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Origins
German (Deutsch [dt] ( )) is a West Germanic language. It derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.[10]
A number of words are derived from Latin and Greek,
and fewer from French and English. Widely spoken
languages which are most similar to German include
Luxembourgish, Dutch, the Frisian languages, English
and the Scandinavian languages.
German is written using the Latin alphabet. In addition
to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with
umlauts (/, /, and /) and the letter (a special
kind of s(s)", called Eszett or scharfes Es"; it originated as a ligature of archaic forms of the letters s and z,
which were represented as and , respectively, that is,
+ = = ).
German is spoken natively by about 100 million people,
making it the most widely spoken native language in the
European Union and one of the major languages of the
world.[11]
German is a pluricentric language, with multiple countries having their own standardised variants (e.g. Austrian
German, Swiss Standard German) as well as many dialects. There is also one variant referred to as Standard
German.
The history of the language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, separating Old High German dialects from Old Saxon. The
earliest evidence of Old High German is from scattered
Elder Futhark inscriptions, especially in Alemannic, from
the sixth century AD; the earliest glosses (Abrogans)
date to the eighth; and the oldest coherent texts (the
Hildebrandslied, the Muspilli and the Merseburg Incantations) to the ninth century. Old Saxon at this time belonged to the North Sea Germanic cultural sphere, and
Low Saxon was to fall under German rather than AngloFrisian inuence during the Holy Roman Empire.
1.2.1 Germany
History
When Martin Luther translated the Bible (the New Testament in 1522 and the Old Testament, published in
parts and completed in 1534), he based his transla-
HISTORY
3
1.2.4
Standardization
2 Geographic distribution
2.1 Europe
Main articles: German-speaking Europe and German as
a minority language
The German language is the most widely spoken rst language in the European Union, with around 100 million
native speakers.[26]
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
2.2
Africa
2.4
South America
5
Durango, and Zacatecas.
3 STANDARD GERMAN
There is also an important German creole being studMunicipalities that have co-ocial language Ri- ied and recovered, named Unserdeutsch, spoken in the
former German colony of German New Guinea, across
ograndenser Hunsrckisch language:
Micronesia and in northern Australia (i.e. coastal parts
Santa Catarina:
of Queensland and Western Australia), by a few elderly
people. The risk of its extinction is serious and eorts to
Antnio Carlos[55]
revive interest in the language are being implemented by
scholars.
Treze Tlias (language teaching is compulsory in
schools, standing on stage in public ocial of the
municipality)[56][57][58]
3 Standard German
2.5
Oceania
3.2
7
gion), Italy (Gressoney valley), Namibia, Poland (Opole
region), and Russia (Asowo and Halbstadt).
German is one of the 23 ocial languages of the European Union and one of the three working languages. It
is the language with the largest number of native speakers in the European Union and is the second-most spoken language in Europe, just behind English and ahead
of French.
3.1
Ocial status
Standard German is the only ocial language in Liechtenstein; it shares ocial status in Germany (with Danish,
Frisian, Romany and Sorbian as minority languages), in
Austria (with Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian as minority languages), Switzerland (with French, Italian and
Romansh), Belgium (with Dutch and French) and Luxembourg (with French and Luxembourgish). It is an ocial regional language in Italy (South Tyrol), as well as in
the cities of Sopron (Hungary), Krahule (Slovakia) and
several cities in Romania. It is the ocial language of
command (together with Italian) of the Vatican Swiss
Guard.
4 Dialects
4 DIALECTS
the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.
The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass
education in Standard German in schools. Gradually
Low German came to be politically viewed as a mere
dialect spoken by the uneducated. Today Low Saxon
can be divided in two groups: Low Saxon varieties with
a reasonable standard German inux and varieties of
Standard German with a Low Saxon inuence known as
Missingsch. Sometimes, Low Saxon and Low Franconian varieties are grouped together because both are unaected by the High German consonant shift. However,
the proportion of the population who can understand and
speak it has decreased continuously since World War II.
4.1
Low German
5.1
4.3
Noun inection
Grammar
5.1
Noun inection
9
...ismus (-ism) are masculine. Others are more variable, sometimes depending on the region in which
the language is spoken; and some endings are not
restricted to one gender, e.g. ...er (-er), e.g. Feier
(feminine), celebration, party, Arbeiter (masculine),
labourer, and Gewitter (neuter), thunderstorm.
two numbers: singular and plural
This degree of inection is considerably less than in Old
High German and other old Indo-European languages
such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit, and also
somewhat less than, for instance, Old English, modern
Icelandic and Russian. The three genders have collapsed
in the plural, which now behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender. With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number, but there are only six forms of the denite article, which together cover all 16 permutations. In nouns,
inection for case is required in the singular for strong
masculine and neuter nouns, in the genitive, and sometimes in the dative. Both of these cases are losing ground
to substitutes in informal speech. The dative noun ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and is often dropped, but it is still used in proverbs
and the like, in formal speech, and in written language.
Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for
genitive, dative and accusative in the singular. Feminine
nouns are not declined in the singular. The plural does
have an inection for the dative. In total, seven inectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: -s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e.
In German orthography, nouns and most words with the
syntactical function of nouns are capitalised, to make it
easier for readers to determine the function of a word
within a sentence (Am Freitag ging ich einkaufen."On
Friday I went shopping."; Eines Tages kreuzte er endlich
auf."One day he nally showed up.) This convention
is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by
the closely related Luxemburgish language and several insular dialects of the North Frisian language), although it
was historically common in other languages such as Danish (which abolished the capitalization of nouns in 1948)
and English.
Like most Germanic languages, German forms noun
compounds where the rst noun modies the category
given by the second, for example: Hundehtte (dog
hut"; specically: dog kennel). Unlike English,
where newer compounds or combinations of longer
nouns are often written in open with separating
spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages)
nearly always uses the closed form without spaces,
for example: Baumhaus (tree house).
German
allows arbitrarily long compounds, as English does
to some extent. (See also English compounds.) In
German these are quite common. The longest German
word veried to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is
Rindeischetikettierungsberwachungsaufgabenbertragungsgesetz,
10
5 GRAMMAR
5.2
Verb inection
The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded, and sometimes radically changed, through the use of a number
of prexes. Some prexes have a specic meaning; the
prex zer- refers to destruction, as in zerreien (to tear
apart), zerbrechen (to break apart), zerschneiden (to cut
apart). Other prexes have only the vaguest meaning
in themselves; ver- is found in a number of verbs with
a large variety of meanings, as in versuchen (to try)
from suchen (to seek), vernehmen (to interrogate) from
nehmen (to take), verteilen (to distribute) from teilen
(to share), verstehen (to understand) from stehen (to
stand).
Other examples include haften (to stick), verhaften (to detain); kaufen (to buy), verkaufen (to sell); hren (to hear),
aufhren (to cease); fahren (to drive), erfahren (to expe two main conjugation classes: weak and strong (as in rience).
English). Additionally, there is a third class, known Many German verbs have a separable prex, often with an
as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines fea- adverbial function. In nite verb forms this is split o and
tures of both the strong and weak patterns.
moved to the end of the clause, and is hence considered by
some to be a resultative particle. For example, mitgehen
three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
meaning to go along would be split, giving Gehen Sie
mit? (Literal: Go you with?" ; Formal: Are you going
two numbers: singular and plural
along?").
three moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive (in Indeed, several parenthetical clauses may occur between
addition to innitive)
the prex of a nite verb and its complement: e.g.
two voices: active and passive; the passive voice uses
auxiliary verbs and is dividable into static and dynamic.
two tenses without auxiliary verbs (present,
preterite) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary
verbs (perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect)
the distinction between grammatical aspects is A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate
rendered by combined use of subjunctive and/or the point might look like this:
preterite marking: thus the plain indicative voice
He came on Friday evening, after a hard day
uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive
at work and the usual annoyances that had time
by itself conveys second-hand information; subjuncand again been troubling him for years now at
tive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and
his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal
the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in
which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on
the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for
the table, nally at home on.
either second-hand-information or the conditional
state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.
the distinction between perfect and progressive aspect is and has at every stage of development been
a productive category of the older language and
in nearly all documented dialects, but, strangely
enough, is nowadays rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
5.3
Word order
Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch. (The
old man gave me yesterday the book; normal
order)
Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann. (The
book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern. (The
book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
Das Buch gab mir der alte Mann gestern. (The
book gave [to] me the old man yesterday)
Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch. (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book, normal order)
Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern. ([To]
me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for you, it was another date))
11
Both time expressions in front:
Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor mit einem Schirm in der Hand
sein Bro.
Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the
manager with an umbrella in the
hand his oce.
The full time specication Gestern um 10 Uhr
is highlighted.
Another possibility:
Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor sein Bro mit einem Schirm in
der Hand.
Yesterday at 10 o'clock the manager entered his oce with an umbrella in his hand.
The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object, or another argument.
Both the time specication and the fact he carIn a declarative sentence in English, if the subject does
ried an umbrella are accentuated.
not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be
misunderstood. This is not so in German. The exibility
to vary the word order allows one to emphasise specic Swapped adverbs:
words:
Normal word order:
Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10
Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand
sein Bro
The manager entered yesterday at
10 o'clock with an umbrella in the
hand his oce.
Object in front:
The object Sein Bro (his oce) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.
12
6 VOCABULARY
Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.
(The old man has me today the book given.)
Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.
(The book has the old man me today given.)
Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.
(Today has the old man me the book given.)
Modal verbs
Sentences using modal verbs place the innitive at the
end. For example, the English sentence Should he go
home?" would be rearranged in German to say Should
he (to) home go?" (Soll er nach Hause gehen?). Thus in
sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the
innitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar
clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: What did you bring that book
which I don't like to be read to out of up for?"
Multiple innitives
German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at
the end. Given that auxiliaries encode future, passive,
modality, and the perfect, this can lead to very long chains Duden dictionary.
of verbs at the end of the sentence. In these constructions,
the past participle in ge- is often replaced by the innitive.
Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossenV wordenpsv seinperf sollmod
One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be
should
(It is suspected that the deserter probably should have
been shot)
The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation,
though the latter version is unusual.
Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlssel hatte
machen lassen
He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlssel
machen lassen hatte
He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
(He did not know that the agent had had a picklock
made)
Vocabulary
Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the European language family. However, there is a signicant amount of loanwords from
other languages, in particular from Latin, Greek, Italian,
French[67] and most recently English.[68]
Latin words were already imported into the predecessor
of the German language during the Roman Empire and
underwent all the characteristic phonetic changes in German. Their origin is thus no longer recognizable for most
speakers (e.g. Pforte, Tafel, Mauer from Latin porta, tabula, murus). Borrowing from Latin continued after the
fall of the Roman Empire during Christianization, mediated by the church and monasteries. Another important
inux of Latin words can be observed during Renaissance
humanism. In a scholarly context, the borrowings from
Latin have continued until today, in the last decades often
indirectly through borrowings from English. During the
15th to 17th centuries, the inuence of Italian was great,
leading to many Italian loanwords in the elds of architecture, nance, and music. The inuence of the French
language in the 17th to 19th centuries resulted in an even
greater import of French words. The English inuence
was already present in the 19th century, but did not become dominant until the second half of the 20th century.
At the same time, the eectiveness of the German language in forming equivalents for foreign words from its
inherited Germanic stem repertory is great. Thus, Notker
Labeo was able to translate Aristotelian treatises in pure
(Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.
The tradition of loan translation was revitalized in the
18th century, with linguists like Joachim Heinrich Campe
who introduced hundreds of words that are still used in
modern German. Even today, there are movements that
try to promote the Ersatz (substitution) of foreign words
deemed unnecessary with German alternatives.[69] It is
claimed that this would also help in spreading modern
7.1
Present
13
or scientic notions among the less educated, and thus Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such
democratise public life, too.
by distinguishing features such as umlauts and certain
As in English, there are many pairs of synonyms due orthographical featuresGerman is the only major lanto the enrichment of the Germanic vocabulary with guage that capitalizes all nouns, a holdover from when it
loanwords from Latin and Latinized Greek. These words was widely done in Northern Europe in the early modern
often have dierent connotations from their Germanic era (including English for a while, in the 1700s)
counterparts and are usually perceived as more scholarly. and the frequent occurrence of long compounds.
The longest German word that has been published is
"Donaudampfschiahrtselektrizittenhauptbetriebswerkbauunterbeamtenge
Historie - historical, (Geschichte, geschichtlich)
made of 79 characters. Since legibility and convenience
set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more
Humanitt - humaneness, (Menschlichkeit)
than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in
humorous contexts. (In contrast, while English can also
Millennium - millennium, (Jahrtausend)
string nouns together, it usually separates the nouns with
Perzeption - perception, (Wahrnehmung)
spaces.)
Vokabular - vocabulary, (Wortschatz)
7.1 Present
The size of the vocabulary of German is dicult to estimate. The Deutsches Wrterbuch (The German Dictionary) initiated by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm already
contained over 330,000 headwords in its rst edition. The
modern German scientic vocabulary is estimated at nine
million words and word groups (based on the analysis of
35 million sentences of a corpus in Leipzig, which as of
July 2003 included 500 million words in total).[70]
Before the German orthography reform of 1996, replaced ss after long vowels and diphthongs and before
consonants, word-, or partial-word-endings. In reformed
spelling, replaces ss only after long vowels and diphthongs. Since there is no capital , it is always written
as SS when capitalization is required. For example,
Maband (tape measure) is capitalized MASSBAND. An
exception is the use of in legal documents and forms
when capitalizing names. To avoid confusion with similar names, a "" is to be used instead of SS. (So:
7 Orthography
KRELEIN instead of KRESSLEIN.) A capital
has been proposed and included in Unicode (""; UniMain articles: German orthography and German braille
code character U+1E9E), but it is not yet recognized as
German is written in the Latin alphabet. In addition to
standard German. In Switzerland, is not used at all.
14
8 PHONOLOGY
dictionary rzte comes after Arzt, but in some dictionaries rzte and all other words starting with may occur
after all words starting with A. In some older dictionaries
or indexes, initial Sch and St are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after S, but they are
usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.
which made a short issue of it, claiming that the states had
to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the
reform be made the ocial ruleeverybody else could
continue writing as they had learned it. After 10 years,
without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major revision was installed in 2006, just in time for the
Written German also typically uses an alternative opening coming school year. In 2007, some traditional spellings
inverted comma (quotation mark) as in Guten Morgen!. were nally invalidated, while in 2008, on the other hand,
many of the old comma rules were again put in force.
7.2
Past
7.3
Reform of 1996
8 Phonology
Main article: German phonology
8.1 Vowels
In German, vowels (excluding diphthongs; see below) are
either short or long, as follows:
Short // is realized as [] in stressed syllables (including
secondary stress), but as [] in unstressed syllables. Note
that stressed short // can be spelled either with e or with
(for instance, htte 'would have' and Kette 'chain', rhyme).
In general, the short vowels are open and the long vowels
are close. The one exception is the open // sound of long
; in some varieties of standard German, // and /e/ have
merged into [e], removing this anomaly. In that case,
pairs like Bren/Beeren 'bears/berries or hre/Ehre 'spike
(of wheat)/honour' become homophonous (see: Captain
Bluebear).
In many varieties of standard German, an unstressed /r/
is not pronounced [r], but vocalised to [].
Whether any particular vowel letter represents the long
or short phoneme is not completely predictable, although
the following regularities exist:
If a vowel (other than i) is at the end of a syllable
or followed by a single consonant, it is usually pronounced long (e.g. Hof [hof]).
If a vowel is followed by h or if an i is followed by
an e, it is long.
8.2
Consonants
15
8.2
Consonants
With approximately 25 phonemes, the German consonant system exhibits an average number of consonants in
comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual aricate /pf/. The consonant
inventory of the standard language is shown below.
1 /x/ has two allophones, [x] and [], after back and
front vowels, respectively.
2 /r/ has three allophones in free variation: [r], []
and []. In the syllable coda, the allophone [] is
found in many varieties.
16
r is usually pronounced in a guttural fashion (a
voiced uvular fricative [] or uvular trill []) in
front of a vowel or consonant (Rasen [azn]; Burg
[buk]). In spoken German, however, it is commonly vocalised after a vowel (er being pronounced
rather like []Burg [buk]). In some varieties,
the r is pronounced as a tongue-tip r (the alveolar
trill [r]).
s in Germany, is pronounced [z] (as in "zebra) if
it forms the syllable onset (e.g. Sohn [zon]), otherwise [s] (e.g. Bus [bs]). In Austria and Switzerland, it is always pronounced [s]. A ss [s] indicates
that the preceding vowel is short. st and sp at the beginning of words of German origin are pronounced
[t] and [p], respectively.
10 LITERATURE
8.2.1 Consonant shifts
For more details on this topic, see High German consonant shift.
German does not have any dental fricatives (as English
th). The th sounds, which the English language still has,
disappeared on the continent in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and the 10th centuries.[73] It
is sometimes possible to nd parallels between English
and German by replacing the English th with d in German: Thank in German Dank, this and that
dies and das, "thou" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) du, think denken, thirsty durstig
and many other examples.
Likewise, the gh in Germanic English words, pronounced
in several dierent ways in modern English (as an f, or
not at all), can often be linked to German ch: to laugh
lachen, through and thorough durch, high
hoch, naught nichts, light leicht or Licht, sight
Sicht, daughter Tochter, neighbour Nachbar.
10 Literature
Main article: German literature
Theologian Luther, who translated the Bible into German, is widely credited for having set the basis for the
modern High German language. Among the most
well known German poets and authors are Lessing,
Goethe, Schiller, Kleist, Homann, Brecht, Heine and
Schmidt. Thirteen German speaking people have won
(e.g. zog [tsok]).
12.3
Deutsche Welle
17
Carl Spitteler, Thomas Mann, Nelly Sachs, Hermann 12.3 Deutsche Welle
Hesse, Heinrich Bll, Elias Canetti, Gnter Grass,
Elfriede Jelinek and Herta Mller.
Main article: Deutsche Welle
The German state broadcaster Deutsche Welle is the
11 German loanwords in the En- equivalent of the British BBC World Service and provides
radio and television broadcasts in German and 30 other
glish language
languages across the globe.[77] Its German language services are tailored for German language learners by being
For a list of German loanwords to English, see spoken at slow speed. Deutsche Welle also provides an
E-learning website to learn German.
Category:German loanwords.
English has taken many loanwords from German, often
without any change of spelling (aside from, often, the
elimination of umlauts and not capitalizing nouns):
13 See also
Deutsch (disambiguation)
12
Organisations
The use and learning of the German language are promoted by a number of organisations.
Germanism (linguistics)
List of German exonyms
12.1
Goethe-Institut
Goethe-Institut logo
12.2
14 References
[1] Vrldens 100 strsta sprk 2010 [The worlds 100
largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyklopedin (in
Swedish). 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
[2] Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). Ethnologue: Languages of
the World (16 ed.). Austin, Texas: SIL International.
[3] Deutsch in Namibia (PDF) (in German). Supplement
of the Allgemeine Zeitung. 18 August 2007. Retrieved
23 June 2008.
[4] CIA World Fact book Prole: Namibia cia.gov. Retrieved 2008-11-30.
[5] Oooops... We didn't nd the page you are looking for....
12 March 2012.
[6] Map on page of Polish Ministry of Interior and Administration (MSWiA)". Retrieved 15 March 2010.
18
14
REFERENCES
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[27] Table 5. Detailed List of Languages Spoken at Home for
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Retrieved 15 March 2010.
[28] 49.2 million German Americans as of 2005 according to
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57.9 million, or 23.3% of the U.S. population.
[29] Documentary History of the United States Brewers Association.
[30] http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_
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[31] Pomerode institui lngua alem como co-ocial no Municpio
[32] Lngua alem - Patrimnio - Cultura - Secretaria de Turismo, Cultura e Esporte de Pomerode, SC.
[33] O povo pomerano no ES
[34] Plenrio aprova em segundo turno a PEC do patrimnio.
ipol.org.br.
[35] Emenda Constitucional na ntegra
[36] ALEES - PEC que trata do patrimnio cultural retorna ao
Plenrio - Sntese.
[17] Henry Steele Commager (1961). "Immigration and American history: essays in honor of Theodore C. Blegen". U
of Minnesota Press. p.102. ISBN 0-8166-5735-1
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19
[47] Pomeranos em busca de recursos federais (in Portuguese). Retrieved 24 August 2011.
[48] Resistncia cultural - Imigrantes que buscaram no Brasil
melhores condies de vida, caram isolados e sem apoio
do poder pblico (in Portuguese). Retrieved 12 November 2011.
[49] Pomerode institui lngua alem como co-ocial no Municpio. (in Portuguese). Retrieved 21 August 2011.
[50] Vereadores propem ensino da lngua pomerana nas escolas do municpio (in Portuguese). Retrieved 21 August
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[70] Ein
Hinweis
in
eigener
Wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de.
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[53] Percurso linguistico dos pomeranos de Espigo D OesteRO (in Portuguese). Retrieved 12 November 2011.
[54] Comunidade Pomerana realiza sua tradicional festa folclrica (in Portuguese). Retrieved 24 August 2011.
[55] Coocializao da lngua alem em Antnio Carlos
[56] Vereadores de Treze Tlias se reuniram ontem (in Portuguese). Retrieved 21 August 2011.
[57] BOL - VilaBOL.
[58] Um pedao da Astria no Brasil (in Portuguese). Treze
Tlias. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
[59] Dialetos Hunsrik e Talian na ofensiva no Sul - Em
Santa Maria do Herval, regio de Novo Hamburgo, RS,
surge forte a mobilizao em favor do Hunsrik - a faceta brasileira/latino-americana do Hunsrckisch. Em Serana Correa, RS, oresce o talian" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 24 August 2011.
[60] Ulrich Ammon, Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner, et al.: Variantenwrterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in
sterreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Sdtirol. Walter de
Gruyter, Berlin 2004.
[61] Oooops... We didn't nd the page you are looking for....
12 March 2012.
[62] Modern Language Association, 2007-11-13, New MLA
Survey Shows Signicant Increases in Foreign Language
Study at U.S. Colleges and Universities. Retrieved 201108-14.
Sache.
January
15 Bibliography
Fausto Cercignani, The Consonants of German:
Synchrony and Diachrony, Milano, Cisalpino, 1979.
Michael Clyne, The German Language in a Changing Europe (1995) ISBN 0-521-49970-4
George O. Curme, A Grammar of the German Language (1904, 1922)the most complete and authoritative work in English
20
16
Ruth H. Sanders. German: Biography of a Language (Oxford University Press; 2010) 240 pages.
Combines linguistic, anthropological, and historical
perspectives in a biography of German in terms of
six signal events over millennia, including the Battle of Kalkriese, which blocked the spread of Latinbased language north.
16
External links
The Goethe Institute: German Government sponsored organisation for the promotion of the German
language and culture.
Texts on Wikisource:
"German Language", Encyclopdia Britannica, 11th ed., 1911
Mark Twain, The Awful German Language,
1880
Carl Schurz, The German Mothertongue,
1897
German (language) at DMOZ
USA Foreign Service Institute German basic course
(requires audio)
EXTERNAL LINKS
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