An Investigation into Voltage Transformers used for

Tariff Metering of Medium and High Voltage Loads

and Standard Guidelines for its Application
C. Venter

R.T. Harris, A.G. Roberts, W. Phipps

Electricity and Energy Directorate

Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
cventer@mandelametro.gov.za

Department of Electrical Engineering

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
raymond.harris@nmmu.ac.za,
alan.roberts@nmmu.ac.za,
william.phipps@nmmu.ac.za

Abstract For certain VT connections and unknown consumer

earthing practices, metering errors will occur during unbalanced
loading. Because of the small load offered by modern numerical
tariff meters and relays, VT burden ratings may be
inappropriate and the VT may not operate within its accuracy
range. This can give rise to the ferroresonance phenomenon and
neutral inversion for certain system and VT conditions. VTs used
for tariff metering were investigated based on limb design,
parameters, earthing and connection methods. To compare the
accuracy, case studies were created and calculations performed
with the aid of an Excel iterative program. The calculations
compared the actual real power supplied to a load with the real
power seen by the voltage and current transformers. From the
results and theoretical research, optimum VT earthing,
connections, ratings and standards were determined and
compiled in a concise Code of Practice.
KeywordsVoltage transformer, tariff metering, limb design,
ferroresonance, secondary burden, vt connections, vt earthing.

I. INTRODUCTION
The Electricity & Energy Directorate of the Nelson
Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM) requires a concise code of
practice that sets out the connections, earthing, ratings and
standards for voltage transformers (VTs) used in tariff
metering. Due to unknown consumer earthing practices,
metering errors could occur during unbalanced loading. When
a loads primary is unknowingly earthed and supplied from an
earthed source, a three-phase/four-wire system will exist where
the two-element tariff metering method will be inaccurate [1].
VT burden ratings may be inappropriate due to improper
loading of the VT secondary. When the VT is not loaded to at
least 25% of its burden rating, it will not operate in its ideal
accuracy range [2]. In the past couple of years with the
introduction of numerical tariff meters and relays, the actual
burdens presented by these secondary devices have become
very small. It became necessary to add dummy resistor loads
to the secondary circuit of VTs. Not only does this add
additional requirements to the installation of VTs but a VT is

ordered with a higher rating than required. This combination

can further increase the cost of VTs and the installation as a
whole. Ferroresonance and neutral displacement (inversion)
can have a negative effect on equipment and tariff meter
accuracy [3] [4]. Different VT connections and earthing will
either result in improved performance under these conditions or
cause these phenomena to be more prominent [4].
The purpose of the research is to:
Investigate VT design, connections, earthing, ratings and
relevant standards to determine optimum VT selection for
tariff metering.
Write an iterative program in Excel to mathematically
compare the different VT connection methods and
determine the most accurate method.
Perform calculations to determine the optimum burden
rating for VTs used for tariff metering.
Find methods of reducing or eliminating the effects of
ferroresonance and neutral inversion.
Different connections of VTs will result in different voltages
being measured under unbalanced conditions at the VT
secondary terminals. In all solutions considered, the VTs were
connected star-star and the secondary of the VT earthed at
some point.
The four basic connection types for tariff metering that
were considered are:
YNyn connection
YNy2n connection
Yyn connection
Yy2n connection
Parameters for VTs were obtained by direct involvement in
routine tests at the manufacturers premises, and used to
perform iterative calculations with the aid of Microsoft Excel
and data table inputs. The percentage error between the actual
power consumed and the measured power was compared for
the different VT connections and the results analyzed to
determine the most accurate and stable connection method for
tariff metering on the NMBM system. The best solution was

determined and VT design, burden rating and class

specifications set out.
A complete but concise code of practice was written that
could be adopted by the NMBM for measuring VT
applications.
II. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER DESIGN AND THEORY
A. Limb Design
VTs are usually constructed with either a three or five core
limb or a combination of three single core VTs are used at
higher voltages. The three-limb VT takes full advantage of the
fact that the net flux is zero under balanced voltage conditions
and thus the windings occupy all three limbs and flux paths
exist in all of them [5].
When a five-limb VT is used, the windings are arranged on
three limbs and the outer two limbs unoccupied. These limbs
provide a path for residual fluxes set up by the residual voltage
during unbalanced conditions [6]. Three-limbed VTs have no
path for the flow of residual fluxes, but five-limb or three
single core VTs will provide such path [7]. The three-limb VT
has its primary unearthed and can be used for symmetrical
functions such as tariff metering. When the VT primary must
be earthed, it should however be of the five-limb design.
B. Neutral Inversion
Certain transformer connections will cause a rise in the
third harmonic voltages and currents. For example with
isolated neutrals on a star-connected transformer, no third
harmonic current can flow, and therefore the magnetic fluxes
and induced voltages contain large third harmonic components
[4].
When the neutral point of the VT primary is earthed to
allow third-harmonic currents to flow, the third-harmonic
voltages to neutral are expended in forcing the currents round
the circuits. In this case the third-harmonic voltages may be
suppressed totally or only partially. Earthed VTs has its
primary neutral point earthed and if connected in an effectively
earthed power system will show a reduction in neutral
inversion caused by the unstable voltages. If however the VT
has its primary earthed and connected in a non-effectively
earthed power system, severe neutral inversion will take place
and result in the VT measurements being poor due to increased
VT losses [4].
Neutral inversion can be prevented or reduced by adding a
sufficient star-connected resistance burden on the secondary
side of the VT or selecting a burden rating to fit the secondary
circuit burden. Therefore the secondary circuit burden is of
significance to the selection of an appropriate VT burden
rating.

it would result in ferroresonance. Ferroresonance causes high

voltages to occur which can result in the destruction of
electrical equipment [8] [9].
Preventing ferroresonance in VTs can easily be achieved by
introducing losses by means of one or more dummy load
resistors whose value is sufficiently low to effectively damp the
phenomenon. Other more technically involved methods of
damping the ferroresonance phenomenon can be used, such as
changing the VT design to a delta primary or changing its
inductive properties, but will not be discussed in this paper.
III. CASE STUDY AND DATA COLLECTION
To perform a case study on the different VT connections, a
realistic power system network had to be considered. The case
study therefore consisted of the tariff metering arrangement for
a 22kV consumer supplied from the secondary of a 132/22kV
transformer through a certain length of 22kV cable. This
arrangement was used for calculations concerning an earthed
and unearthed load. Four different VT connections were
considered and shown in Fig. 1.

Figure. 1. VT Connection methods

The calculations were based on the power system case

study and each of these connection methods applied for
balanced and unbalanced loads.
A. Consumer Load Profile
The load considered was that of the Uitenhage Crown
Chickens 22kV feeder over a one-month period. The consumer
draws an approximate load of 1MVA which is considered to be
a relatively small compared to common industrial loads. A
smaller consumer load allows the research to avoid the effects
of diversity among the consumers internal loads, as well as
setting a reference from which to calculate the effects on
higher loads. The load profile was used in order to get realistic
minimum and maximum currents throughout a typical day.
From the load profile data, the variable input impedance is
calculated from

C. Ferroresonance
The inductance of the VT is in parallel with the system
capacitance and a sudden transient overvoltage will result in
one or several phases of the VT going into saturation. The
saturation of the iron core of the VT results in a change in the
inductance parallel with the system capacitance. If the
inductance of the VT exactly matches the system capacitance,

Z load load =

Vload 1
I load 1

(1)

IV. DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS

An iterative program was written in Microsoft Excel to
compare the calculated actual real power supplied to a load
with the real power seen by the voltage and current
transformers. As this paper considers only VTs, the
inaccuracies of the current transformers were ignored.
Although the 22kV network in the NMBM is fed from a starconnected secondary with its neutral point resistively earthed,
the calculations for the case studies were simplified by using a
source with a solidly earthed neutral. For the different power
system scenarios (Fig. 6), the different VT connections were
applied (Fig. 1), and the resulting secondary voltages
calculated. These voltages together with the load current were
used to calculate the measured real power. Comparisons were
then made between the actual real power and the measured real
power that resulted in a percentage error. This percentage error
is a combination of the internal losses of the VT as well as the
error due to different VT connections. From the results, the
minimum, maximum and average error was obtained.
The calculation procedure was divided into two main parts,
namely the power system network and the VT circuit.
A. Power System Network Calculations
An Excel iterative program was used to calculate the load
voltage as shown in Fig. 1. The variable impedance from the
consumer load profile was used as the input to the set of
calculations. Thus as the load impedance changes, so does the
load current. The voltage drops towards the source and
therefore ultimately the load voltage. This is represented by
Fig. 2. When referring to voltages, phase to neutral values are
used. In cases where the neutral is unearthed, it shall be the
voltage across the phase winding or alternatively specified.

The total 22kV current is transformed to a 132kV current

and added to an additional current loaded onto the 132kV
infinite bus source.

I 132kVtotal = ( I 22kVtotal / 6) + I 132kVadditional

(3)

This total 132kV current is used together with a 132kV line

impedance to calculate the 132kV line volt drop and subtracted
from the 132kV infinite bus voltage.

V132kVtxprimary = V132kV ( I 132kVtotal Z 132kVline )

(4)

The 22kV line volt drop is calculated similar to the 132kV

line volt drop where constant line impedances are multiplied by
the 22kV load current.

V22 kVlinedrop = I 22kVload Z 22kVline

(5)

The 132kV transformer primary phase voltage is

transformed into a 22kV secondary phase voltage and the 22kV
line volt drop subtracted from it to obtain the phase to neutral
voltage at the load or metering point.

V22 kVload = (V132kVtxprimary / 6) V22 kVlinedrop

(6)

The phase voltages Van, Vbn, Vcn, is a phase voltage referred

to a neutral earth point and will therefore equal the phase
voltage across the load in the earthed load scenario.
For the unearthed load scenario, the actual phase voltage across
the load must be calculated using first principles. For both
scenarios, the phase-to-phase voltages across the load are the
same and calculated from first principles.

Vab = Van Vbn , Vbc = Vbn Vcn , Vca = Vcn Van

(7)

The load currents for both balanced and unbalanced loads can
therefore be calculated from the phase voltages and the
consumer load impedances.

Fig. 2. Power system calculations block diagram

The process is started by creating a balanced 132kV

infinite bus reference voltage, meaning that it is constant and
will not change due to preceding volt drops. The 22kV load
current is added to an additional dummy current, used to
represent other loads on the same transformer.

I 22 kVtotal = I 22 kVload + I 22 kVadditional

(2)

B. Voltage Transformer Circuit Calculations

For the different possible VT connections, the calculation
methodology is discussed.
1) Primary Voltage Calculations:
The method to calculate the voltage across each winding of
the 3phase VT is the same as for calculating the voltage across
the load in the power system network. Therefore, for a VT
primary with an earthed neutral, the voltage across each phase
winding will equal the power system phase to neutral voltage.
However when the VT primary is left unearthed, there is no
reference to neutral and the voltage across each phase must be
calculated by Millmans theorem. The only difference will be
that the equivalent winding impedances of the VT will be used
and its calculation is explained in the following section.

2) Secondary Voltage Calculations:

An equivalent circuit was derived as a result of performing
open circuit and short circuit tests. This equivalent circuit is
used to calculate the secondary load voltage from any primary
input voltage of the VT. This method is based on the
percentage volt drop from primary to secondary.
For any given voltage across the primary windings, a
voltage across the secondary windings can be calculated by
using the percentage voltage regulation. Therefore, the actual
secondary phase to neutral voltage is given by

Vsec( ph n ) =

V prim ( ph n ) (1 %regulation)
n

(8)

C. Real and measured power calculations

The real and measured power drawn by the load was
compared to determine the error in calculations due to VT
losses and different connection methods. The VT losses will be
relatively constant compared to errors due to VT connection
method. It could therefore easily be determined what type of
VT connection method is more accurate or present the most
stability during different load conditions.
As VTs are the subject of the research and this paper, the
errors of the current transformers were ignored. Therefore, the
same current values are used for the calculation of the real and
measured power drawn by the load.
1) Real Power:
For the purpose of this paper, the Real Power is the
power calculated from the load current and the voltage across
each phase of the load. Therefore, the Real Power in each
phase of the load is calculated from:

Pa = V a I a cos( a a )

(9)

Pb = Vb I b cos( b b )

(10)

Pc = Vc I c cos( c c )

(11)

Where: a, b & c are the phase angles of the three phase

voltages across the load and a , b & c are the phase
angles of the current flowing in each phase of the load.
The total three-phase power consumed by the load is the
algebraic sum of these powers and given by:

Pt = Pa + Pb + Pc

power will rely on the type of connection. Namely the two

element and three-element secondary, that determines the type
of wattmeter method employed [1].
3) Two Element Two Wattmeter Method:
The two wattmeter method described by Blondel is
employed to measure the power consumed when one phase of
the VT secondary is earthed. The method measures current in
two phases, say a and c, and measures the voltage from
these two phases to the unmeasured phase, say b [1].
The same currents used to calculate the Real Power is
used with only the voltage and its phase angles being different.
The voltage values used is taken from the VT secondary
voltages. However, these voltages are the phase to neutral
values and are used to calculate Vab & Vcb. Let the VT
secondary phase to neutral voltage calculated be:

V an an

V cn cn

Then according to Kirchhoffs Voltage Law:

V ab ab = V an an Vbn bn

(13)

V cb cb = Vcn cn Vbn bn

(14)

Therefore, the total measured power consumed by the load

is calculated from:

Wt = W1 + W 2

(15)

Where:

W1 = V ab I a cos( ab a )

And:

W 2 = V cb I c cos( cb c )

4) Three element, three wattmeter method:

The three wattmeter method described by Blondel is
employed to measure the power consumed when the neutral of
the VT secondary is earthed and all three phases are brought
out for measurement. The method measures current in three
phases and measures the voltage from each phase to neutral
[1]. The same currents used to calculate the Real Power is
used below and only the voltage and its phase angles are
different. The voltages used are taken from the VT secondary
voltages.
Let the VT secondary phase to neutral voltage be:

(12)

Theoretically, this is the exact total power consumed by the

load and is the benchmark against which measuring methods
should be compared.
2) Measured Power:
For the purpose of this paper, the Measured Power is the
power calculated from the actual load current and the voltage
measured across the VT secondary. Calculating the measured

Vbn bn

V an an

Vbn bn

V cn cn

Therefore, the total measured power consumed by the load is

calculated from:

Wt = W1 + W2 + W3

(16)

Where:

W1 = V an I a cos( an a )
W 2 = Vbn I b cos( bn b )
W3 = Vcn I c cos( cn c )

5) Percentage Error:
The difference between the Real Power and Measured
Power was expressed as a percentage error and indicates the
VT error due to two factors, namely the VT losses and
connection methods. The VT losses observed in the
calculations were due to the voltage drops from primary to
secondary. As the same parameters were used for the
equivalent circuit calculations for the different VT
connections, the VT losses are relatively constant. Any
variation in the error results, should be due to the type of VT
connection used. The percentage error between Real Power
and Measured Power is given by:

%error =

Pt Wt
100
Pt

Fig. 6. Tabulated results

(17)

Using Excel Data Tables, this percentage error was

calculated for a range of inputs from the 22kV load profile.
Minimum, maximum and average percentage errors were
recorded and tabulated to determine the accuracy and stability
of each VT connection method.
V. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
For each VT connection method used, 1488 percentage
error values were calculated as in (17) from the 22kV load
profile. From this data a set of statistical results were obtained
and shown in Fig. 6. The figure shows the source which is the
earthed 22kV, the various Vt connections and both the 3 wire
and 4 wire load combinations. The maximum, minimum and
average percentage error is shown for both balanced and
unbalanced loads.
It was found that the two wattmeter method in an earthed
load scenario resulted in large error values compared to other
methods. This was expected as the two wattmeter method is
best suited for a 3 wire system only. The two wattmeter
method was eliminated and only the three wattmeter method
left to analyze. The average errors recorded for the three
wattmeter method were found to be similar when compared to
each other. When the spread between the maximum and
minimum error values were compared, a significant difference
was noticed. The YNyn VT was found the most stable, as the
spread between maximum and minimum error was very low
compared to that of unearthed VT connections. The instability
of the unearthed VT can be attributed to the fact that the
primary phase to neutral voltage of an unearthed primary VT
does not reflect the true phase to neutral voltage across the
load.

A. Secondary Burden Results:

Considering a typical VT secondary installation and its
loads, the total secondary burden on the VT was calculated at
7.5VA. Allowing the VT to be loaded to 75% of rated burden,
a 10 VA VT would be ideal and is a common VT rating.
This is significantly smaller than the VTs currently used on the
NMBM Electrical Network that is rated from 50VA upwards.
B. Code of Practice
The code of practice (COP) aims to set standards for the
selection and application of inductive type VTs used for tariff
metering on the medium and high voltage networks. The code
must be considered in conjunction with the other internal
departmental documentation that provides for the design,
manufacture and testing of VTs. Considering the results and
theoretical research described, a new COP was drafted for the
NMBM.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Considering the results and theoretical research, it was
concluded that the earthed primary star-star connected VT,
with the secondary neutral solidly earthed (YNyn), is the most
accurate and stable method of connecting a VT for tariff
metering MV and HV consumers. The VT should therefore be
of the five-limb construction due to the primary being solidly
earthed. It is further concluded that 3phase/4wire metering is
the most accurate and stable method of tariff metering under
balanced and unbalanced load conditions for an earthed and
unearthed load. The 3phase/3wire metering employed in the
NMBM on the 6.6kV and 11kV network is therefore
unacceptable and is highly inaccurate for unbalanced loads that
are inherently earthed due to unknown consumer earthing
practices. The VTs used on the NMBM electrical power
network are selected with a rated burden of 50VA and higher.
This is unnecessary and can cause a VT to be loaded to less
than 25% of the rated burden and therefore operate outside of

its accuracy range. The VTs selected should be between 10VA

and 15VA, depending on the secondary load to be supplied
and; or should be loaded with adequate dummy burden
resistors to keep the VT loaded within the 25% to 100%
accuracy range. Correctly loading the VTs will also address the
neutral inversion and ferroresonance phenomenon.

3phase/3wire metering method. The research should allow for

the cost differences between the five-limb and three-limb
construction as well as the monetary value of loss in tariff due
to inaccuracies in the different connection methods. This
should be applied to a larger variety of load profiles that could
represent actual industrial consumer situations on the NMBM
network.

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended after considering the results from the
research that the NMBM accept the Code of Practice
Inductive Type VTs as used for tariff metering and all
standards and guidelines therein. The primary finding of which
is that the earthed primary star-star connected VT (YNyn),
should be used in future tariff meter installations of MV and
HV consumers.
The three-phase VT used for tariff metering of 6.6kV and
11kV consumer should be of the 5-limb construction. The VTs
used for the tariff metering of 22kV consumers should be three
single phase transformers arranged star-star in one three-phase
unit and the those used for tariff metering of HV consumers
should be separate single phase VTs connected star-star.
It is also recommended that VTs be selected with a burden
rating corresponding to 75% of its actual secondary load and
therefore would be in the range of 10-15VA, instead of the
current 50-100VA range. When the VT cannot be loaded to
within the 25%-100% accuracy range, it becomes necessary to
employ a dummy load in the form of a resistor added to the
secondary installation circuit. The calculation of the dummy
burden resistor should be applied to each case individually if a
burden resistor becomes necessary.
It is recommended that future research be done to compare
the monetary advantage of using the earthed primary VT of
five limb constructions and the 3phase/4wire metering method,
with the unearthed VT of three limb construction and the

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