a single area
Also called
General corrosion
Uniform corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals (1 of 2)
Stray current corrosion (electrolysis)
Differential cells due to:
Differential aeration
Temperature differences
Changes in soil types
Stress areas
Sharp areas
Different microstructures (e.g. in welds)
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals (2 of 2)
Galvanic corrosion of galvanized piping in connection
with bronze valve
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
What are some ways you can control galvanic
corrosion?
Design
Materials selection
Electrical isolations
Barrier coatings
Cathodic protection
Modification of environment
Pitting Corrosion
Definition
Localized attack on a metal
surface at locations where overall
metal surface is relatively
uncorroded and is often covered
with passive films or scales
Results in cavities or holes
Pitting Corrosion
Material selection
Modification of environment
Protective coatings
Electrochemical techniques
Design
Crevice Corrosion
Definition
Major difference between crevice corrosion and pitting
corrosion is scale of corrosion initiation site
Electrochemical mechanisms of crevice corrosion:
Oxygen-concentration cell corrosion
Metal ion-concentration cell corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
What are the three principal options for controlling
crevice corrosion?
Materials selection
Design
Cathodic protection
Filiform Corrosion
Definition
Filiform corrosion underneath transparent protective
coating
Filiform Corrosion
Control
Corrosion, particularly on painted surfaces, can be
prevented by:
Properly cleaning and preparing metallic surface
Applying coating only to thoroughly-cleaned and dried surface
Environmental Cracking
Definition
Can lead to catastrophic failure
Inspectors must find cracks before they reach critical
flaw size
Environmental Cracking
Control
Tensile stress
Alloy composition and structure
Corrosion environment
Corrosion potential
Temperature
Corrosion fatigue
Definition
All metals and many other materials can degrade due to
corrosion fatigue
Corrosion Fatigue
Examples
Cracked fuselage on Aloha Airlines Flight 243 in 1988,
photo from
http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/aloha243/6.shtml
(photographer unknown)
Corrosion Fatigue
Control
Use conventional methods of corrosion control
More corrosion-resistant alloys
Corrosion inhibitors
Cathodic protection
Intergranular Corrosion
Description
Intergranular corrosion:
Can happen in many different alloy systems including carbon
steels
Is an attack on, or adjacent to, grain boundaries of metal or alloy
Can occur:
In heat-affected zones of welds, where local segregation
concentrates some alloy constituents
When through-section grain boundaries are exposed in wrought
metals (plate, extrusions, etc.)
In many different alloy systems
Dealloying
Copper-based Alloys
Performance of Alloys
Dezincification of a chrome-plated scuba tank valve
Dealloying
Cast Irons
Performance of Alloys
Dealloying in cast irons involves dissolution of iron-rich
phases leaving porous matrix of graphite and iron
corrosion products
Fretting Corrosion
Description
Happens when small oscillations in metal-to-metal
contact abrade protective films on metal surfaces and
produce accelerated corrosion
Sometimes considered a form of erosion corrosion
Fretting Corrosion
Examples:
Corrosion Control
What are the most common methods of corrosion
control?
Protective Coatings
Corrosion Inhibitors and Chemical/Physical Treatment of
Water
Cathodic Protection
Anodic Protection
Corrosion Control
Corrosion Control Expenditures by Type
Organic Coatings
Metallic Coatings
Metals and Alloys
Inhibitors
Anodic/Cathodic Protection
Polymers
Services & Others
Protective Coatings
Role of Paint, Protective Coatings, and Linings on Storage Tank
Protective Coatings
Surface Preparation
Permits and Scaffolding
Materials
Inspection and Other
Costs
Protective Coatings
Coating Systems
Serve as barriers keeping aggressive environments
away from their substrates
Corrosion inhibitors can be added to coating which, when
wetted, are released into corrosion-causing moisture to limit
corrosion
Galvanic metallic coatings (like zinc) can be applied to
substrates
Some systems combine more than one of three methods
Protective Coatings
Barrier Coatings
Protective Coatings
Inhibitive Coatings
Protective Coatings
Sacrificial (Galvanic) Coatings
Protective Coatings
Abrasive Blasting
Surface Preparation
Abrasive blasting to prepare a pipeline for recoating in
field
Protective Coatings
Waterjetting
Surface Preparation
Protective Coatings
Pickling
Surface Preparation
Inexpensive cleaning procedure
Followed by thorough rinsing and drying
One of cleanest and most active surfaces for further
processing
Involves sheet, plate, coil stock, and other forms of
metal, but is rarely used in field
Protective Coatings
Geometric and Access Considerations
Surface Preparation
Protective Coatings
What are the primary reasons for coating failures in
order of importance?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Protective Coatings
Coating Degradation (1 of 3)
Normal ageing phenomena include:
Blistering
Checking, alligatoring, or cracking
Chalking and discoloration
Lifting or undercutting paint film
Protective Coatings
Coating Degradation (2 of 3)
Protective Coatings
Coating Degradation (3 of 3)
Protective Coatings
Wraps and Linings
Air-soil interface is most
corrosive location on many
buried pipelines
Loose soil does not provide
effective electrolyte for
cathodic protection
Pipeline coatings are often
damaged by soil motion and
abrasion
Protective Coatings
Wraps and Linings
Rubber lining being glued onto interior of large-diameter pipe
Protective Coatings
Metallic Coatings
Water Treatment
Applied only to enclosed systems
Economics often dictates that mechanical treatment is
first approach with limitations
Surface waters are classified by their salt contents
Fresh water
Seawater
Brines
Brackish waters
Water Treatment
Chemical Water Treatment
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that, when added to
water, reduce corrosion rates as much as 95%
Passivating inhibitors may also be used in protective
coating formulations
Most commercial corrosion inhibitor packages are
complex blends of many different chemicals
Chemicals can be damaging to elastometric seals and
similar polymeric components of a system
Corrosion control is only one reason for water treatment
Cathodic Protection
Overview
Electrical means of corrosion control
Protected structure becomes cathode in electrochemical cell
Monitoring
Process used either periodically or continuously as a tool for
assessing need for corrosion control or effectiveness of
corrosion control methods
Inspection
Goals
Determine if structures exposed
to environment conform to safe
parameters of original design
Establish whether corrosion
has consumed corrosion
allowance
Are conducted in organized and
systematic manner
May be Scheduled or
Unscheduled
Inspection
Types
Scheduled Inspections
Planned in advance
Conducted during scheduled plant downtimes
Unscheduled Inspections
Occur because of a failure, usually
Result in expensive shutdowns
Determine what needs to be done to resume safe operations
Inspection
What are some common inspection techniques?
Visual (VI)
Radiographic (RT)
Ultrasonic (UT)
Eddy-current (ET)
Liquid penetrant testing (PT)
Magnetic particle (MT)
Positive material identification (PMI)
Thermographic
Inspection
Visual (1 of 2)
Techniques
Oldest, simplest, and least expensive nondestructive
test methods
Inspectors examine objects visually by:
Inspection
Visual (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Ability to:
Scan large areas quickly
Identify pit depths and pitting rates
Use video techniques in areas where personnel access is denied
Limitations:
Must shutdown during internal inspection
Borescopes and cameras only work during operation if process
is transparent
Only identify surface defects
Inspection
Radiography (1 of 4)
Techniques
Uses penetrating radiation from x-ray tube or radioactive
source to detect surface and subsurface flaws
Measures amounts and absorptive characteristics of
materials between radiation source and detector
Useful for detecting voids, inclusions, and pit depths
Less effective in locating cracks unless the orientation of the
crack is known
Inspection
Radiography (2 of 4)
Techniques
Schematic of film radiography of a metal with a corrosion
pit, an internal crack, and internal porosity defects.
Inspection
Radiography (3 of 4)
Techniques
Benefits:
Can use either electronic cameras instead of film
Creates permanent image record
Requires minimal surface preparation since coatings and thin
surface deposits are transparent
Works on most materials
Shows fabrication errors, weld defects, and weight-loss
corrosion
Inspection
Radiography (4 of 4)
Techniques
Limitations:
Inspection
Ultrasonic (1 of 3)
Techniques
Sound waves detecting different patterns in the part
Inspection
Ultrasonic (2 of 3)
Techniques
Benefits:
Inspection
Ultrasonic (3 of 3)
Techniques
Limitations:
Requires extensive training and
experience
Has limited use on thin materials
May not be suitable for on-line
inspection of hot equipment due
to temperature limitations
Inspection
Eddy Current Inspection (ET) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Works on any electrically conductive
material
Allows inspectors to analyze signals
from cracks, bulges, corrosion pits
to correlate flaws
Inspection
Eddy Current Inspection (ET) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Relatively simple and rapid method
Makes surface defects easier to be seen
Works on all nonporous materials
Limitations:
Requires extensive training
Is limited to conductive materials
Has limited penetration depth
Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Used to locate crack-like surface
defects on a variety of non-porous
materials (metals, polymers, and
concrete)
Also called dye penetrant inspection
(DPI)
Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Is relatively simple and rapid
Makes surface defects easier to be seen
Works on all nonporous materials
Limitations:
Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Two principle advantages over dye
penetrant inspection:
Detect near-surface flaws (e.g. hydrogen
blisters or weld defects) that would be
missed by penetrant inspection
Sometimes detect smaller flaws than would
be detected with penetrant inspection
Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Relatively simple and rapid method
May detect fine cracks missed by visual and dye penetrant
inspection
May reveal shallow subsurface flaws
Limitations:
Inspection
Positive Metal Identification
(PMI) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Uses portable X-ray
fluorescence spectrometers to
identify and confirm
composition of corrosionresistant alloys
Analyzes surface in seconds
and compares it with preloaded
spectrum providing nearest
match
Inspection
Positive Metal Identification (PMI) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Identifies alloys quickly and accurately
Limitations:
Inspection
Thermographic (1 of 2)
Techniques
Uses infrared cameras to
detect temperature differences
in equipment.
Used as a remote inspection
technique to determine fluid
levels in storage tanks and for
a variety of other purposes
Inspection
Thermographic (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Is a nonintrusive remote technique
Can detect temperature changes as low as 5F (3C)
Allows identification of hot or cold spots due to fouling,
maldistribution of flow, settling of sediment or other debris, and
loss of internal refractory lining
Limitations:
Cannot determine corrosion or wall thinning
Inspection
Overview
Allows operators to determine if corrosive conditions and
corrosion rates are changing
Can be used to determine if environments are becoming more or
less corrosive
Review
This course covered:
The definition of corrosion.
The economic, environmental, and safety significance of
corrosion.
Why metals corrode.
The differences between inspection and monitoring.