X-RAY GENERATORS

After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Identify the main parts to the basic x-ray generator.

List the three things that an X-ray generator must supply in order
to produce x-rays.

In this section the basic construction of X-ray equipment and some different
types of x-ray systems will be introduced. Most standard x-ray systems have three
main components which are a x-ray tube, a high voltage power supply, and a control
unit. Working together, these components are common to all standard systems.
From our introductory discussion on the generation of x-rays you may recall that
there were three principle requirements to generate X-radiation. These three
requirements include a source of electrons, a means of acceleration, and a target
for interaction. You should recognize that electrical power is necessary for X-ray
generation.
Where do the electrons come from?
You already know that matter is made up of atoms, and atoms have electrons that
orbit around the nucleus in shells. All we need to do is get the electron free of
their orbit. How do we do this? The answer is fairly simple. If we take a piece of
conductive wire and pass a current through it, the wire will heat up due to the
resistance in the wire. The heat of the wire excites the electrons and they will
break away (boil off) from the wire to expend the energy picked up from the heat
of the current. When the energy of the electron is expended, it will return to the
wire to become heated again. So this heated wire serves as our source of
electrons.

Why do the electrons need to be accelerated and how is it done?

Our second requirement is to get the electrons traveling at high speeds. The
reason we need to propel the electrons at high speeds is because the energy that
the electron possesses and can transfer is dependent on its velocity. The higher

the velocity of the electron when it interacts with an atom, the greater the energy
of the radiation that will be produced. Propelling the electron is fairly simple. Since
unlike charges (positive and negative) attract, and electrons posses a negative
charge, all we need is a positive charge nearby to attract the electron. We can
accomplish this by placing a piece of metal (anode) a short distance away from the
wire filament (cathode).
When we apply a voltage to this anode, we place a high positive charge on it. This
high positive charge acts much like a magnet, only it is attracting free electrons.
The positive charge will possess a strong attractive force to the negative charge
of the electrons that are boiling off of the filament. This attractive force pulls
the electrons towards the anode at high speeds. By increasing the voltage applied
to the anode we can increase the speed of the electrons.
What does the target material do?
The third and final requirement is to have a target material for the electrons to
interact with. By placing some sort of matter between the electrons (filament) and
the positive charge (anode) we meet our need. Also, the anode itself can be used as
the target. In high voltage X-ray generators a special target material (Tungsten) is
usually embedded into the anode. This gives the electrons a suitable material to
interact with and produce x-rays. When the electron hits the target material,
several things can happen. The electron can be absorbed by an atom and its energy
transferred to the atom, the energy of the electron can cause another electron to
be knocked out of its energy shell, or the electron may just slightly interact with
other atomic particles. Radiation will be produced in all of these cases, but the
energy of the radiation will be different.
The following illustration is a basic schematic representing an x-ray tube:
Modern x-ray tubes come in many shapes and sizes, normally they are of the glass
or metal-ceramic tube (envelope) style. As compared to early gas filled x-ray
tubes, modern tubes are of the high vacuum style. The modern techniques of tube
design have allowed for smaller tubes, extended tube life, and more efficient and
stable operation.
The means of acceleration of the electrons is provided by applying a potential
difference (voltage) across the tube anode and cathode and is independent of the
voltage and current across the filament.

The x-ray tube is technically referred to as an envelope. Typical construction may

be from blown glass or metal-ceramic styles. Glass envelope tubes are still common
today, although they have definite disadvantages to the newer metal-ceramic
designs. Due to the tremendous amount of heat generated during x-ray production,
glass suffers from thermal and mechanical shock. Metal-ceramic materials do not
suffer damage from the excessive heat to the degree that glass does and are
rapidly replacing the glass style tube.
The Cathode
From the above illustration let's look at each of the components separately
beginning with the cathode. The cathode is the negative terminal of the tube
assembly and includes the filament, which is a small-coiled wire that is commonly
made from tungsten. The filament provides the electrons for acceleration to the
target (anode). Tungsten is metal with the desired properties for filaments, you
have probably seen a tungsten filament in a light bulb before. The filament is
normally powered by an alternating current that is supplied to it by a separate
transformer.
In many of the x-ray tubes, the current supplied to the filament ranges from a few
hundred micro-amperes (symbol 109 \f "Symbol" \s 12mA) to several milli-amperes
(mA). Filament current may be varied or fixed to maintain a constant tube current.
Remember from our earlier discussion that the filament supplies the electrons.
Adjustments in current to the filament varies the number of electrons that will
boil off the filament. This in turn controls the number of x-rays that the tube is
generating. Filament current controls the x-ray intensity.
The Anode
The positive terminal of an x-ray tube is called the anode, it serves three
important functions, (1) it provides a complete circuit for purposes of accelerating
the electrons, (2) it houses the target material, and (3) it helps to cool the tube.
We already mentioned before that the generation of X-rays generates a
tremendous amount of heat. If the heat in a tube was ignored, the target material
that is embedded in the anode would be destroyed in a short period of time. The
anode is typically made from materials with good thermal properties to dissipate
heat. Copper and tungsten are common anode materials. In addition to using
thermally conductive materials for the anode, alternate means of cooling that may
be employed are gas, oil, water, or air.

Does the density of the target material matter?

As previously mentioned, the anode also houses the target material. As an integral
part of the tube, the target requires special consideration. The target provides
the means for electron interaction (bombardment). The target is commonly made
from tungsten and other materials like cobalt, iron, or copper. Another important
characteristic of the target material is its density. The material must be of high
atomic mass for electron interaction. Remember that when the electron interacts
with the target atoms the result is the generation of x-rays. Low density materials
do not provide sufficient density for interaction.
The High Voltage Power Supply
A high voltage power supply is an important component of an X-ray generation
system. When we say high voltage supply, we need to differentiate from that of
commercial electricity. Keep in mind that the filament uses a relatively small
voltage supply to cause small currents (mV) in the filament, while the anode of the
tube requires a large voltage supply to maintain a high positive charge for
acceleration of the electrons. Commercial power is commonly available as 110 volts,
220, or 440 volts. X-ray systems require very high voltages commonly in the range
from 5 kilovolts (Kv) to as much as 400 Kv or more. So how can we supply low
voltage to the filament, and high voltage to the anode? This is accomplished by
using a transformer. A transformer will allow us to supply the proper voltages to
the filament and anode. The next question we need to answer would be what is a
transformer and how does it work?
What are transformers?
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that allow a voltage of alternating
current to be changed; the voltage may be increased or decreased. Two common
types of transformers which are of importance to x-ray generation are step-up and
step-down. Transformers are comprised of two sets of windings (coiled
conductors) that are electrically isolated from each other. One set of windings is
connected to a power supply and is known as the primaries. The other set of
windings is connected to a load (in this case the x-ray tube) and is referred to as
the secondary windings.
The principle operation of a transformer is based on induction. If you have studied
electricity, you should know that when you pass current through a conductor, a

magnetic field is established in and around the conductor. This magnetic field can
be used to induce a voltage and current flows in a conductive material that is
placed close by.
The Control Unit
The third essential component to a standard x-ray system is the control unit. We
have discussed the tube design and the power supply, now we need to know how to
control the energy and intensity of the radiation being generated. There are three
principle controls to a standard x-ray system, which are the ma control, the kV
control, and a timer. The first two are the most important in terms of the
radiation characteristics. We will briefly describe the timer control. The controls
for the system are usually housed in a panel.
Current Control
The ma control on an x-ray system commonly includes some type of a panel meter
or digital display (millimeter) which is a rheostat connected to the circuit that
allows adjustment in tube current. Adjusting the current being applied to the
filament results in variations in the radiation intensity. Remember that the
filament provides the electrons for interaction with the target. When the tube
current is varied, the number of electrons being supplied to the anode (target)
varies.
Voltage Control
The kV control on a x-ray system is similar to the ma control in that it includes
some type of metered display (kilovolt meter) and a rheostat in the circuit. The
voltage being supplied to the anode is referred to as the tube voltage, and is
primarily measured in kilovolts. Variations in the tube voltage affects the energy
of the radiation; penetrating power varies with the voltage. Increasing the tube
voltage increases the speed of the electrons interacting with the target.
Remember from our previous discussions that the energy of radiation is a function
of the wavelength. Increasing the energy results in a shorter wavelength x-ray
photon with greater penetrating power.
Time Control
The third control feature of an x-ray system is the timer. The timer is no
different then one you set when baking cookies. The timer is much like that of a

stop watch. It may be an analog or digital display of some sort. The function of the
timer is simply to control the duration of the exposure, in other words, how much
time the tube is generating radiation. It is, however, connected to the circuits of
the system. When the time has elapsed, the system shuts down and no more
radiation will be produced until the system is reset.

Review:
1. The three main parts to an x-ray generator setup are an x-ray tube,

a high voltage power supply, and a control unit.

2. The X-ray generator provides three things that are required to

produce X-rays, and they are a source of electrons, a means of

acceleration, and a target for interaction.