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Course Title
Communication Systems 2
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Communication Systems 2
Course outline:
-
Communication model.
Transmission line.
Noise effect.
Attenuator and filters.
Data communication.
Introduction of Modem design.
Information theory.
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Communication Systems 2
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Communication Systems 2
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Attenuation
Attenuation can be problematic for long distance communications. This means
due to signal propagate through media the initial signal power decreases if the
length of the media becomes longer.
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Distortion
Other channel impairment known as distortion, it means that the signal is
distorted and may have a bandwidth larger than the channel bandwidth. The
distortion causes a variation in signal frequency and maybe a linear or nonlinear distortion.
Linear distortion :
Linear distortion is said to occur if the system has a not flat amplitude transfer
function or if the group delay is not zero or constant. Phase- and Amplitude
errors cause linear distortions. The linear distortion is shown in figure 7 below.
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Linear distortion can occur for two reasons.
The first is a not flat amplitude transfer function. It's called frequency
response. It's just a graph of the reproduced amplitude as a function of
frequency (as opposed to amplitude as a function of time-the time
domain).
The second is a bit more confusing and has to do with the phase shift that
can occur. A signal has amplitude, but it also has a phase characteristic. If
the amplitude relationships are reproduced correctly, but the phase
relationships are not, this can cause linear distortion. A certain amount of
phase shifting between frequencies occurs wherever there is not flat
frequency response. But a device can have a flat amplitude transfer
function and still have this phase shifting going on between adjacent
frequencies.
To solve the problem of linear distortion, the message should fit the channel
bandwidth by using and equalizer.
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Non-linear distortion:
Nonlinear distortion is said to occur when the output waveform has any
frequency components not present in the original signal.
Means that Non-linear distortion arises when a signal passes through a system
element that has a non-linear Vin -Vout transfer characteristic. Figure 10 shows
a non linear distortion example for two signals that pass through the same
media.
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To solve the problem of nonlinear distortion using and equalizer. Equalization
compensates for the differences in signal attenuation and delay associated with
different frequency components. Around a center frequency, relatively high
frequency signals attenuate more than relatively low frequency signals over a
distance, so an equalizer may reduce the amplitude of the low frequency
signals and increase the amplitude of the high frequency signals in order that
the signals at the receiver are in the same relative balance as they were at the
transmitter. Adaptive equalizers automatically adjust to levels of distortion that
vary as the signal path or its characteristics change over time.
Noise
Noise is the one of channel impairment, causes an interruption in the received
signal at the destination. Noise maybe caused by external or internal noise
source.
External Sources: interference from signals transmitted on nearby channels
(crosstalk), interference generated by contact switches, automobile ignition
radiation, natural noise from lightning, solar radiation, etc. as an example of
external figure 11 shows a crosstalk noise.
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Notice:
The effects of external noise can be minimized or eliminated.
The effects of internal noise can be minimized but never eliminated.
Solutions for External Noise are;
Shielding or twisting.
A different cable design.
Proper design of the channel.
Use digital transmission
Using BPF or LPF at the receiver side.
Introduction of Transmission
The purpose of the transmission line is to transfer from source over some
distance to a remote load. Transmission lines are commonly used in power
distribution (at low frequencies) and in communications (at high frequencies).
Various kinds of transmission lines such as the twisted-pair and coaxial cables
are used in computer networks such as the Ethernet internet.
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A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel conductors used
to connect a source to a load. The source may be a hydroelectric generator, a
transmitter, or an oscillator; the load may be an antenna, or an oscilloscope,
respectively. Typical transmission lines include coaxial cable, a two-wire line, a
parallel-plate or a wire above the conducting plane, and a micro strip line.
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Short circuit line:
When the far end is short circuit, the voltage at far end will be zero, but the
source does not know what is connected at the end, so initially the voltage step starts
to travel down the line when value V/2
When the volage step arrives at the load the step is reflected and a backwardstraveling step is created at the time t= and the value of the reverse step is V/2 and
the two voltages cancel out at the short circuit end.
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected and incident voltage
waves. For the short circuit its value is -1 or magnitude 1 phase 180 degrees.
Notes;
Transient behavior in electricity power transmission con cause huge spikes and
destroy the equipments.
In computer networks the reflections cause data error as bits interface with one
another.
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The way to avoid this problem is to ensure Z source = Z load = Zo of the
transmission line, in this case the reflection coefficient of the matched load is
zero. For open circuit case the reflection coefficient is 1 angle 0 degrees.
Coaxial cables;
Coaxial cable consists of a centre connector inside a cylindrical outer ground
shield, usable to a few hundred MHz. Other types are usable up to GHz.
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Communication Systems 2
There are other types used for computers supports high data rate connections
known as Micro coaxial.
Hollow waveguide:
In this waveguide signal propagates as an electromagnetic wave, with a
complicated filed pattern, they have low loss and handle high power.
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The characteristics of the conductor at each cable are , , and other lengths
are also used. Normally each of the above line R, L, G and C are given to
calculate the transmission line equations.
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I = H.dI
we will use circuit quantities V and / in solving the transmission line problem
instead of solving field quantities E and H , the equivalent circuit for this line
shown below . We assume that the wave propagates along the +z-direction,
from the generator to the load.
+V (z + z, t) (1)
V (z, t) - V (z + z, t) = Rz I (z, t) + L z
(2)
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V (z, t) - V (z + z, t) = R I (z, t) + L
z
(3)
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d Vs = (R + jL) Is..(13)
dz
d Is = (G + jC) Vs..(14)
dz
. (17)
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The wavelength and wave velocity u are, respectively, given by;
=2
u=
= 2
So;
u=f
The solutions of the linear homogeneous differential equations 16 and 19
similar to;
d2 Vs 2Vs= 0 ..(16)
d z2
d2 Is 2Is= 0 ..(19)
d z2
Vs (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (20)
>+z
-z<
Is (z) = I+o e -z + I-o e z (21)
>+z
-z<
Where V+o , V-o , I+o , I-o are wave amplitudes ; wave traveling along +z- and z-directions .
___ . (22)
G+ jC
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So becomes;
R=0=G
=0 ; = j = jLC
Xo= 0 ; Zo=Ro = L
C
Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C):
- A signal normally consists of a band of frequencies; wave amplitudes of
different frequency components will be attenuated differently in a lossy line as
is frequency dependent. This results in distortion.
- A distortion less line is one in which the attenuation constant is frequency
independent while the phase constant is linearly dependent on frequency.
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Or
Notes:
1- The phase velocity is independent of frequency because the phase constant
linearly depends on frequency. We have shape distortion of signals unless
and u are independent of frequency.
2- u and Zo remain the same as for lossless lines.
3- A lossless line is also a distortion less line, but a distortion less line is not
necessarily lossless. Although lossless lines are desirable in power transmission,
telephone lines are required to be distortion less. table below shows the
characteristics of transmission line ;
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- Example 1 :
An air line has characteristic impedance of 70 and phase constant of 3 rad/m
at 100 MHz Calculate the inductance per meter and the capacitance per meter
of the line.
Solutions;
R=0=G ; = 0
Zo=Ro = L . (1)
C
= LC .. (2)
Divide equation 1 by 2;
Ro = 1
C
C=
Ro
L= R2oC
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- Example 2:
A distortion less line has Zo = 60 fl, = 20 mNp/m, u = 0.6c, where c is the
speed of light in a vacuum. Find R, L, G, C, and at 100 MHz.
Solution;
For a distortion less line,
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- Exercises
1- A transmission line operating at 500 MHz has Zo = 80 , = 0.04 Np/m, =
1.5 rad/m. Find the line parameters R, L, G, and C.
Answer: 3.2 /m, 38.2 nH/m, 5 * 10-4 S/m, 5.97 pF/m.
2- A telephone line has R = 30 /km, L = 100 mH/km ; G = 0, and C = 20 F/km
At f = 1 kHz, obtain:
(a) The characteristic impedance of the line.
(b) The propagation constant.
(c) The phase velocity.
Answer: (a) 70.75<-1.367 , (b) 2.121 * 10-4 + 78.888 * 10-3/m (c) 7.069* 105 m/s.
INPUT IMPEDANCE, SWR, AND POWER:
- Consider a transmission line of length L characterized by and Zo connected
to a load ZL as shown in figure below ; the generator sees the line with the load
as an input impedance Zin It is our intention in this section to determine the
input impedance the standing wave ratio (SWR), and the power flow on the
line .
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- Let the transmission line extend from z = 0 at the generator to z = L at the load;
we need the voltage and current waves.
Vs (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (20)
Is (z) = I+o e -z + I-o e z (21)
Is (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (22)
Zo
Zo
- if we are given the conditions at the input, say;
Vo = V (Z = 0)
Io = I (z = 0)
Vg
Zin+Zg
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Zin = Vs(z) = Zo(V+o + V-o) .. (27)
Is (z)
V+o - V-o
After substitute the equations 25 and 26 into 27 the equation solved by;
- We get ;
(Lossy)
(Lossless)
- The voltage reflection coefficient given by L;
reflection wave to the incident wave at the load.
L = V-o eL .. (28)
V+o e-L
- after Substituting equation 25 and 26 into equation 28 we obtain ;
- The voltage reflection coefficient at any point on the line is the ratio of the
magnitude of the reflected voltage wave to that of the incident wave.
- The current reflection coefficient at any point on the line is negative of the
voltage reflection coefficient at that point.
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(Max)
(Min)
- The average input power at a distance from the load is given by an equation;
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- Characteristics of Open circuit and short circuit line :
There are special cases when the line is connected to load ZL = 0, ZL =
and ZL = Zo, these special cases can easily be derived from the general case.
1- Shorted Line ZL = 0 :
From the equation below; when ZL substituted by zero (0)
2- Open-Circuited Line ZL = :
As the same when you substitutes the ZL = to the equations below;
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The results are;
And
Example 1:
Solution:
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Exercise:
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The Smith Chart
- Prior to the advent of digital computers and calculators, engineers developed
all sorts of aids (tables, charts, graphs, etc.) to facilitate their calculations for
design and analysis. To reduce the complexity of calculating the characteristics
of transmission lines, graphical means have been developed. The Smith chart is
the most commonly used of the graphical techniques. It is basically a graphical
indication of the impedance of a transmission line as one move along the line. It
becomes easy to use after a small amount of experience.
- The Smith chart is constructed within a circle of unit radius || <=1 as shown
in figure below ;
Or
Where r
and
coefficient .
- Instead of having separate Smith charts for transmission lines with different
characteristic impedances such as Zo = 60,100, and 120 one that can be used
for any line. To achieve this , using a normalized chart in which all impedances
are normalized with respect to the characteristic impedance Zo of the particular
line under consideration For the load impedance ZL for example, the
normalized impedance given by;
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Communication Systems 2
And
The results are;
And
After normalize the obtained equations ;
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And
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- After superpose the r-circles and x-circles, what we have is the Smith chart
shown in Figure below On the chart, we locate a normalized impedance z = 2 +
j , for example, as the point of intersection of the r = 2 circle and the x = 1 circle .
This is point P1 in the figure. Similarly, z = 1 - 7 0.5 is located at P2 where the r
= 1 circle and the x = -0.5 circle intersect.
- We can draw the s-circles or constant standing-wave-ratio circles (always not
shown on the Smith chart), which are centered at the origin with s varying from
1 to . The value of the standing wave ratio s is determined by locating where
an s-circle crosses the r axis Typical examples of s-circles for s = 1,2, 3, and
are shown also in figure below.
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Important points about smith chart;
1- At point Psc on the chart r = 0, x = 0; that is, ZL = 0 + j0 showing that Psc
represents a short circuit on the transmission line. At point Poc, r = and x= ,
or ZL = =+j, which implies that Poc corresponds to an open circuit on the
line. Also at Poc, r = 0 and x = 0, showing that Poc is another location of a short
circuit on the line.(see figure A)
2- A complete revolution (360) around the Smith chart represents a distance of
/2 on the line. Clockwise movement on the chart is regarded as moving
toward the generator (or away from the load) as shown by the arrow G in
figures below. Counterclockwise movement on the chart corresponds to
moving toward the load (or away from the generator) as indicated by the arrow
L in. (see figure B).
3- There are three scales around the periphery of the Smith chart as illustrated in
Figure B; the three scales are included for the sake of convenience but they are
actually meant to serve the same purpose; one scale should be sufficient. The
scales are used in determining the distance from the load or generator in
degrees or wavelengths. The outermost scale is used to determine the distance
on the line from the generator end in terms of wavelengths, and the next scale
determines the distance from the load end in terms of wavelengths. The
innermost scale is a protractor (in degrees) and is primarily used in
determining r it can also be used to determine the distance from the load or
generator.
4- Since a /2 distance on the line corresponds to a movement of 360 on the
chart, distance on the line corresponds to a 720 movement on the chart.
5- Vmax occurs where Zin max is located on the chart and that is on the positive
r axis or on OPOC. Vmin is located at the same point where we have Zin min
on the chart that is, on the negative r axis or on OPsc (see figure B).
6- The Smith chart is used both as impedance chart and admittance chart (Y =
1/Z).
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- To Calculate the Impedance and admittance by smith chart , calculations of
impedance taken in the side of open circuit at the smith chart and the
admittance calculations taken from the short circuit side in the smith chart. ( see
figures below).
Impedance chart;
Admittance chart;
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Example:
Solutions;
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Note : Locate zL on the Smith chart at point P where the r = 1.2 circle and the x = 0.8
circle meet. To get at zL, extend OP to meet the r = 0 circle at Q and measure OP
and OQ. Since OQ corresponds to =|1| then at P,
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Note that OP = 3.2 cm and OQ = 9.1 cm were taken from the Smith chart used by the
author; Angle 0r is read directly on the chart as the angle between OS and OP; that is
(b) To obtain the standing wave ratio s, draw a circle with radius OP and center at O.
This is the constant s or circle Locate point S where the ^-circle meets the axis The
value of r at this point is s; that is;
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Example 2:
Solutions:
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Where;
k is Boltzmanns constant (1.38 10-23 J/K).
T is temperature in K.
B is bandwidth in Hz.
R is the resistance in .
- The maximum power transferred will be ;
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- We can model an arbitrary source of noise (as long as it is White noise) as an
equivalent thermal noise power and characterise it with an equivalent noise
temperature.
- An arbitrary source of noise (sin source, amplifier, and antenna) which delivers
a noise power Ps to a load resistor R can be replaced by a noisy resistor R at a
temperature Te. The temperature Te is calculated so the same noise power is
delivered to the load;
Note: Components and systems can then be characterized by saying they have an
Effective Noise Temperature of Te.
Noise in Networks
Noise Figure
The noise figure is defined as the ratio of the signal to the noise ratio (SNR) at
the input of a device to the SNR at the output.
- In the diagram Si is the input signal power and So is the output signal power.
Ni and No are the input and output noise powers. Thus the Noise Figure is
defined by;
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- In a practical device, No > G.Ni and so F > 1.0. The closer to 1 is F, the less noise
the device introduces and the better its noise performance.
In decibels, Fdb = 10 log 10 (F)
- Since noise figure and effective noise temperature measure the same
characteristic they are of course related. Consider a network with gain G,
bandwidth B and an equivalent noise temperature Te.
1. The input noise power is Ni = kToB, where To is the surrounding
temperature.
2. The output noise power is a sum of the amplified input noise and the
internally generated noise; No = kGB(To + Te). The output signal power
is So = G Si.
- Therefore, Noise Figure F =
Thus F = 1 + Te/To
and Te = (F-1) To
If the network were noiseless, Te = 0, giving F = 1 or 0dB.
Noise Generated by a Lossy Network
- Lossy network is one in which the input signal is attenuated at the network
output. Some examples are shown below.
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- What effect does a lossy network have on the noise performance of a system?
Consider a lossy network connected to a matched resistor, R. Assume the lossy
network is at a temperature To. The gain of the network will be less than one
and can be define by a loss factor L = 1/G. Looking back into this network from
its output we see a matched resistance R at temperature To. Thus the output
noise power will be;
No = kToB
- We can think of this noise as partly coming from the source resistor at the input
of the network through the lossy network and the remainder being generated
by the lossy network itself. The fraction of the input noise power at the output
of the network will be;
P1 = GkToB = kToB/L
- The power added by the network referred to the input is say NN/W and the
contribution due to this part at the output will then be;
P2 = G. NN/W = NN/W/L
- The total noise output power is therefore No = P1 + P2. Substituting from
above,
No = 1/L (kToB + NN/W)
- Solving for noise generated by the network referred to the input, NN/W;
NN/W = (L-1) kToB
The Effective temperature Te of the lossy network is;
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Cascaded Networks
- The two noisy networks can be considered as 2 noise free networks at which an
extra noise term (the effective temperature) is added at the input. That is,
- The effective temperatures Te1 and Te2 are related to the noise figures and the
ambient temperature.
Te1 = (F1-1) To and Te2 = (F2-1) To
- From the diagram then we see that;
Ts1 = Te1 + To = F1.To
- This implies that the input noise at network 1 is N1 = k B Ts1.
- The output noise power, No1 is this value multiplied by the gain of the ideal
first stage.
No1 = G1.N1 = k B G1 Ts1 = k B G1 F1 To
- This noise power implies a noise temperature To1 of;
To1 = No1/(kB) = G1 F1 To
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Communication Systems 2
- Similarly,
Ts2 = To1 + Te2
- Therefore,
N2 = k B Ts2 = k B To [G1 F1 + (F2-1)]
-
Finally,
- The total effective noise figure for the two networks taken together (as one
device with a gain G1.G2) is;
- This result may be extended for the cascade of 3 or more networks to get a
general expression;
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- The transfer phase function, (), is related to the transfer group delay through
a differential with respect to frequency as follows:
- For constant group delay, the phase function must be linear with frequency. In
most filters only the magnitude of the transfer function is of interest. However,
in modern-day systems using signals with complex modulation schemes, phase
and group delay functions are also important.
- A filter network passes some of the input signal frequencies and stops others,
and being a linear circuit, this function is performed without adding or
generating new frequency components.
- The frequency band that passes, ideally without losses (0 dB insertion loss),
defines the pass band, and the band that stops the frequencies, ideally with
infinite loss, is called the stop band. This loss representation of the ideal lowpass filter.
- Low pass filter passes all low-frequency signals from dc to some high
frequency, c and stops all signals above c. The frequency, c, is called the
cutoff frequency of the filter.
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- Filters are always used to reduce the effect of the noise to the signals that
transmitted through the transmission line. From previous studies the amount of
noise in the original signal known as signal to noise ratio SNR. Max signal to
noise power ratio, represents a low noise and min signal to noise ratio indicate
that the amount of noise is larger than the signal.
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Low-Pass Filter:
Low-pass filter networks are realized by using a cascade of series
inductors and shunt capacitors. At low frequencies, series inductances
produce low impedance, and shunt capacitors produce high impedance, thus
allowing the signal to appear at the output of the filter. Above the cutoff
frequency, the series inductors behave as large impedances and shunt
capacitors as low impedances, thereby impeding the signal transfer to the
load.
High-Pass Filter:
The high-pass filter allows signal frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency to pass through the filter to the load with a minimum loss and stops all
frequencies below the cutoff frequency. This behavior is the reverse of the lowpass filter, and sometimes the high-pass filter is referred to as the complement of
the low-pass filter. High-pass filter networks are realized by using a cascade of
series capacitors and shunt inductors. Capacitors at high frequencies have low
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impedance, and inductors have high impedance. Thus the high-frequency signal
passes through the filter to the output load with a minimum loss. Just the opposite
happens at low frequencies, resulting in a high attenuation of the low frequencies.
Band-Pass Filter:
The band-pass filter allows the signal transfer in the load in a band of
frequencies between the lower cutoff frequency, c1, and the upper cutoff
frequency, c2. Between the lower and upper cutoff frequency is the center
frequency, , defined by the geometric mean of c1 and c2.
Band-Stop Filter:
The band-stop filter is a complement of the band-pass filter the signal in
a band-stop filter is transferred to the load in two frequency bands, one from a low
frequency to a low cutoff frequency, c, and the other from the upper cutoff
frequency, c2, to infinite frequency. The signal experiences high loss between
c1 to c2, hence the name band stop or band rejects.
All-Pass Filter:
The all-pass filter allows the signal amplitude for all frequencies to pass
through the network without any significant loss this network has no frequency
selective pass band or stop band. The transmitted signal ideally experiences a
linear phase shift or constant group delay with frequency.
Unfortunately, minimum phase networks do not have constant group
delay: rather there are peaks near the corner frequency. All passive ladder
networks, such as filters that have frequency selectivity, are minimum phase. In
the design there is a trade-off between flat group delay and filter selectivity.
However, a network that is non minimum phase can be cascaded with a minimum
phase network to achieve both flat group delay and selectivity. All pass networks
with non minimum phase are used as group delay compensation devices.
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Attenuator:
Attenuators are linear, passive, or active networks or devices that
attenuate electrical or microwave signals, such as voltages or currents, in a system
by a predetermined ratio. They may be in the form of transmission-line, strip line,
or waveguide components. Attenuation is usually expressed as the ratio of input
power (Pin) to output power (Pout), in decibels (dB), as;
- There are many instances when it is necessary to reduce the value, or level,
of electrical or microwave signals (such as voltages and currents) by a fixed
amount to allow the rest of the system to work properly. Attenuators are used
for this purpose. For example, in turning down the volume on a radio, we
make use of a variable attenuator to reduce the signal. Almost all electronic
instruments use attenuators to allow for the measurement of a wide range of
voltage and current values, such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other
electronic instruments. Thus, the various applications in which attenuators
are used include the following:
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Data Communication
- Data communication is an Exchange of digital information between
two digital devices is data communication.
- Data communication history;
1838: Samuel Morse & Alfred Veil Invent Morse code Telegraph
System.
1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone.
1910: Howard Krum developed Start/Stop Synchronization.
1930: Development of ASCII Transmission Code.
1945: Allied Governments develop the First Large Computer.
1950: IBM releases its first computer IBM 710.
1960: IBM releases the First Commercial Computer IBM 360.
- Data communication is most technology widely used nowadays in
several proposes. The main contributions of data communication are;
1- Transmission Technology.
2- Packet Switching Technology.
3- Internet.
4- LAN Technology.
5- WAN Technology.
There are Various Networks dials with data com;
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- For any data networks there are many requirements that must be
available to establish data communication. This requirements are;
At least Two Devices ready to communicate.
A Transmission Medium.
A set of Rules & Procedure for proper communication (Protocol).
Standard Data Representation.
Transmission of bits either Serial or Parallel.
Bit synchronization using Start/stop bits in case of Asynchronous
Transmission.
In Synchronous Transmission the agreed pattern of Flag.
Signal encoding rules viz. NRZ or RZ.
And other higher layer protocol.
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Serial Transmission:
Bits are transmitted one after the other .Usually the Least Significant
Bit (LSB) has been transmitted first. Serial Transmission requires only one
circuit interconnecting two devices and its suitable for transmission over
long distance. Such serial device is USB.
- The transmitting speed of each types measured by bit rate. the bit rate
is Number of bits that can be transmitted in 1 second If tp is the
duration of the bit then the Bit rate R= 1/tp.
- At receive side; received Signal is never same as transmitted. A clock
signal used to samples & regenerates the original bits as it was
transmitted. Received Signal should be sampled at right instant.
Otherwise it will cause bit error.
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- There are two methods for Timing control for receiving bits.
Asynchronous Transmission and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission:
Sending end commences the Transmission of bits at any instant of
time.
No time relation between the consecutive bits.
During idle condition Signal 1 is transmitted.
Start bit before the byte and Stop bit at the end of the byte for
Start/Stop synchronization.
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Synchronous Transmission:
Carried out under the control of the timing source.
No Start/Stop bits.
Continuous block of Data are encapsulated with Header & Trailer
along with Flags.
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- For digital communication first the data must flow as a data stream,
converts the bit stream to data (baud) stream by mapping the bits into
symbols of 2m, this shape not yet suitable for transmission , first there
is a need to design its spectral characteristics to fits it into the
available bandwidth of the channel , then translate it in frequency to
place it right in the pass band of the channel .this functions are
performed by a pulse shaper( low pass filter) and by modulator .
- Demodulation done at receives side by convert modulated signal to
original signal. The signal created at the modulator is converted to a
continuous time signal c(t) by a D/A converter operating at a
sampling frequency fs and sent over the telephone channel. With
reasonably good approximation the channel behaves like a linear
signal and also introduces a certain amount of additive noise so that
the signal appearing at the receiver's input looks like;
The first thing the digital receiver does is sampling the incoming
signal A fundamental building block of any modem is an adaptive
equalizer whose task is to estimate the distortion introduced by the
channel in order to eliminate it. A modem is a device consists of
modulation and demodulation at each of communication sides.
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